BHARATH EDUCATIONAL SOCIETYS

GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS:
MADANAPALLI
GOLDEN
VALLEY COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
[GVIC]
Branch: ECE-A

ROLL NO-109M1A0416
ROLL NO-109M1A0435


Laplace Transform & Fourier transforms
& Its Applications in Engineering
ABSTRACT:
Laplace transform is useful in all branches of Engineering, in probability theory ,in
electrical and mechanical systems. These transform we are using often.
Inverse Laplace transform is also useful in many domains
In periodic function problems and also to deal with differential equations, they
are all very useful.
Fourier transforms are useful for electronics and communications students
and to solve many problems in their subjects. Particularly Z-transforms have
properties similar to that of Laplace .The main difference is Laplace transforms is
defined for the functions of continuous variables and Z-transform defined for
sequences.
The partial differential equation in a boundary value problem gets transform to
an ordinary differential equation by the application of Fourier transform.
Introduction To Laplace Transform:-
Laplace transform is useful since
1. Particular solution is obtained without first determining the general solution.
2. Non homogenous equations are solved without obtaining the complementary integral.
3. Solution of mechanical or electrical problems involving discontinuous force function (RHS function
F(x)) (or) periodic functions other than cosine and sine are obtained easily.
4. System of DE, PDE and integral functions
Before the advent of calculators and computers logarithms were extensively used to replace
multiplication (or division) of two large numbers. The crucial idea which made the Laplace transform
(L.T.). A very powerful technique is that it replaces operations of calculus by operations of algebra. For
example, with application of Laplace transform to an initial value problem, consisting of an ordinary (or
partial) differential equation (O.D.E) together with initial conditions (I.C.) is reduced to problem of
solving an algebraic equation (with any given initial conditions automatically taken care) as shown in
fig. below.
The z-transform plays an important role in the field of communication engineering and control
engineering at the stage of
analy
sis
and
repre
senta
tion of discrete time linear
shift invariance system.
Original space
t-shape
O.D.E
+ (particular) solution of D.E
IC
:


:


The z-transform plays an important role in the field of communication engineering and control
engineering at the stage of analysis and representation of discrete time linear shift invariance system.
In mathematics ,the Laplace transform is widely used integral transform denoted L{f(t)}, it
is a linear operator of a function f(t) with a real argument t(t0) that transforms to a function F(s) with
a complex argument S. this transformation is essentially bijective for the majority of practical uses ; the
respective pairs of f(t) and f(s) are matched in the tables. The Laplace transform has the useful property
that many relationships and operations over the originals of f(t) correspond to similar relationships and
operations over the images f(s)
[1]
The Laplace transform has many important applications in his work on
probability theory.
The Laplace transform is related to the Fourier transform, but whereas the Fourier
transform resolves a function or signal into its modes of vibrations, the Laplace resolves a function into
its moments like the Fourier transform, the Laplace transform is used for solving differential and integral
equations. In Physics and engineering, it is used for analysis of linear time-in variant systems such as
electrical circuits, harmonic oscillations, optical devices, and mechanical systems.
Given a simple mathematical or functional description of an input or output of a system, the Laplace
transform provides an alternative functional description that often simplifies the process of analyzing
the behavior of the system, or in synthesizing a new system based on a set of qualification
INTRODUCTION OF FOURIER TRANSFORMS :-
It may seem unusual that we begin a course on Geodynamics by reviewing Fourier transforms and
Fourier series. However you will that Fourier analysis is used in almost every aspect of the subject
ranging from solving linear differential equation to depending computer modules, to the processing and
analysis of data .we wont be using Fourier analysis for first few lectures, but Ill introduce the concepts
today so that people who are use familiar with the topic can have time for review. In the first few
lectures, Ill also discuss plate tectonics. I imagine that students with physics and math backgrounds may
Laplace
Transform
Image space
s-space
Algebraic solution of AE
(or) subsidiary (by pure algebraic manipulations)
Equation (AE)
have to spend some time reviewing plate tectonics. Hopefully everyone will busy the first two weeks
next class Ill give homework assignment involving Fourier transforms. Later well have a short quiz on
plate tectonics
FOURIER TRANSFORMS:-
Definitions of Fourier transforms:-
The 1-dimensional Fourier transform is defined as:

f(k) = ()
2

Forward Transform
f(k) = ()
2

Inverse Transform
Where x is distance &
K is wave number
Where k=
1

and is wavelength.
These equations are commonly written in terms of time t and frequency v where = 1/ and T is the
period.
The 2-dimensional Fourier transform is defined as:-
F(k) = ()
2(.)
2

F(x) = ()
2(.)
2

Where X=(x,y) is the position vector
K = (K
x
,K
y
) is the wave number vector
& (k.x) = k
x
x+k
y
y
Why use Fourier transforms on a nearly special earth?
It you have taken Geomagnetism or global seismology, we were taught to expand a function of
latitude and longitude in spherical harmonics. Later in the course we will also use spherical harmonics to
represent large scale variations in the gravity field and to represent viscous mantle flow. However,
throughout the course we will dealing with problems related to the crust and lithosphere. In these cases
a flat earth approximation is both adequate and practical for the following reasons:
Cartesian geometry is good approximation consider a small patch of crust or litho sphere on the surface
of a sphere. If the area of patch is A is much less than the area of the earth and thickness L of the patch
is much less than the radius of the earth Re, then the Cartesian geometry will be adequate
A<<4

2

l<<R
e





Fourier sine and cosine transforms:-
Any function f(x) can be decomposed into add O(x) and even E(x) components
f(x)=E(x)+O(x)
E(x =
1
2
[f(x)+f(-x)]
O(x) =
1
2
[f(x)-f(-x)]
f(k)= ()
2

=
f(k) = cos2

s in2

odd part cancels even part cancels
Fourier Transform :-
- Fourier series can be generalized to complex numbers, and further transform
- Forward Fourier transform
f(k) = ()
2

*inverse Fourier transform
f(x) = ()
2

Note

= cos(x)+isin(x)
Fourier Transform:-
- Fourier transform maps a time series.( e.g. : Audio samples) into the series of frequencies(their
amplitudes and phases) that composed the time series.
- Inverse Fourier transform maps the series of frequencies (their amplitudes and phases) back
into the corresponding time series.
- The two functions and inverses of each other.
Discrete Fourier transform
- If we wish to find the frequency spectrum of a function that we have sampled, the
continuous Fourier transform is not so useful.
- We need a discreet version.
- Discreet Fourier transforms.

Forward DFT:
=
The complex numbers f0.fn are transformed into complex numbers f0.fn
Inverse DFT :
=
The complex numbers f0..fn are transformed into complex numbers f0fn.
DFT Example
Interpreting a DFT can be slightly difficult, because the DFT for really data includes complex
numbers.
Basically :The magnitude of the complex number for a DFT component is the power at that
frequency.
- The phase of the wave form can be determined from the relatives values of the real
and imaginary coefficients
Also both POSITIVE and NEGATIVE frequencies show up.
Fourier Transform :-
The continuous Fourier transform is evaluating the bilateral Laplace transform with
complex argument.
S = iw (or) S = 2fi:
f(w) =F{f(t)}
= =
= f(t)dt
This expression excludes the scaling factor , which is often included in definitions of the Fourier
transform. This relationship between the Laplace and Fourier transform is often used to determine the
frequency spectrum of a single or dynamical system.
Applications:-
The solution of a IBVP consisting of a partial differential equation together with if the
boundary & initial conditions can be solved by the Fourier transform method. If the boundary
conditions are of the Dirichlet type where the function value is prescribed on the boundary,
then the Fourier sine transform is used .If the boundary conditions are of the Neumann type
where the derivative of function is prescribed on the boundary, then Fourier cosine transform is
applied . In either case, the P.D.E reduces to an O.D.E in Fourier transform which is solved then
the inverse Fourier sine (or cosine) transforms will give the solution to the problem.
Fourier transforms are widely used to solve various boundary values problems
of engineering such as
1. Vibrations of a string,
2. Conductions of heat ,
3. Oscillations of electric beam ,
4. Transmission lines etc.,
conclusion:- The partial differential equation in a boundary value problem gets transformed to
an ordinary differential equation by the application of Fourier sine and cosine transform are useful when
f(x) is defined ina finite interval for say x in o<X<L.
The solution of a IBVP consisting of a partial differential equation together with if the boundary
& initial conditions can be solved by the Fourier transform method. If the boundary conditions are of the
Dirichlet type where the function value is prescribed on the boundary, then the Fourier sine transform is
used .If the boundary conditions are of the Neumanntype where the derivative of function is prescribed
on the boundary, then Fourier cosine transform is applied. In either case, the P.D.E reduces to an O.D.E
in Fourier transform which is solved then the inverse Fourier sine (or cosine) transforms will give the
solution to the problem.
A transformation is a mathematical device which transforms one function into another
function. For example differentiation and integration are transformations. Now the Fourier
transformation or Fourier transform is an integral transform which is used to solve the partial
differential equations. The advantages of applying Fourier transform or any integral transform is to
reduce the number of independent variables by one. Fourier transforms are widely used to solve various
boundary value problems of engineeringsuch as vibrations of a string, conductions of heat, oscillations
of an electric beam, transmission lines.
Laplace Transform:-
Definition:-
Let f(t) be the given function defined for all t 0. Laplace transforms of f(t) denoted by L{f(t)}
or simply L{f} is defined as
L{f(t)} =

0
= ()

L is known as Laplace transform operator. The original given function f(t) known as determining function
depends on t, while the new function to be determined f(s), called as generating function to be depends
only on S (because the improper integral on the R.H.S of (1) is integrated with respect to T ).
f(s) in equation (1) is known as the Laplace transform of f(t).
Eq. (1) is known as direct transform or simply transform, in which f(t) is given and f(s) is to be
determined.
Thus, Laplace transform transforms one class of complicated function f(t) to produce another
class of simpler functions F(s).
APPLICATIONS:-
Laplace transforms is very useful in obtaining solutions of linear differential equations , both
ordinary and partial , solutions of system of simultaneous differential equations , solution of integral
equations , solutions of linear difference equations and in the evaluation of definite integrals.
In the PHYSICS and ENGINEERINGLaplace transforms are widely used for analysis of
linear time variantsystems such as
1. Electric circuits,
2. Harmonic oscillators,
3. Optical devices,&
4. Mechanical systems.
5. In the analysis, the Laplace transform is often interpreted as a transformation from the
TIME-DOMAIN , in which inputs and outputs are functions of time , to the frequency
domain , where the same inputs and outputs are functions of complex angular
frequency , in radians per unit time
6. Laplace transforms are used in the Area of digital signal processing and digital filters

APPLICATION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM IN CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:-

The Laplace transform is an attractive tool in circuit analysis . it transforms a set of linear
constant - coefficient differential equations into a set of linear polynomial equations . It automatically
introduces into the polynomial equations the initial values of the current and voltage variables. In the
circuit analysis, we can develop the s-domain circuit models for various elements and s-domain
equations can be written directly.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN THE S-DOMAIN :-
We take the Laplace transform of the time domain equation . This gives an
algebraic relation between s-domain current and voltage . The dimensions of a
transformed voltage is volt-seconds and the dimensions of a transformed
current is ampere-seconds .
ADVANTAGES:-
1. With the application of L.T. particular solution of differential equation(D.E.) is obtained directly
without the necessity of first determining general solution and then obtaining the particular
solution (by substitution of initial condition ).
2. L.T. solves non-homogenous D.E. without the necessity of first solving the corresponding
homogenous D.E.
3. L.T. is applicable not only to continuous functions but also to piecewise continuous functions,
complicated periodic functions, step functions and impulse functions.
SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF LAPLACE
TRANSFORMS OF f(t):-
The L.T. of f(t) exists
i.e., the improper integral in the R.H.S. of (1) converges (has a finite valve ) when the
following sufficient conditions are satisfied :-
(a). f(t) is piecewise (or section ally ) continuous
i.e., f(t) is continuous in every sub interval and has finite limits at end points of
each of these sub intervals and
(b). f(t) is of exponential order of
i.e., there exists M, such that |f(t)| <M

,In other words functions of

exponential order do not grow faster than

.
ex:- since lim
>

3
= finite,
f(t) = t
2
is of exponential order say 3.
ex:- since lim
>

= not finite,
f(t) =

2
is not of exponential order.

NOTE:- Above conditions (a) and (b) are not necessary conditions.

Conclusion:- The partial differential equation in a boundary value problem gets transformed to
an ordinary differential equation by the application.
Laplace Transform can be used to solve linear differential equations with constant
coefficients. The advantages by using Laplace transform is that the particular solution can be obtained
for given initial condition with obtaining the general solution.
The formulae to be used in applying Laplace transform to solve differential equations
are
L [

(t)] =s

(s) f(0)
L [

(t)] =
2

(s) s f(0) -

(0)
L [

(t)] =
3

(s)
2
f (0) s

(0) -

(0)
While apply the above formulae, replace , replace f(t) by Y(x),

(s) by

(s).
























2. Laplace Transforms and their Applications
To
Differential Equations
Authors:-
K.Ravi kiran, E.E.E, MITS
K.B.Venu gopal, E.E.E, MITS
Email id ravikiranmitseee239@gmaill.com
Venueee254@gmail.com
Contents:-
1. Definition of Laplace Transforms
2.Conditions for Existance
3. Applications of Differential Equations
4. Problem solving
Abstract:-
The main idea behind Laplace Transformation is ordinary differential equations
with constant coefficients can be easily solved by the laplace transform method, with out
the necessity of first finding the general solution and then evaluating the arbitrary
constants. This method is, in general, shorter than our earlier method and is especially
suitable to obtain the solution of linear non-homogeneous ordinary differential equations
with constant coefficients.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD
The Laplace Transform method is a technique for solving linear differential
equations with initial conditions. It is commonly used to solve electrical circuit
and systems problems.
What is a Transform Method?
The simplest way to describe a transform method is to consider an example.
Suppose we wish to compute the product of VI and XIV, both Roman numerals,
and express the answer as a Roman numeral. Unless you are a Roman(!), the
first thing to do is transform the Roman numerals to Arabic numerals. VI is 6
and XIV is 14. The transformed problem is: compute the product of 6 and 14. We
can all do this! The solution to the transformed problem is 84. We then convert
the solution of the transformed problem to the solution to original problem. 84 in
Roman numerals is LXXXIV. This last step is called the inverse transformation.
The following diagram summarizes what we have done.

Why use a transform method? Some problems are difficult to solve directly.
With a transform method, the hope is that the transformed problem is easy
to solve. That is certainly the case for the simple example above. One must
also take into account the difficulty of transforming the original problem
and inverse transforming the solution to the transformed problem.


DEFINITION OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM



CONDITIONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF LT
While finding the laplace transforms of elementary functions, it can be
noticed that the integral exists under certain conditions, such as s > 0 or s > a etc.
in general, the functions f(t) must satisfy the following conditions for the
existence of the laplace transform.
(i) The function f(t) must be piece- wise continuous or sectionally
continuous in any limited interval 0 < a t b.
(ii) The function f(t) is of exponential order.
APPLICATION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Consider the linear differential equation with constant coefficients

under the initial conditions

The Laplace transform directly gives the solution without going through the general solution.
The steps to follow are:
(1)
Evaluate the Laplace transform of the two sides of the equation (C);
(2)
;
(3)
After algebraic manipulation, write down
;
(4)
Make use of the properties of the inverse Laplace transform , to find the solution y(t).
Example: Find the solution of the IVP
,
where
.
Solution: Let us follow these steps:
(1)
We have
;
(2)
Using properties of Laplace transform, we get
,
where . Since , we get

;

(3)
Inverse Laplace:
Using partial decomposition technique we get
,
which implies
Since
,
which gives
,
and


Hence,

PROBLEM SOLVING
Solve the following initial value problem by using laplace transform
4y"+
2
y = 0, y (0)

=2, y'(0) =0.
Solution: Given equation is 4y"+
2
y = 0
Taking laplace transform on both sides, we have
4L,y"-+
2
L{y}=0
i.e., 4[s
2
L{y}-sy(0)- y'(0)++
2
L[y]=0
=> 4[s
2
L{y}-2s] +
2
L{y}=0
i.e., L{y}[4s
2
+
2
] = 2s or L{y}= 2s
4s
2
+
2



Y=(1/2) L
-1
s =(1/2) cos t/2
S
2
+
2
/4






















3. FOURIER TRANSFORMS AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING
FIELDS
G.Sneha Geetha,
I B.Tech, EEE,
SDIT, Nandyal,
E-mail: sneha.geetha@yahoo.com

S.Talat Misba,
I B.Tech, EEE,
SDIT, Nandyal,
E-mail: angelkhan85@yahoo.com

Abstract:
The Fourier transform is a mathematical operation that decomposes a signal into its
constituent frequencies. Thus the Fourier transform of a musical chord is a mathematical
representation of the amplitudes of the individual notes that make it up. The original signal
depends on time, and therefore is called the time domain representation of the signal, whereas
the Fourier transform depends on frequency and is called the frequency domain representation
of the signal. The term Fourier transform refers both to the frequency domain representation of
the signal and the process that transforms the signal to its frequency domain representation .In
this paper Fourier transform and its applications in a step by step procedure.
Introduction:
In mathematical terms, the Fourier transform transforms one complex-valued function of
a real variable into another. In effect, the Fourier transform decomposes a function into
oscillatory functions. The Fourier transform and its generalizations are the subject of Fourier
analysis. In this specific case, both the time and frequency domains are unbounded linear
continua. It is possible to define the Fourier transform of a function of several variables, which is
important for instance in the physical study of wave motion and optics. It is also possible to
generalize the Fourier transform on discrete structures such as finite groups. The efficient
computation of such structures, by fast Fourier transform, is essential for high-speed computing.
The motivation for the Fourier transform comes from the study of Fourier series. In the
study of Fourier series, complicated functions are written as the sum of simple waves
mathematically represented by sines and cosines. Due to the properties of sine and cosine it is
possible to recover the amount of each wave in the sum by an integral. In many cases it is
desirable to use Euler's formula, which states that e
2i
= cos 2 + i sin 2, to write Fourier
series in terms of the basic waves e
2i
. This has the advantage of simplifying many of the
formulas involved and providing a formulation for Fourier series that more closely resembles the
definition followed in this article. This passage from sines and cosines to complex exponentials
makes it necessary for the Fourier coefficients to be complex valued. The usual interpretation of
this complex number is that it gives both the amplitude (or size) of the wave present in the
function and the phase (or the initial angle) of the wave. This passage also introduces the need
for negative "frequencies". If were measured in seconds then the waves e
2i
and e
2i
would
both complete one cycle per second, but they represent different frequencies in the Fourier
transform. Hence, frequency no longer measures the number of cycles per unit time, but is
closely related.
There is a close connection between the definition of Fourier series and the Fourier transform for
functions which are zero outside of an interval. For such a function we can calculate its Fourier
series on any interval that includes the interval where is not identically zero. The Fourier
transform is also defined for such a function. As we increase the length of the interval on which
we calculate the Fourier series, then the Fourier series coefficients begin to look like the Fourier
transform and the sum of the Fourier series of begins to look like the inverse Fourier transform.
To explain this more precisely, suppose that T is large enough so that the interval [T/2,T/2]
contains the interval on which is not identically zero. Then the n-th series coefficient c
n
is
given by:

Comparing this to the definition of the Fourier transform it follows that since
(x) is zero outside [T/2,T/2]. Thus the Fourier coefficients are just the values of the Fourier
transform sampled on a grid of width 1/T. As T increases the Fourier coefficients more closely
represent the Fourier transform of the function.
Under appropriate conditions the sum of the Fourier series of will equal the function . In other
words can be written:

where the last sum is simply the first sum rewritten using the definitions
n
= n/T, and
= (n + 1)/T n/T = 1/T.
This second sum is a Riemann sum, and so by letting T it will converge to the integral for
the inverse Fourier transform given in the definition section. Under suitable conditions this
argument may be made precise (Stein & Shakarchi 2003).
In the study of Fourier series the numbers c
n
could be thought of as the "amount" of the wave in
the Fourier series of . Similarly, as seen above, the Fourier transform can be thought of as a
function that measures how much of each individual frequency is present in our function , and
we can recombine these waves by using an integral (or "continuous sum") to reproduce the
original function.

The following images provide a visual illustration of how the Fourier transform measures
whether a frequency is present in a particular function. The function depicted
oscillates at 3 hertz (if t measures seconds) and tends quickly to 0.
This function was specially chosen to have a real Fourier transform which can easily be plotted.
The first image contains its graph. In order to calculate we must integrate e
2i(3t)
(t). The
second image shows the plot of the real and imaginary parts of this function. The real part of the
integrand is almost always positive, this is because when (t) is negative, then the real part of
e
2i(3t)
is negative as well. Because they oscillate at the same rate, when (t) is positive, so is the
real part of e
2i(3t)
. The result is that when you integrate the real part of the integrand you get a
relatively large number (in this case 0.5). On the other hand, when you try to measure a
frequency that is not present, as in the case when we look at , the integrand oscillates
enough so that the integral is very small. The general situation may be a bit more complicated
than this, but this in spirit is how the Fourier transform measures how much of an individual
frequency is present in a function (t).
Applications in Engineering Fields:
Analysis of differential equations
Fourier transforms and the closely related Laplace transforms are widely used in solving
differential equations. The Fourier transform is compatible with differentiation in the following
sense: if f(x) is a differentiable function with Fourier transform , then the Fourier transform
of its derivative is given by . This can be used to transform differential equations into
algebraic equations. Note that this technique only applies to problems whose domain is the
whole set of real numbers. By extending the Fourier transform to functions of several variables
partial differential equations with domain R
n
can also be translated into algebraic equations.
Fourier transform spectroscopy
The Fourier transform is also used in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and in other
kinds of spectroscopy, e.g. infrared (FTIR). In NMR an exponentially-shaped free induction
decay (FID) signal is acquired in the time domain and Fourier-transformed to a Lorentzian line-
shape in the frequency domain. The Fourier transform is also used in magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and mass spectrometry.
One of the most basic tasks in spectroscopy is to characterize the spectrum of a light
source: How much light is emitted at each different wavelength. The most straightforward way
to measure a spectrum is to pass the light through a monochromator, an instrument that blocks all
of the light except the light at a certain wavelength (the un-blocked wavelength is set by a knob
on the monochromator). Then the intensity of this remaining (single-wavelength) light is
measured. The measured intensity directly indicates how much light is emitted at that
wavelength. By varying the monochromator's wavelength setting, the full spectrum can be
measured. This simple scheme in fact describes how some spectrometers work.
Fourier transform spectroscopy is a less intuitive way to get the same information. Rather
than allowing only one wavelength at a time to pass through to the detector, this technique lets
through a beam containing many different wavelengths of light at once, and measures the total
beam intensity. Next, the beam is modified to contain a different combination of wavelengths,
giving a second data point. This process is repeated many times. Afterwards, a computer takes all
this data and works backwards to infer how much light there is at each wavelength.
To be more specific, between the light source and the detector, there is a certain
configuration of mirrors that allows some wavelengths to pass through but blocks others (due to
wave interference). The beam is modified for each new data point by moving one of the mirrors;
this changes the set of wavelengths that can pass through.
Conclusion:
This paper mainly deals with the introduction of Fourier Transforms and its applications
to Engineering Fields.












APPLICATIONS OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

1. V.SRAVANTHI 1
st
ECE, AITS, Rajampet.vempalakulasravanthi@gmail.com
2.D.VIJITHA 1
st
ECE, AITS,Rajampet vijji.dachuri@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
In mathematics the Laplace transformation is a widely used integral transform. Laplace
Transform has many important applications throughout the sciences. It is named for pierre-simon
Laplace who introduced the transform in his work on theory. The Laplace transform has the
useful property that many relationships and operations over the originals correspond to simpler
relationships and operations over the images. In this paper the initial value problem has been
arrived and solved by showing pictorial representations in a procedural way.
INTRODUCTION
The knowledge of Laplace transform is an essential part of mathematics required by engineers
and scientists. The Laplace Transforms is an excellent tool for solving linear differential
equations with given initial values of an unknown function and its derivatives without the
necessity of first finding the general solution (complementary function +particular integral) and
then evaluating from it the particular solution satisfying the given conditions. The technique is
useful to solve some partial differential equations as well. This is a powerful tool in diverse
fields of engineering.
What are Laplace Transforms?
A Laplace Transform is a type of integral transform.
Let f(t) be a function defined for all positive values of t. Then Laplace Transform of f(t),
denoted by L{f(t)} is defined by

0
f(t)dt = F(s)
Plug one function in and get another function out.
The new function is in a different domain when

0
f(t)dt = F(s)
F(s) is the Laplace Transform of f(t)
Write L {f (t)} =F(s),
L{y(t)}=Y(s),
L{x(t)}=X(s)etc
L{f(t)}=

0
f(t)dt it is a Laplace Transform and it can be written as
f(t)=L
-1

0
f(t)dt So that the function f(t) is said to be Inverse Laplace Transform.
STANDARD FORMULAE:
1. L{1}=1/s
2. L{

}=1/s-a
3. L{

}=1/s+a
4. L{coshat}=s/s
2
-a
2

5. L{sinhat}=a/s
2
-a
2

6. L{cosat}=s/ s
2
+a
2

7. L{sinat}=a/ s
2
+a
2

8. L{t}=1/s
2



To what end does one use Laplace Transforms?
We can use Laplace Transforms to turn an initial value problem.

solve for Y(t) into an algebraic equation

solve for Y(s)
Laplace Transforms are particularly effective on differential equation with forcing functions that
are piece-wise like the head wise function, and other functions that turn on and of



" 3 ' 4 ( 1)
(0) 1, '(0) 2
y y y t u t
y y
+ =
= =
2
2
1
( )*( 3 4) ( 1)
s
s
s e
Y s s s s
+

+ + + =
Then
If you solve the algebraic equation


and find the inverse Laplace Transform of the solution Y(s), you have the solution to the I.V.P

The Inverse Laplace Transform of

is





2
2 2
( 1) ( 1)
( )
( 3 4)
s s
s s e e
Y s
s s s

+
=
+
2
2 2
( 1) ( 1)
( )
( 3 4)
s s
s s e e
Y s
s s s

+
=
+
4
4
3 3 2 1
5 80 4 16
4
3 2
5 5
( ) ( 1)( + ( ) )
( )( ( ) )
t t
e
e
t t
y t u t e e t
u t e e

=

Thus



is the solution of Initial value problem
REFERENCES
1. Engineering Mathematics volume 1by Dr.T.K.Iyengar, Dr.B.KrishnaGandhi, S.Ranganatham,
M.V.S.S.N.Prasad.
2. Text Bookof Engineering Mathematics B.V.Ramana.
3. TextBookof Engineering Mathematics Thomson Book collection.




















4
4
3 3 2 1
5 80 4 16
4
3 2
5 5
( ) ( 1)( + ( ) )
( )( ( ) )
t t
e
e
t t
y t u t e e t
u t e e

=

5. APPLICATIONS OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Y. SILPA, I B.TECH (EEE)
Sri Sai Institute of Science & Technology, Rayachoti.
ABSTRACT
Laplace transform or Laplace transformation is a method for solving linear differential
equation arising in physics and engineering. It reduces the problem of solving a differential
equation to an algebraic problem.
Let K(s,t) be a function of two variables s, and t, where s is a parameter (may be real or
complex) independent of t. The function F(s) defined by the integral (assumed to be
convergent).
( ) ( ) ( ) s F dt t f t s K =
}

) ,
is called the Integral transform of the function f(t) and denoted by T{f(t)}. The function
K(s, t) is called the kernal of the transformation.
If the kernal K(s, t) is defined as
( )

>
<
=

0
0 0
,
t for e
t for
t s K
st

then ( ) ( ) s F dt t f e
st
=

}
0
(1)
The function F(s) defined by the integral (1) is called the Laplace transform of the
function f(t) and is also denoted by
L{f(t)} or F(s)
Thus Laplace transform is a function of a new variable s given by (1)
A semi-infinite insulated bar (x>0) which is initial at constant temperature (T
o
> 0) and in
which the end is held at a temperature of 0
o
C is considered for presentation of the solution. The
solution for the problem deals with the determination of the temperature at any point of the semi-
infinite insulated bar.

INTRODUCTION
They are many partial differential equations problems in engineering cases, which their
quantities vary with the time. To solve these problems Laplace transforms, as a powerful
technique can be used to transform the original differential equation into integral algebraic
expression. For mechanical engineering problem, Laplace transform is addressed to analyze the
linear time invariant such as harmonic oscillators in vibration analysis and various problems in
mechanical systems. Basically Laplace transforms changes integral and differential equations
into polynomial equations.

FORMATION OF THE PROBLEM
A semi-infinite insulated bar (x > 0) which is initially at constant temperature (T
o
> 0) and
in which the end is hold at a temperature at 0
o
C is considered.








We are to solve the diffusion equation

2
2
2
x
w
c
t
w
c
c
=
c
c
(2)
Subject to the initial and boundary conditions
w(x, 0) = T
o

w(0, t) = 0 (3)
w(x, t) 0 as x
Applying the Laplace transform on both sides of equation 92)

)
`

c
c
=
)
`

c
c
2
2
2
x
w
c L
t
w
L

)
`

c
c
=
)
`

c
c
t
w
L
x
w
c L
2
2
2


)
`

c
c
=
)
`

c
c
t
w
L
x
w
L c
2
2
2

( ) ( )
o
T s x w s s x w
dx
d
c = = , ,
2
2
2

Equation (4) in ordinary differential equation
O
x
We have
( ) ( ) ( )
x
c
s
x
c
s
e s B e s A s x w F C + =

, : .
( )
s
T
s x w PI
o
= , :
Solution is ( ) ( ) ( )
s
T
e s B e s A s x w
o
x
c
s
x
c
s
+ + =

, (5)
Evidently B(s) = 0 from the third condition
( ) ( )
s
T
e s A s x w
o
x
c
s
+ =

,
Since w(0, t) = 0, we have w(0, s) = 0
( ) 0 = +
s
T
s A
o

and so ( )
s
c
x
o o
e
s
T
s
T
s x w

= , (6)
Inverse Laplace Transforms:
1
1
1
= |
.
|

\
|

s
L

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

t
a
erf
t
a
erfc
s
e
L
s a
2
1
2
1

where erf is the error function.

Applying the Inverse Laplace Transforms on both sides of equation (6)
( ) { }
)
`

=


s
c
x
o o
e
s
T
s
T
L s x w L
1 1
,
( )

)
`

=


s
e T
L
s
T
L t x w
s
c
x
o o 1 1
,
( )

)
`

=


s
e
L T
s
L T t x w
s
c
x
o o
1 1
1
,
( ) ( )
)
`

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
c x
erf T T t x w
o o
2
/
1 1 ,
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
t c
x
erf T T T t x w
o o o
2
,
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t c
x
erf T t x w
o
2
,


CONCLUSION:
The temperature of any the semi-infinite insulated at different points by calculated with the help
of Laplace transformations.































6. LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

NAME :D.SUSHMITHA
BRANCH:EEE
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES
Email: susmitha.dhulam@gmail.com
Phone no: 9490059399
2) NAME :P. RAJYALAKSHMI
BRANCH: EEE
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES
Email: raji.ramamurthi@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
In this paper we here analyzed different electrical circuits here we have used laplace transform
technique to save these electrical circuits. We have analyzed different parameters namely
capacitor,resistor,battery,transistors, in this paper the solved problems are represented graphically. In
this the applications of laplace transforms also discussed. The terms explained in this are inverse laplace
transformations, applications of laplace transforms, table of laplace transformations advantage of
laplace transformations,sufficient conditions for yjr exostamce pf ;a[;ace tramsfpr, pf f(t). general
properties of laplace transform. Linear properties, applications of simulataneous differential equations,
methods of solution to system of differential equations. In this the graphs involved the increasing curve
and alternativecurves. In this mainly discussed about of electrical circuits, with examples and
explanations. In this each expression is explained with an example circuit problems and with diagramic
representation, and explained graphically. These are the terms explained in this paper.
KEYWORDS: Capacitors, switch, registors, transistors, inductors etc.
Pierre Simon Laplace, after whom the Laplace Transform is named, lived from 1749 to 1827.
The Laplace Transform is a powerful tool that is very useful in Electrical Engineering. The
transform allows equations in the "time domain" to be transformed into an equivalent equation in
the Complex S Domain. The laplace transform is an integral transform, although the reader does
not need to have a knowledge of integral calculus because all results will be provided. This page
will discuss the Laplace transform as being simply a tool for solving and manipulating ordinary
differential equations.
Laplace transformations of circuit elements are similar to phasor representations, but they are not
the same. Laplace transformations are more general than phasors, and can be easier to use in
some instances. Also, do not confuse the term "Complex S Domain" with the complex power
ideas that we have been talking about earlier. Complex power uses the variable , while the
Laplace transform uses the variable s. The Laplace variable s has nothing to do with power.
The transform is named after the mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace, who lived in the 18th
century. The transform itself did not become popular until Oliver Heaviside, a famous electrical
engineer, began using a variation of it to solve electrical circuits.
The Transform
The mathematical definition of the Laplace transform is as follows:
[The Laplace Transform]

Note:
The letter s has no special significance, and is used with the Laplace Transform as a matter of common
convention.
The transform, by virtue of the definite integral, removes all t from the resulting equation,
leaving instead the new variable s, a complex number that is normally written as s = + j. In
essence, this transform takes the function f(t), and "transforms it" into a function in terms of s,
F(s). As a general rule the transform of a function f(t) is written as F(s). Time-domain functions
are written in lower-case, and the resultant s-domain functions are written in upper-case.
There is a table of Laplace Transform pairs in

we will use the following notation to show the transform of a function:

We use this notation, because we can convert F(s) back into f(t) using the inverse Laplace
transform.
The Inverse Transform
The inverse laplace transform converts a function in the complex S-domain to its counterpart in
the time-domain. Its mathematical definition is as follows:
[Inverse Laplace Transform]

where c is a real constant such that all of the poles s
1
,s
2
,...,s
n
of F(s) fall in the region
. In other words, c is chosen so that all of the poles of F(s) are to the left of the
vertical line intersecting the real axis at s = c
Before the advent of calculators and computers, logarithms were extensively used to
replace multiplication (or) division of two large numbers by addition (or substraction) of
two numbers. The cucial idea which made the laplace transformation a very powerful
technique is that it replaces operations of calculus by operations of algebra for example
with the applications of laplace transform to an initial value problem, consisting of an
ordinary (or partial) differential equation. Together with initial conditions is reduced to a
problem of solving an algebraic equation (with any given initial conditions automatically
taken care).
APPLICATIONS OF A LAPLACETRANSFORMATIONS:
Laplace transform is very seful in obtaining solution of linear differential equations
both ordinary and partial, solution of system of simultaneous differential equations. And in
the evaluation of definite integrals.
ADVANTAGES:
1 . with the application of laplae transform, particular solution of differential equation is
obtained directly without the necessity of first determining general solution and then
obtaining the particular solution (by substitution of initial conditions).
2 . laplace transformations solves non-homogeneous differential equation without the
necessity of first solving the corresponding homogeneous differential equations.
3 . laplace transforms is applicable not only to continuous functions but also to piecewise
continuous functions, complicated periodic functions, step functions and impulse function.
4 . laplace transforms of various functions are readily available (in tabulated form). In
section used functions are tabulated.
SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF
f(t):-
The laplacetransform of f(t) exists that is the improper integral in the R.H.S. of (1)
convages (has a finite value) when the following sufficient conditions are satisfied.
1 . f(t) is piecewise (or sectionally) continuous that is f(t) is continuous in every subinterval
and has finite limits at end points of each of these sub interval.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM:
Although theoretically F(s), the laplace transforms of f(t) is obtained from the
definition in practice most of the time laplace transforms are obtained by the judical
application of some of the following important properties. In a nutshell, they are:
1 . Linearity property states that laplace transform of a linear combination(sum) of laplace
transforms.
2 . in change of scale, where the argument t of f is multiplied by a constant a,s is replaced
by s/a in F(s) and then multiplied by 1/a.
3. First shift theorem proves that multiplication of f(t) by e
at
amounts to replacement of s by
s-a in F(s).
4 . Laplace transfomation of a first derivative amounts to multiplication of F(s) by s
(approximately but for the constant f(o).
5 . Laplace transform of an integral of f amount to division of F(s) bt s.
6 . Multiplication of f(t) by t power n amounts to differentiations of F(s) n times with respect to s
(with(-1)power n as sign).
APPLICATIONS OF LAPLAE TRANSFORMS TO SYSTEM OF SIMULTANEOUS
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:
Lplace transform can also be used to solve a system (or) family of m simultaneous
ordinary differential equations in m dependent variables which ar functions of independent
variable t.
EXAMPLE 1
In the circuit shown below, the capacitor is uncharged at time t = 0. If
the switch is then closed, find the currents i
1
and i
2
, and the charge on
C at time t greater than zero.

Answer
It is easier in this example to do the second method. In many
examples, it is easier to do the first method.
For the first loop, we have:


For the second loop, we have:


Substituting (2) into (1) gives:


Next we take the Laplace Transform of both sides.
Note:

In this example, . So


Now taking Inverse Laplace:

And using result (2) from above, we have:

For charge on the capacitor, we first need voltage across the
capacitor:

So, since , we have:

Graph of q(t):



EXAMPLE 2
In the circuit shown, the capacitor has an initial charge of 1 mC and
the switch is in position 1 long enough to establish the steady state.
The switch is moved from position 1 to 2 at t = 0. Obtain the transient
current i(t) for t > 0.



Answer
Quiescent implies i
1
, i
2
and their derivatives are zero for t = 0, ie
i
1
(0) = i
2
(0) = i
1
'(0) = i
2
'(0) = 0.

For loop 1:

For loop 2:


Substituting our result from (1) gives:

Taking Laplace transform:


Let
So


So
Taking Inverse Laplace:
So


Alternative answer using Scientific Notebook. (.tex file)

EXAMPLE 6
Consider a series RLC circuit where R = 20 W, L = 0.05 H and C = 10
-
4
F and is driven by an alternating emf given by E = 100 cos 200t.
Given that both the circuit current i and the capacitor charge q are
zero at time t = 0, find an expression for i(t) in the region t > 0.
Answer
EXAMPLE 6
Consider a series RLC circuit where R = 20 W, L = 0.05 H and C = 10
-
4
F and is driven by an alternating emf given by E = 100 cos 200t.
Given that both the circuit current i and the capacitor charge q are
zero at time t = 0, find an expression for i(t) in the region t > 0.
Answer
We use the following:

and obtain:

After multiplying throughout by 20, we have:

Taking Laplace transform and using the fact that i(0) = 0:

Using Scientific Notebook to find the partial fractions:


So

So
+ cos200t 2 sin 200t

NOTE: Scientific Notebook can do all this for us very easily. In one
step, we have:

+ cos200t 2 sin 200t


Transient part:

Steady state part:


RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
The solutions of problems are finally represented graphically. From
example 1 problem the graph shows the graph of the q(t) . q(t) is a function of t.
the graph is taken between q and t. there are directly independt on each other.
There fpre ot the va;ie pf q os omcreased tjem the t os a;sp omcreased. This is
about example 1. From exapmple2 we observed that the gra[h os taklenm
between i and t if I increases t also increases.
CONCLUSION:
Finally we got the solution for the ordinary differential equations . and in
the example 2 the value of current is also got by graph the value of current is
also finding in the example by using laplace transforms solutions are easily got
this is the conclusion of laplace transformations.

REFERENCES:
E.J. Berg, Hevisides operational calculus, end ed.
R.V. Chur chill,modern operational mathematics in engineering.
D.V. Widder, advances calculus, end ed.
Engineering mathematics B.V. Ramana.














7. LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
VAAGDEVI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
AND SCIENCE
PRODDATUR
KADAPA(DIST)



PRESENTED BY:
P.KAVYA, N.VARA LAKSHMI,
I B-Tech, I B-Tech,
E-mail ID:ponnapureddymanasa@gmail.com , E-Mail ID:vara.narravula@gmail.com






Abstract:
In mathematics, the Laplace transform is a widely used integral transform. Denoted
, it is a linear operator of a function f(t) with a real argument t (t 0) that transforms it to a
function F(s) with a complex argument s. This transformation is essentially bijective for the
majority of practical uses; the respective pairs of f(t) and F(s) are matched in tables. The Laplace
transform has the useful property that many relationships and operations over the originals f(t)
correspond to simpler relationships and operations over the images F(s).
[1]
The Laplace
transform has many important applications throughout the sciences. It is named for Pierre-Simon
Laplace who introduced the transform in his work on probability theory.
The Laplace transform is related to the Fourier transform, but whereas the Fourier transform
resolves a function or signal into its modes of vibration, the Laplace transform resolves a
function into its moments. Like the Fourier transform, the Laplace transform is used for solving
differential and integral equations. In physics and engineering, it is used for analysis oflinear
time-invariant systems such as electrical circuits, harmonic oscillators, optical devices, and
mechanical systems. In this analysis, the Laplace transform is often interpreted as a
transformation from the time-domain, in which inputs and outputs are functions of time, to
the frequency-domain, where the same inputs and outputs are functions of complex angular
frequency, in radians




Introduction:
The knowledge of Laplace transforms is essential part of mathematics required by the
engineers and scientists. The Laplace transform is an excellent tool for solving linear differential
equations with given initial values of an unknown function and its Derivatives without the
necessity of first finding the general solution (complementary function + particular integral) and
then evaluating from its the particular solution satisfying the given conditions. This technique is
useful to solve from fractional differential equations as well. This is a powerful tool in diverse
fields of engineering.
The Laplace Transformation
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827)

Laplace was a French mathematician, astronomer, and physicist who applied the
Newtonian theory of gravitation to the solar system (an important problem of his day).
He played a leading role in the development of the metric system.
The Laplace Transform is widely used in engineering applications (mechanical and
electronic), especially where the driving force is discontinuous. It is also used in process
control.
Definition of Laplace Transform of f(t)
The Laplace transform of a function f(t) for t> 0 is defined by the following integral defined over
0 to :
{ f(t)} =
The resulting expression is a function of s, which we write as F(s). In words we say
"The Laplace Transform of f(t) equals function F of s"
and write:
{f(t)} = F(s)
Similarly, the Laplace transform of a function g(t) would be written:
{g(t)} = G(s)
.
PROPERTIES:
PROPERTY 1:
If a is a constant and f(t) is a function of t, then
{a f(t)} = a {f(t)}
{7 sin t} = 7 {sin t}

PROPERTY 2: Linearity property
If a and b are constants while f(t) and g(t) are functions of t, then
{a f(t) + b g(t)} = a {f(t)} + b {g(t)}
PROPERTY 3: Change of scale property
If {f(t)} = F(s) then
PROPERTY:4:Shifting property (Shift theorem)
{e
at
f(t)} = F(s a)
{e
3t
f(t)} = F(s 3)
PROPERTY 5:

Property 6:
The Laplace transforms of the real (or imaginary) part of a complex function is equal to the real
(or imaginary) part of the transform of the complex function.
Let Re denote the real part of a complex function C(t) and Im denote the imaginary part of C(t),
then
{Re[C(t)]} = Re {C(t)} and {Im[C(t)]} = Im {C(t)}
Properties of the unilateral Laplace transform
Time domain 's' domain Comment
Linearity

Can be proved using
basic rules of
integration.
Frequency
differentia
tion

is the first derivative
of .
Frequency
differentia
tion


More general form,
n
th
derivative of F(s).
Differenti
ation

is assumed to be a
differentiable function,
and its derivative is
assumed to be of
exponential type. This
can then be obtained
by integration by parts
Second
Differenti
ation

is assumed twice
differentiable and the
second derivative to be
of exponential type.
Follows by applying the
Differentiation property
to .
General
Differenti
ation

is assumed to be n-
times differentiable,
with n
th
derivative of
exponential type.
Follow by mathematical
induction.
Frequency
integratio
n



Integratio
n

u(t) is the Heaviside
step function. Note (u *
f)(t) is the convolution
of u(t) and f(t).
Scaling


wherea is positive.
Frequency
shifting


Time
shifting

u(t) is the Heaviside
step function
Multiplica
tion


the integration is done
along the vertical line
Re() = c that lies
entirely within the
region of convergence
of F.
[12]

Convoluti
on


(t) and g(t) are
extended by zero for
t < 0 in the definition of
the convolution.
z


f(t) is a periodic
function of periodT so
that
. This is the result of the
time shifting property
and the geometric
series
APPLICATIONS :
There are two (related) approaches:
1. Derive the circuit (differential) equations in the time domain, then transform these ODEs
to the s-domain;
2. Transform the circuit to the s-domain, then derive the circuit equations in the s-domain
(using the concept of "impedance").
We will use the first approach. We will derive the system equations(s) in the t-plane, then
transform the equations to the s-plane. We will usually then transform back to the t-plane.
EXAMPLE 1:
Consider the circuit when the switch is closed at t = 0 with V
C
(0) = 1.0 V. Solve for the current
i(t) in the circuit.

EXAMPLE 2:Solve for i(t) for the circuit, given that V(t) = 10 sin5t V, R =
4W and L=2H
Conclusion
In this article, the basic development of the NumericalLaplace Transform has been
presented. This techniquehasproven to be efficient for the analysis of electromagnetic transients
in power systems. The main advantages of the NLT aresummarized below:

The modeling of components with distributed and frequencydependentparameters can be
done in a straightforwardmanner.

Since its basic principles are different from those oftime domain methods, the NLT is
very useful to verifyingtime domain methods, as well as in the developmentof new
time domain models and techniques.

The application of the NLT can be very important whena high accuracy of results is
mandatory. The examplesgiven show that time domain methods may require amuch smaller
discretization step.
8.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING TO ESTIMATE THE TIME OF
DEATH OF A MURDERED PERSON
Harshitha T and Madhavi P
I B.Tech, Electronics and Communication in Engineering
Madanapalle Institute of Technology and Science, Madanapalle, India.
Email:madhavireddy.mits@gmail.com
Harshithamitsece10@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper is concerned with an exposition of the methods of solving some classes of ordinary
differential equations. An analysis is presented for solving ordinary differential equations of first order
and first degree. A mathematical model is presented to investigate the time of death of a murdered
person using the Newtons law of cooling. The time of death of a murdered person can be determined
with the help of modeling through differential equation. To formulate this process mathematically,
solved analytically and results are shown in graphical representation. It is noticed that the object
cools, the temperature difference gets smaller, and the cooling rate decreases; thus, the object
cools more and more slowly as time passes. Differential equations arise whenever we want to
represent mathematically a problem involving rate measure. Many real world phenomena can be
described through either differential equation involving ordinary derivatives/partial derivatives.
Differential equations play an important role in many applications in the fields of science and
engineering, such as (i) problems relating to motion of particles (ii) problems involving bending of beams
(iii) problems related to stability of electric system, chemical process, Economics, Anthropology and
diverse branches.
1. INTRODUCTION
A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or several
variables that relates the values of the function itself and its derivatives of various orders. An example of
modelling a real world problem using differential equations is determination of the velocity of a ball
falling through the air, considering only gravity and air resistance. The ball's acceleration towards the
ground is the acceleration due to gravity minus the deceleration due to air resistance. Gravity is
constant but air resistance may be modelled as proportional to the ball's velocity. This means the ball's
acceleration, which is the derivative of its velocity, depends on the velocity. Finding the velocity as a
function of time requires solving a differential equation.
The theory of differential equations is quite developed and the methods used to study them
vary significantly with the type of the equation.
An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is a differential equation in which the unknown function
(also known as the dependent variable) is a function of a single independent variable. In the simplest
form, the unknown function is a real or complex valued function, but more generally, it may be vector-
valued or
matrix-valued: this corresponds to considering a system of ordinary differential
equations for a single function. Ordinary differential equations are further
classified according to the order of the highest derivative with respect to the
dependent variable appearing in the equation. The most important cases for
applications are first order and second order differential equations. In the classical
literature also distinction is made between differential equations explicitly solved
with respect to the highest derivative and differential equations in an implicit
form.
A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation in which the
unknown function is a function of multiple independent variables and the equation
involves its partial derivatives. The order is defined similarly to the case of
ordinary differential equations, but further classification into elliptic, hyperbolic,
and parabolic equations, especially for second order linear equations, is of utmost
importance. Some partial differential equations do not fall into any of these
categories over the whole domain of the independent variables and they are said
to be of mixed type.
Both ordinary and partial differential equations are broadly classified as linear and nonlinear. A
differential equation is linear if the unknown function and its derivatives appear to the power 1
(products are not allowed) and non linear otherwise. The
characteristic property of linear equations is that their solutions form an affine subspace
of an appropriate function space, which results in much more developed theory of linear
differential equations. Homogeneous linear differential equations are a further subclass
for which the space of solutions is a linear subspace i.e. the sum of any set of solutions or
multiples of solutions is also a solution. The coefficients of the unknown function and its
derivatives in a linear differential equation are allowed to be (known) functions of the
independent variable or variables; if these coefficients are constants then one speaks of a constant
coefficient linear differential equation.
Differential equations are mathematically studied from several different perspectives, mostly
concerned with their solutions, the set of functions that satisfy the equation. Only the simplest
differential equations admit solutions given by explicit formulas; however, some properties of solutions
of a given differential equation may be determined without finding their exact form. If a self-contained
formula for the solution is not available, the solution may be numerically approximated using
computers. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative analysis of systems described
by differential equations, while many numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions
with a given degree of accuracy.
Many of the general laws in all branches of engineering, physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy,
population studies, geometry, economics, etc. can be expressed through Mathematical Modelling in
the form of an equation connecting the variables and their rate of change, resulting in differential
equations. The time of death of a murdered person can be determined with the help of modeling
through differential equation.
The objective of the present study is to investigate the time of death of a murdered person
using the Newtons law of cooling.
2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
When a hot object is placed in a cool room, the object dissipates heat to the
surroundings, and its temperature decreases. Newton's Law of Cooling states that the rate
at which the object's temperature decreases is proport ional to the difference between the
temperature of the object and the ambient temperature. At the beginning of the cooling
process, the difference between these temperatures is greatest, so this is when the rate of
temperature decrease is greatest. However, as the object cools, the temperature difference
gets smaller, and the cooling rate decreases; thus, the object cools more and more slowly as
time passes. To formulate this process mathematically, let T(t) denote the temperature of the
object at time t and let T
s
denote the (essentially constant) temperature of the surroundings.
Newton's Law of Cooling then says,
o
dT
(T T )
s
dt
(1)
i.e. K =
dT
(T T ) (K>0)
s
dt
(2)
Where K is the unknown proportionality constant, the equation (2) governing the Newtons law of
cooling, is a first order and first degree linear separable differential equation.
Since T
s
<T (that is, since the room is cooler than the object), T decreases, so the rate of
change of its temperature, dT/dt, is necessarily negative. The solution of this separable
differential equation (2) proceeds as follows:
s
dt
K dt
T T
=

} }

ln( )
s
T T Kt C = +
Kt
s
T T Ce

=
( )
Kt
s
T t T Ce

= + (3)
Let us consider a murder victim is found by officer at 8:30am and that the temperature of
the body at that time is
0
30 C. Assume that the room in which the murder victim lay was a
constant
0
22 C. Suppose that an hour later the temperature of the body is
0
28 C. Using this
information we determine the approximate time the murder occurred.

3. METHOD OF SOLUTION
We therefore present a more detailed exposition here to solve the above problem
analytically. Essentially 3 phases are central to the solution. These are:
I. Identify T
s,
the temperature of the surrounding medium, so that the general
solution is given by (3).
II. Use two conditions given to determine the constant of integration C and the
unknown proportionality constant K.
III. Substituting C and K, obtained from step II, in equation (3) (a) the value of T
for a given time t or (b) the value of time t for a given temperature T can
be determined from equation (3)
Let T(t) denote the temperature of the body at time t.
Then the ( )
Kt
s
T t T Ce

= + since T
s
=
0
22 C
Constants K and C can be determined provided the following information is available:
Time of arrival of the person, the temperature of the body just after his arrival, temperature of the
body after certain interval of time.
Let the officer arrived at 8.30 a.m. and the body temperature was 30 degrees. This means
that if the officer considers 8:30 a.m. as t = 0, i.e. T(0)=30 then

( ) k*0
30 22 C e

= +
8 C =
Hence ( )
( ) k*t
T t 22 8e

= + (4)
Let the officer makes another measurement of the temperature say after 1 hour (60
minutes), that is, at 9.30 a.m. and temperature was 28 degrees. This means that T(1) =
0
28
,
( ) k*1
28 22 8e

= +
( ) k*1
6
8
e

=
( ) ( ) ln 4 ln 3 k =
k = 0.2877
Now it only remains to find out when the murder occurred. At the time of death the body
was
0
37 C (i.e. normal human body temperature).
So, equation (4)
( ) k*t
37 22 8e

= +
( ) k*t
15
8
e

=
( ) k*t ln 1.875 =
( )
1
t *ln 1.875
k
=
2.19 t = Hours
Here sign minus ( ) represents the time before found the victim.
From this, we can conclude that the murder occurred about 2 hours and 19 minutes before
the body was found.
The death occurred approximately 139 minutes before the first measurement at 8.30a.m that is
at 6:19a.m approximately
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The present analysis integrates the equations by the analytical method. The details of the
solution method is shown and the variation of the temperature T of the body before identifying
and after for different time t are also shown graphically.
From experimental observations it is known that (up to a satisfactory approximation) the
surface temperature of an object changes at a rate proportional to its relative temperature. That
is, the difference between its temperature and the temperature of the surrounding environment.
This is what is known as Newton's law of cooling. The time of death of a murdered person is
determined with the help of modeling through differential equation.
According to Newtons law of cooling, the body will radiate heat energy into the room at
a rate proportional to the difference in temperature between the body and the room.
For some time after the death, the body will radiate heat into the cooler room, causing the
bodys temperature to decrease assuming that the victims temperature was normal 37
o
C (98.6
o
F) at the
time of death. Forensic expert will try to estimate this time from bodys current temperature and
calculating how long it would have had to lose heat to reach this point.
The following figure display the temperature of the body of victim for different time. It is
found that temperature decrease monotonically from normal human body temperature (37
o
C) for
increasing time because the body will radiate heat into the cooler room, causing the bodys
temperature to decrease. This is owing to the fact that the body temperature suddenly falls in the
first 10 minutes after murdered and then slowly decrease with increasing time.
The death occurred approximately 139 minutes before the first measurement at 8.30a.m
that is at 6:19a.m approximately
TABLE AND GRAPH:
t (time in minutes)
T(t) (temperature in
degrees)
t (time in minutes)
T(t) (temperature in
degrees)
-130 37 0 30
-120 32.8 10 29.8353
-110 32.1 20 29.674
-100 31.8497 30 29.516
-90 31.6469 40 29.361
-80 31.4483 50 29.209
-70 31.2539 60 29.0613
-60 31.0634 70 28.916
-50 30.9124 80 28.7736
-40 30.6941 90 28.634
-30 30.5151 100 28.497
-20 30.3398 110 28.364
-10 30.1681 120 28.2329

130 28.104

5. CONCLUSIONS
The present paper analytically studied to investigate the time of death using the Newtons law
of cooling. The time of death of a murdered person is determined with the help of modeling through
differential equation. To formulate this process mathematicall y, solved analytically and results are
shown in graphical representation. It is noticed that the murdered body cools, the temperature
difference gets smaller, and the cooling rate decreases; thus, the object cools more and more
slowly as time passes. The death occurred approximately 139 minutes before the first measurement at
8.30a.m that is at 6:19a.m approximately. The problem of solving differential equations is a natural goal
of differential and integral calculus. Further many of the general laws of nature in Physics, Chemistry,
Biology and Astronomy can be expressed in the language of differential equations and hence the theory
of differential equations is the most important part of mathematics for understanding Physical sciences.

6. REFERENCES
1. Engineering mathematics volume-1, Dr.T.K.V.Iyengar, Dr.B.krishnagandhi,
S.Ranganatham,M.V.S.S.N.Prasad
2. AText book of EngineringMathematics, B.V.Ramana.
3. A Text Book of Engineering Mathematics, Thomson Book Collection.






9.
CONCEPT ON
MATRICES MATHEMATICS
MOULA ALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PREPARED BY
T.GOWSIA B.PRIYANKA
REG.NO:10F51A0424 10F51A0460
E.C.E E.C.E
I-BTECH I-BTECH
Email:gowsiababy@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
DEFINATION

NOTATION

BASIC OPERATORS

MATRICES MULTIPLICATION,LINEAR EQUATIONS

RANK OF MATRICES

SQUARE MATRICES

INVERSE MATRICES

TRACE

TRIANGULAR MATRICES

DIAGONAL MATRICES

DETERMINENT

EIGENVECTORS AND EIGENVALUES

SYMMETRY

MATRICES DECOMPOSITION METHODS(LU-decomposition
method)
MATRICES:

Definition
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers.
For example A=
4 3
2 1

- The horizontal and vertical lines in a matrix are called rows and columns, respectively.

- The numbers in the matrix are called its entries or its elements.

- To specify the size of a matrix, a matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m-by-n
matrix or m n matrix, while m and n are called its dimensions.
ROW MATRICES:
A matrix with one row is called a row matrix.
For example: A= 2 1
COLUMN MATRICES:
A matrix with one column is called acolumn matrix.
For example: A=
3
2

TRANSPOSE MATRICES:
The rows of a matrix are equal to the corresponding columns of itsmatrix, the matrix is transpose
matrix.
Most of this article focuses on real and complex matrices, i.e., matrices whose entries are real or
complex numbers.

Notation
The entry that lies in the i-th row and the j-th column of a matrix is typically referred to as the
(i,j), or (i,j)
th
entry of the matrix.
For example, the (2, 2) entry of the above matrix A is 4.
The (i, j)
th
entry of a matrix A is most commonly written as a
i,j
.
Alternative notations for that entry are A [i,j] or A
i,j
.
Leta
i, refers to the i
th
row of A, and a,j
refers to the j
th
column of A. The set of all m-by-n
matrices is denoted (m, n).
A = [a
, j
]
i=1,...,m; j=1,...,n
or more briefly A = [a
i,j
]
mn

To define an m n matrix A. Usually the entries a
i,j
are defined separately for all integers 1 i
m and 1 j n.
Basic operations
- Matrix addition
- Scalar multiplication
- Transpose
- Row operations
There are a number of operations that can be applied to modify matrices called matrix addition,
scalar multiplication and transposition. These form the basic techniques to deal with matrices.
Operation Definition

Addition


The sumA+B of two m-by-n matrices A and B is calculated entrywise:
(A + B)
i,j
= A
i,j
+ B
i,j
, where 1 i m and 1 j n.



Scalar
multiplication




The scalar multiplication cA of a matrix A and a number c is given by
multiplying every entry of A by c:
(cA)
i,j
= c A
i,j
.


Transpose



The transpose of an m-by-n matrix A is the n-by-m matrix A
T
(also denoted
A
tr
or
t
A) formed by turning rows into columns and vice versa:
(A
T
)
i,j
= A
j,i
.

Addition of matrices iscommutative,
A + B = B + A.

The transpose is compatible with addition and scalar multiplication
(cA)
T
= c (A
T
) and (A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T
. Finally, (A
T
)
T
= A.
Row operations
There are three types of row operations: row switching, that is interchanging two rows of a
matrix; row multiplication, multiplying all entries of a row by a non-zero constant; and finally
row addition, which means adding a multiple of a row to another row. These row operations are
used in a number of ways including solving linear equations and finding inverses
Matrix multiplication, linear equations
Matrix multiplication

Schematic depiction of the matrix product AB of two matrices A and B.
Multiplication of two matrices is defined only if the number of columns of the left matrix is the
same as the number of rows of the right matrix.
If A is an m-by-n matrix and B is an n-by-p matrix, then their matrix productAB is the m-by-p
matrix whose entries are given by dot-product of the corresponding row of A and the
corresponding column of B:
Matrix multiplication satisfies the rules (AB) C = A (BC) (associativity),
And (A+B) C = AC+BC as well as C(A+B) = CA+CB (left and right distributivity),
Whenever the size of the matrices is such that the various products are defined.
IfA and B are m-by-n and n-by-k matrices, respectively, and m k. Even if both products are
defined, they need not be equal, i.e. generally one has
AB BA,
i.e., matrix multiplication is not commutative,
The identity matrixI
n
of size n is the n-by-n matrix in which all the elements on the main
diagonal are equal to 1 and all other elements are equal to 0,
It is called identity matrix because multiplication with it leaves a matrix unchanged: MI
n
= I
m
M
= M for any m-by-n matrix M.
Linear equations
Linear equation and System of linear equations
A particular case of matrix multiplication is tightly linked to linear equations: if x designates a
column vector (i.e. n1-matrix) of n variables x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
, and A is an m-by-n matrix, then the
matrix equation
Ax = b,
Whereb is some m1-column vector, is equivalent to the system of linear equations
A
1,1
x
1
+ A
1, 2x2
+ ... + A
1,n
x
n
= b
1

...
A
m, 1x1
+ A
m, 2x2
+ ... + A
m, nxn
= b
m
.
This way, matrices can be used to compactly write and deal with multiple linear equations, i.e.
systems of linear equations.
RANK OF MATICES:
The rank of a matrixA is the maximum number of linearly independent row vectors of the
matrix, which is the same as the maximum number of linearly independent column vectors.
Square matrices
A square matrix is a matrix which has the same number of rows and columns.
For example: A=
3 2
2 1

An n-by-n matrix is known as a square matrix of order n. Any two square matrices of the same
order can be added and multiplied.
A square matrix A is called invertible or non-singular if there exists a matrix B such that
AB = I
n
.
INVERSE MATRICES:
This is equivalent to BA = I
n
. Moreover, if B exists, it is unique and is called the inverse matrix
of A, denoted A
1
.
TRACE:
The entries A
i,i
form the main diagonal of a matrix. The trace, tr(A) of a square matrix A is the
sum of its diagonal entries,
the trace of the product of two matrices is independent of the order of the factors:
tr(AB) = tr(BA).
Also, the trace of a matrix is equal to that of its transpose, i.e. tr(A) = tr(A
T
).
DIAGONAL MATRICES:
If all entries outside the main diagonal are zero, A is called a diagonal matrix.
TRIANGULAR MATRICES:
If only all entries above (below) the main diagonal are zero, A is called a lower triangular matrix
(upper triangular matrix, respectively). For example, if n = 3, they look like (Diagonal), (lower)
and (upper triangular matrix).
Lower triangular matrix: A=
3 0
2 1

Upper triangular matrix: A=
4 3
0 1

Determinant
The determinantdet (A) or |A| of a square matrix A is a number encoding certain properties of the
matrix. A matrix is invertible if and only if its determinant is nonzero.
The determinant of a product of square matrices equals the product of their determinants: det
(AB) = det (A) det (B).
Adding a multiple of any row to another row, or a multiple of any column to another column,
does not change the determinant.
To solve linear systems using Cramer's rule, where the division of the determinants of two
related square matrices equates to the value of each of the system's variables.
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
A number and a non-zero vector v satisfying
AX = X
are called an eigenvalue and an eigenvector of A, respectively. The number is an eigenvalue of
an nn-matrix A if and only if AI
n
is not invertible.
The function p
A
(t) = det(AtI) is called the characteristic polynomial of A, its degree is n.
Therefore p
A
(t) has at most n different roots, i.e., eigenvalues of the matrix
They may be complex even if the entries of A are real. According to the Cayley-Hamilton
theorem, p
A
(A) = 0, that is to say, the characteristic polynomial applied to the matrix itself yields
the zero matrix.


SYMMETRY:
SYMMETRIC MATRICES:
A square matrix A that is equal to its transpose, i.e. A = A
T
, is a symmetric matrix.
SKEW-SYMMETRICE MATRICES:
If instead, A was equal to the negative of its transpose, i.e. A = A
T
, then A is a skew-symmetric
matrix.
HERMITIAN MATRICES:
In complex matrices, symmetry is often replaced by the concept of Hermitian matrices, which
satisfy A

= A, where the star or asterisk denotes the conjugate transpose of the matrix, i.e. the
transpose of the complex conjugate of A.
Matrix decomposition methods
- Matrix decomposition
- Matrix diagonalization
- Gaussian elimination
- Montante's method
There are several methods to render matrices into a more easily accessible form. They are
generally referred to as matrix transformation or matrix decomposition techniques.
LU decomposition:
The LU decomposition factors matrices as a product of lower (L) and an upper triangular
matrices (U).
Problem on LU-decomposition method:
Using LU-decomposition method solve x+y+z=1, 3x+y-3z=5, x-y-5z=10.
Solution:
5 2 1
3 1 3
1 1 1


z
y
x
=
10
5
1

i.e., AX=B
Let A=LU
Where L=
1 32 31
0 1 2
0 0 1
l l
l
U=
33 0 0
23 22 0
13 12 11
u
u u
u u u

A=LU
=
1 32 31
0 1 21
0 0 1
l l
l
=
33 23 32 13 31 22 32 12 31 11 31
23 13 21 22 12 21 11 21
13 12 11
u u l u l u l u l u l
u u l u u l u l
u u u
+ + +
+ +
Compare the corresponding elements of LU and the elements of A
u11=1 ,
u12=1 ,
u13=1,

l21u11=3 ,
l21=3

l21u12+u22=1
u22=-2

l21u13+u23=-3
u23=-6

l31u11=1
l31=1
l31u12+l32u22=-2
l32=3/2
l31u13+l32u23+u33=-5
u33=3
1 2 / 3 1
0 1 3
0 0 1

3 0 0
6 2 0
1 1 1

AX=B
LUX=B
Let UX=Y
LY=B
1 2 / 3 1
0 1 3
0 0 1
3
2
1
Y
Y
Y
=
10
5
1

3 2 2 / 3 1
2 1 3
1
Y Y Y
Y Y
Y
+ +
+ =
10
5
1

Y1=1
3Y1+Y2=5
Y2=2
Y1+3/2Y2+Y3=10
Y3=6
3
2
1
Y
Y
Y
=
6
2
1

Since UX=Y
3 0 0
6 2 0
1 1 1

Z
Y
X
6
2
1

Z
Z Y
Z Y X
3
6 2
+ +
=
6
2
1

X+Y+Z=1
-2Y-6Z=2
3Z=6
Z=2
-2Y-6Z=2
Y=-7
X=6
X =
z
y
x
=
2
7
6


Therefore the problem is sloved.






10. Moula ali college of engineering and
technology,
Anantapur.

Prepared by

B.Peddy reddy B.Aravind kumar
ECE(I B.TECH) ECE(I B.TECH)
REG.NO 10F51A0458 REG.NO 10F51A0408

EMAIL.ID PEMAAMANI@gmail.com





ABSTRACT

Applications of Differential Equations
Application 1 : Exponential Growth - Population
Application 2 : Exponential Decay - Radioactive
Material
Application 3 : Falling Object

MATRICES

Definition of a Matrix
Introduction to Matrix:
Other Types of Matrix
Transpose Matrix:
Definition
Adjoint Matrix
Minors
Co-factors
Properties of Determinants
Applications of Differential Equations


We present examples where differential equations are widely applied to model
natural phenomena, engineering systems and many other situations.
Application 1 : Exponential Growth - Population
Let P(t) be a quantity that increases with time t and the rate of increase is
proportional to the same quantity P as follows
d P / d t = k P


where d p / d t is the first derivative of P, k > 0 and t is the time.

The solution to the above first order differential equation is given by
P(t) = A e
k t



where A is a constant not equal to 0.

If P = P
0
at t = 0, then

P
0
= A e
0


which gives A = P
0


The final form of the solution is given by
P(t) = P
0
e
k t



Assuming P
0
is positive and since k is positive, P(t) is an increasing exponential. d P
/ d t = k P is also called an exponential growth model.
Application 2 : Exponential Decay - Radioactive
Material
Let M(t) be the amount of a product that decreases with time t and the rate of
decrease is proportional to the amount M as follows
d M / d t = - k M


where d M / d t is the first derivative of M, k > 0 and t is the time.

Solve the above first order differential equation to obtain
M(t) = A e
- k t



where A is non zero constant.

It we assume that M = M
0
at t = 0, then

M
0
= A e
0


which gives A = M
0


The solution may be written as follows
M(t) = M
0
e
- k t



Assuming M
0
is positive and since k is positive, M(t) is an decreasing exponential. d
M / d t = - k M is also called an exponential decay model.
Application 3 : Falling Object
An object is dropped from a height at time t = 0. If h(t) is the height of the object at
time t, a(t) the acceleration and v(t) the velocity. The relationships between a, v and
h are as follows:

a(t) = dv / dt , v(t) = dh / dt.

For a falling object, a(t) is constant and is equal to g = -9.8 m/s.

Combining the above differential equations, we can easily deduce the follwoing
equation

d
2
h / dt
2
= g

Integrate both sides of the above equation to obtain

dh / dt = g t + v
0


Integrate one more time to obtain

h(t) = (1/2) g t + v
0
t + h
0


The above equation describes the height of a falling object, from an initial height h
0

at an initial velocity v
0
, as a function of time.

Substitute c in the solution

- (L / R) ln(E - R i) = t + (-L/R) ln (E)

which may be written

(L/R) ln (E)- (L / R) ln(E - R i) = t

ln[E/(E - Ri)] = t(R/L)

Change into exponential form

[E/(E - Ri)] = e
t(R/L)


Solve for i to obtain

i = (E/R) (1-e
-Rt/L
)

The starting model for the circuit is a differential equation which when solved, gives
an expression of the current in the circuit as a function of time.
Definition of a Matrix
A rectangular array of entries is called a Matrix. The entries may be real, complex or functions.
The entries are also called as the elements of the matrix.
The rectangular array of entries are enclosed in an ordinary bracket or in square bracket.
Matrices are denoted by capital letters.
Example:
(i)

A matrix having m rows and n columns is called as matrix of order mxn. Such a matrix has mn
elements.
In general, an mxn matrix is in the form

Where a
ij
represents the element in i
th
column.
The above matrix may be denoted as A = [a
ij
]
mxn
.

Introduction to Matrix:
A Matrix is a rectangular arrangement of number in rows and columns and enclosed by
Parenthesis (or) Brackets. Matrices are denoted by A, B, C Matrix is a way of organizing the
data in order to rows and columns. it can be written as inside the brackets. Each and every
element inside the matrix is known as entry. Horizontal arrangements are called Rows and
Vertical arrangements are called Columns.
Types of Matrix
Row Matrix: This is one of the types of matrix has only a single row of two or more columns,
Example: [ 0 25 4 3] which is 1 X 4 row matrix
Column Matrix: This matrix has a single column of 2 or more rows
Example:

This is 5 x 1 column matrix
Rectangular Matrix: This matrix has two or more rows with two or more columns
Example:

This is 5 X 2 matrix
Square Matrix: This is a special case of the Rectangular Matrix that represents the number of
rows is equal to the number of columns.
Example:
A =
A is a square matrix.
Other Types of Matrix
Zero Or Null Matrix: This is a type of matrix where all its elements are of value 0.
Example:
. This is a 2 x 5 zero matrix.

Identity Matrix: This is a type of matrix where the elements on its leading diagonal are 1 and
the rest are of value 0.

Scalar Matrix: This is a type of matrix where all the elements on its leading diagonal to bottom
right are of equal value.
Example:

Diagonal Matrix: This is a type of matrix where all its non-diagonal elements are 0
Example:

Negative Matrix: This is a type of matrix where all elements are replaced by their additive
inverse, Thus for a matrix A, the negative matrix is expressed by -A. An important property of
this type of matrix is A x -A = 0.
Example:
If A = If two matrices have their corresponding elements equal, then they are called equal
matrices.
If then a = p, b = q, c = r and d = s.

a = 7, b = 9, c = 3.

(i) Two equal matrices are exactly the same.
(ii) If rows are changed into columns and columns into rows, we get a transpose matrix. If the
original matrix is A, its transpose is usually denoted by A
'
or A
t
.
(iii) If two matrices are of the same order (no condition on elements) they are said to be
comparable.
For example, if then its transpose matrix

, then -A =
These are the types of matrix.
Transpose Matrix:
The matrices acquired from the given matrix A by interchanging its rows into columns
and its columns into rows are called the transpose of A and it is denoted by A or A
T
.
If A = then A
T
=
Note that if A is of order m n then A
T
is order n m.

Example of Transpose Matrices:
Example:
Let A= . Find A
T,
A x A
T
, A+A
T






Definition:
The transpose of the matrix obtained by replacing the elements of a square matrix A by the
corresponding cofactors is called the adjoint matrix of A. It is denoted by Adj A or adj A.
Note 1 on Adjoint Matrix
Note 1:
[A
11
A
12
A
13
] [A
11
A
21
A
31
]
If A = [A
21
A
22
A
23
] then Adj A = [A
12
A
22
A
32
]
[A
31
A
32
A
33
] [A
13
A
23
A
33
]
Let A = [a
ij
] be a square matrix. We can associate with the square matrix A, a determinant which
is formed by exactly the same array of elements of the matrix A. A determinant formed by the
same array of elements of the square matrix A is called the determinant of the square matrix A
and is denoted by the symbol det.A or |A|.
It should be remembered that the determinant of a square matrix will be a scalar quantity. i.e.,
with a determinant we associate a definite value, whereas a matrix is essentially an
arrangement of numbers and has no value.
For example,


To find the determinant of a matrix of order 3 (or more) we need the following definitions.
Minors
Let |aij| be a determinant of order n.
The determinant obtained by deleting the i
th
row and j
th
column in which the element a
ij
lies is
called the minor of element a
ij
and is denoted by M
ij
.
Co-factors
The co-factor of the element a
ij
is (-1)
i+j
times its minor a
ij
. We shall denote the cofactor of an
element by the corresponding capital letter.
Cofactor of a
ij
= A
ij
= (-1)
i+j
M
ij

Consider the determinant

The minor of a
11
can be obtained by deleting the first row and first column of D. The
Determinant, so obtained after deletion is the minor of a
11
and is denoted by M
11
.

Properties of Determinants
- If the rows and columns of a determinant are inter-changed, the value remains unaltered.
- If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical, its value of the determinant is
zero.
- If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are interchanged, the value of the determinant
is (-1) times the original determinant.
- If all the elements of one row (column) of a determinant is multiplied by k, the value of the
new determinant is k times the original determinant.
- If to any row or column of a determinant, a multiple of another row or column is added, the
value of the determinant remains the same.
- If some or all the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are expressed as sum of
two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as sum of two or more
determinants. Thus


- The sum of the products of the elements of any row (column) with their corresponding
cofactors is equal to the value of the determinant.
- The sum of the products of the elements of any row (column) and the cofactors of the
corresponding elements of any other row (column) is zero.
Example: For a matrix of order 3,
a
11
A
21
+ a
12
A
22
+ A
13
A
23
= 0


























11. MOULA ALI COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
ANANTAPUR.

APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES AND DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS

PREPARED BY

T PAVAN KUMAR, M.PRASANTH,
ECE(I-B.TECH) ECE(I-B.TECH)
ROLL NO:10F51A0457 ROLL
NO:10F51A0459
E-mail: pawan.4065@gmail.com
mprasanth.mprasanth413@
Cell: 9652733240 gmail.com


ABSTRACT:-
Matrix (mathematics)
Definition(A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers.)
Basic operations(Matrix addition, Scalar multiplication, Transpose, and Row operations)
TRANSPOSE ((A
T
)
T
= A )
Matrix multiplication, linear equations and linear transformations
Linear equations(A particular case of matrix multiplication is tightly linked to linear
equations)
Square matrices(A square matrix is a matrix which has the same number of rows and
columns)
Determinant(The determinant of a product of square matrices equals the product of their
determinants)
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors(A number and a non-zero vector v satisfying
Av = v
are called an eigenvalue and an eigenvector of A)
Symmetry(A square matrix A that is equal to its transpose, i.e. A = A
T
, is a symmetric matrix)

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
Application 1 : Exponential Growth - Population
Application 2 : Exponential Decay - Radioactive Material
Application 3 : Falling Object
Application 4 : Newton's Law of Cooling
Application 5 : RL circuit

Matrix
(mathematics)


Specific entries of a matrix are often referenced by using pairs of
subscripts.
In mathematics, a matrix (plural matrices, or less commonly matrixes) is a rectangular array of
numbers, such as

Definition
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers. For example,

The horizontal and vertical lines in a matrix are called rows and
columns, respectively. The numbers in the matrix are called its entries or its elements.
Basic operations
Main articles: Matrix addition, Scalar multiplication, Transpose, and Row operations
There are a number of operations that can be applied to modify matrices called matrix addition,
scalar multiplication and transposition.
[3]
These form the basic techniques to deal with matrices.
EXAMPLES:
Operation



Addition



TRANSPOSE

Scalar
multiplication
Familiar properties of numbers extend to these operations of matrices: for example, addition is
commutative, i.e. the matrix sum does not depend on the order of the summands:
A + B = B + A.
[4]
The transpose is compatible with addition and scalar multiplication, as
expressed by (cA)
T
= c(A
T
) and (A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T
. Finally, (A
T
)
T
= A.
Row operations are ways to change matrices. There are three types of row operations: row
switching, that is interchanging two rows of a matrix; row multiplication, multiplying all entries
of a row by a non-zero constant; and finally row addition, which means adding a multiple of a
row to another row. These row operations are used in a number of ways including solving linear
equations and finding inverses.
Matrix multiplication, linear equations and linear
transformations

Schematic depiction of the matrix product AB of two matrices A and B. Multiplication of two
matrices is defined only if the number of columns of the leftmatrix is the same as the number of
rows of the right matrix. If A is an m-by-n matrix and B is an n-by-p matrix, then their matrix
product AB is the m-by-p matrix whose entries are given by dot-product of the corresponding
row of A and the corresponding column of B:


The identity matrix I
n
of size n is the n-by-n matrix in which all the elements on the main
diagonal are equal to 1 and all other elements are equal to 0, e.g.

It is called identity matrix because multiplication with it leaves a matrix unchanged: MI
n
= I
m
M
= M for any m-by-n matrix M.
Linear equations
A particular case of matrix multiplication is tightly linked to linear equations: if x designates a
column vector (i.e. n1-matrix) of n variables x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
, and A is an m-by-n matrix, then the
matrix equation
Ax = b,
where b is some m1-column vector, is equivalent to the system of linear equations
A
1,1
x
1
+ A
1,2
x
2
+ ... + A
1,n
x
n
= b
1

...
A
m,1
x
1
+ A
m,2
x
2
+ ... + A
m,n
x
n
= b
m
.
[8]

This way, matrices can be used to compactly write and deal with multiple linear equations, i.e.
systems of linear equations.
The last equality follows from the above-mentioned associativity of matrix multiplication.
The rank of a matrix A is the maximum number of linearly independent row vectors of the
matrix, which is the same as the maximum number of linearly independent column vectors.
Equivalently it is the dimension of the image of the linear map represented by A. The rank-
nullity theorem states that the dimension of the kernel of a matrix plus the rank equals the
number of columns of the matrix.
Square matrices
A square matrix is a matrix which has the same number of rows and columns. An n-by-n matrix
is known as a square matrix of order n.
This is equivalent to BA = I
n
. Moreover, if B exists, it is unique and is called the inverse matrix
of A, denoted A
1
.
. The trace, tr(A) of a square matrix A is the sum of its diagonal entries. Also, the trace of a
matrix is equal to that of its transpose, i.e. tr(A) = tr(A
T
).
If all entries outside the main diagonal are zero, A is called a diagonal matrix. If only all entries
above (below) the main diagonal are zero, A is called a lower triangular matrix (upper triangular
matrix, respectively). For example, if n = 3, they look like
(diagonal), (lower) and (upper
triangular matrix).




Determinant

The determinant of 2-by-2 matrices is given by

The determinant of a product of square
matrices equals the product of their
determinants: det(AB) = det(A) det(B).
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
A number and a non-zero vector v satisfying
Av = v
are called an eigenvalue and an eigenvector of A, respectively.
[nb 1]
The number is an
eigenvalue of an nn-matrix A if and only if AI
n
is not invertible, which is equivalent to

eigenvalues of the matrix. They may be complex even if the entries of A are real. According to
the Cayley-Hamilton theorem, p
A
(A) = 0, that is to say, the characteristic polynomial applied to
the matrix itself yields the zero matrix.

Symmetry
A square matrix A that is equal to its transpose, i.e. A = A
T
, is a symmetric matrix. If instead, A
was equal to the negative of its transpose, i.e. A = A
T
, then A is a skew-symmetric matrix. In
complex matrices, symmetry is often replaced by the concept of Hermitian matrices, which
satisfy A

= A, where the star or asterisk denotes the conjugate transpose of the matrix, i.e. the
transpose of the complex conjugate of A.


Transpose

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
Application 1 : Exponential Growth - Population
Let P(t) be a quantity that increases with time t and the rate of increase is proportional to the
same quantity P as follows
d P / d t = k P


where d p / d t is the first derivative of P, k > 0 and t is the time.

The solution to the above first order differential equation is given by
P(t) = A e
k t



where A is a constant not equal to 0.

If P = P
0
at t = 0, then

P
0
= A e
0


which gives A = P
0


The final form of the solution is given by
P(t) = P
0
e
k t



Assuming P0 is positive and since k is positive, P(t) is an increasing exponential. d P / d t = k
P is also called an exponential groth model.
Application 2 : Exponential Decay - Radioactive Material
Let M(t) be the amount of a product that decreases with time t and the rate of decrease is
proportional to the amount M as follows
d M / d t = - k M


where d M / d t is the first derivative of M, k > 0 and t is the time.

Solve the above first order differential equation to obtain
M(t) = A e
- k t



where A is non zero constant.

It we assume that M = M
0
at t = 0, then

M
0
= A e
0


which gives A = M
0


The solution may be written as follows
M(t) = M
0
e
- k t



Assuming M
0
is positive and since k is positive, M(t) is an decreasing exponential. d M / d t = - k
M is also called an exponential decay model.
Application 3 : Falling Object
An object is dropped from a height at time t = 0. If h(t) is the height of the object at time t, a(t)
the acceleration and v(t) the velocity. The relationships between a, v and h are as follows:

a(t) = dv / dt , v(t) = dh / dt.

For a falling object, a(t) is constant and is equal to g = -9.8 m/s.

Combining the above differential equations, we can easily deduce the follwoing equation

d
2
h / dt
2
= g

Integrate both sides of the above equation to obtain

dh / dt = g t + v
0


Integrate one more time to obtain

h(t) = (1/2) g t + v
0
t + h
0


The above equation describes the height of a falling object, from an initial height h
0
at an initial
velocity v
0
, as a function of time.
Application 4 : Newton's Law of Cooling
It is a model that describes, mathematically, the change in temperature of an object in a given
environment. The law states that the rate of change (in time) of the temperature is proportional to
the difference between the temperature T of the object and the temperature Te of the
environment surrounding the object.
d T / d t = - k (T - Te)


Let x = T - Te so that dx / dt = dT / dt

Using the above change of variable, the above differential equation becomes
d x / d t = - k x


The solution to the above differential equation is given by

x = A e
- k t


substitute x by T - Te

T - Te = A e
- k t


Assume that at t = 0 the tempearture T = To

To - Te = A e
0


which gives A = To - Te

The final expression for T(t) i given by

T(t) = Te + (To - Te)e
- k t


This last expression shows how the tempearture T of the object changes with time.

(L/R) ln (E)- (L / R) ln(E - R i) = t

ln[E/(E - Ri)] = t(R/L)

Change into exponential form

[E/(E - Ri)] = e
t(R/L)


Solve for i to obtain

i = (E/R) (1-e
-Rt/L
)

The starting model for the circuit is a differential equation which when solved, gives an
expression of the current in the circuit as a function of time.
owth model.

12. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS IN
ENGINEERING
1. A.PRAVEEN KUMAR REDDY,1
ST
ECE,AITS,RAJAMPET-516216
praveenkumarreddya@gmail.com
2. G.SRAVAN KUMAR,1
ST
ECE, AITS, RAJAMPET-516216.
sravan_friendofu@yahoo.com
Abstract:
Mathematics is related to Engineering aspects in one or the other way from the
ancient days. A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown
function of one or several variables that relates the values of the function itself and its
derivatives of various orders. Differential equations arise in many areas of science
and technology, specifically whenever a deterministic relation involving some
continuously varying quantities (modelled by functions) and their rates of change in
space and/or time (expressed as derivative) is known or postulated. This paper gives a
clear picture of how Differential equations play a significant role in engineering
applications, of which few examples are discussed.
INTRODUCTION:
A differential equation is a mathematical equation for unknown function of one or more several
variables that relates the value of function. A differential equation is just an equation that relates
the value of function to its derivatives.Differential equations play a prominent role in
engineering, physics, economics and other fields. Differential have many applications in
engineering field such as chemical, mechanical , electronics, control systemand signal system.
DIFINITION:
An equation involving derivatives of one or more dependent variables with respect to one or
more independent variables is called a differential equation.
TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
There are two types of differential equations
(1) Ordinary differential equation
(2) Partial differential equation
(1) ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:The derivatives in the equations are
ordinary that equation is known as ordinary differential equation.
The general form of an ordinary differential equation is f(x,y,

2
,...........

)
Example:

+3y=0
(2) PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:The derivatives in the equations have
reference two or more independent variables then that equation is called partial differential
equation.
Example:

+3z=0
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONSAPPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Ordinary differential equations are widely used in chemical engineering. Some of the
applications in chemical engineering are
- Heat transfer operations
- Natural growth
- Natural decay
HEAT TRANSFER OPERATIONS:
In heat transfer operations i explain about Newtons Law of Cooling.
Suppose a body has temperature of 100c now the body is kept at room temperature 25c.
The temperature of the body gradually decreases because heat is flow from high temperature to
low temperature. So the temperature of the body decreases from 100c to different temperatures
in different intervals of time t. To find that different intervals of time t Newton proposed

'

= ( ')
}

( ')
= }

1

log( ') = + log
Newtons Law Of Cooling
NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING :
STATEMENT:The rate of change of the temperature of a body is proportional to the
difference of the temperature of the body and that of surrounding medium.
Let T the temperature of the body at a time and T' be the temperature of its surrounding
medium. By the Newtons Law Of cooling,
}

= } ( ')
T-T'=c

T=T'+ c

LAW OF NATURAL GROWTH OR DECAY:
This is very useful to calculate the growth of bacterias in medicine field
Let N be the amount of a substance at time t and let the substance be getting
converted chemically.
The law of chemical conversion states that the rate of change of amount N of a chemically

changing substance is proportional to the amount of the substance available at that time
For Growth

=
}

= }
}

= }

1

log/= kt N=c

For Decay

=
}

= }
}

= }

1

log/= -kt N=c

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
In kinematics a particle travel a distance S in a time t .Original Function describe position of the
particle as S= f(t) .
S=
3
+ 2
2
+3 +6
distance at a time t=4 s isS=104 m
First derivative with respect to the time gives an equation of velocity
V=

V=3
2
+ 4
1
+3
Velocity at a time t=4 s is V=3(16)+44+3 V=67 m/s
Second derivative with respect to the time gives an equation of acceleration.
a =

2

a=6t+4
Acceleration at a time t=4 s is a= 28 m/
2

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS IN
ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICS
Differential equations are widely used in electronic and electric engineering some of the
applications are
- Induced emf in the coil
- Emfs of transformer
- Growth and decay current in inductor
- Sensitivity of galvanometer

INDUCED EMF IN COIL:
When a current i flows through the coil of N turns, the magnetic flux through is N. The
magnetic flux is directly proportional to the current flowing through the coil.

N
N = L=coefficient of self induction
By the law of electromagnetic induction
e=- N

=
()

e=-
()

Expression for the induced emf in the coil e=- L
()

EMFSOF TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER: A transformer is a device which transforms electric power in one circuit
into electric power of same frequency in another circuit. Thus trans former is used to transform
low voltage,high current to high voltage, low current transformer has two coils primary and
secondary.
Emf of secondary coil e= -
2

Emf of primary coil e= -
1

SENSITIVITY OF GALVANOMETER
Sensitivity of Galvanometer is calculated by using the following differential equation
Where C=torsion torque per unit twist=angle
B=Magnetic induction A= area

GROWTH AND DECAY CURRENT IN INDUCTOR:
Growth of the current in inductor is calculated by using differential equation is

= 0
E- Ri =

= }

We get i=

{1-
(

)
}
Decay current of inductor is calculated by using differential equation is

= }

We get i=

(
(/)
)
CONCLUSION:
This paper gives a clear picture of how Differential equations play a significant role in
engineering applications, of which few examples are discussed.
REFERENCES:
About this data i search the following books
1) Engineering Mathematics (Chand)
2) Intermediate Second Year Physics (Telugu Akademi)


13. APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES IN ENGINEERING




*R.Purushotham , Department of EEE, AITS ,Rajampet,Cell:9440069088,
Email : risingstarpunit@gmail.com
**G.Sravan Bharadwaj, Department of EEE,AITS,Rajampet.

ABSTRACT

MATRIX DEFINATION:
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers. Matrices have a long history of
application in solving linear equations. The Chinese textThe Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (Jiu
Zhang Suan Shu), from between 300 BC and AD 200, is the first example of the use of matrix methods to
solve simultaneous equations,
[85]
including the concept of determinants, over 1000 years before its
publication by the Japanese mathematicianSeki in 1683
[citation needed]
and the German mathematician
Leibniz in 1693. Cramer presented his rule in 1750.
Applications
There are numerous applications of matrices, both in mathematics and other sciences. Some of
them merely take advantage of the compact representation of a set of numbers in a matrix. For
example, in game theory and economics, the payoff matrix encodes the payoff for two players,
depending on which out of a given (finite) set of alternatives the players choose.
[57]
Text mining
and automated thesaurus compilation makes use of document-term matrices such as tf-idf in
order to keep track of frequencies of certain words in several documents.
[58]

Complex numbers can be represented by particular real 2-by-2 matrices via

under which addition and multiplication of complex numbers and matrices correspond to each
other. For example, 2-by-2 rotation matrices represent the multiplication with some complex
number of absolute value 1, as above. A similar interpretation is possible for quaternions.
[59]

Early encryption techniques such as the Hill cipher also used matrices. However, due to the
linear nature of matrices, these codes are comparatively easy to break.
[60]
Computer graphics uses
matrices both to represent objects and to calculate transformations of objects using affine
rotation matrices to accomplish tasks such as projecting a three-dimensional object onto a two-
dimensional screen, corresponding to a theoretical camera observation.
[61]
Matrices over a
polynomial ring are important in the study of control theory.
Chemistry makes use of matrices in various ways, particularly since the use of quantum theory to
discuss molecular bonding and spectroscopy. Examples are the overlap matrix and the Fock
matrix used in solving the Roothaan equations to obtain the molecular orbitals of the Hartree
Fock method.

Graph theory


An undirected graph with adjacency matrix
The adjacency matrix of a finite graph is a basic notion of graph theory.
[62]
It saves which
vertices of the graph are connected by an edge. Matrices containing just two different values (0
and 1 meaning for example "yes" and "no") are called logical matrices. The distance (or cost)
matrix contains information about distances of the edges.
[63]
These concepts can be applied to
websites connected hyperlinks or cities connected by roads etc., in which case (unless the road
network is extremely dense) the matrices tend to be sparse, i.e. contain few nonzero entries.
Therefore, specifically tailored matrix algorithms can be used in network theory.
Analysis and geometry
The Hessian matrix of a differentiable function: R
n
R consists of the second derivatives of
with respect to the several coordinate directions, i.e.
[64]


It encodes information about the local growth behaviour of the function: given a critical
pointx = (x
1
, ..., x
n
), i.e., a point where the first partial derivatives of vanish, the
function has a local minimum if the Hessian matrix is positive definite. Quadratic programming
can be used to find global minima or maxima of quadratic functions closely related to the ones
attached to matrices (see above).
[65]



At the saddle point (x = 0, y = 0) (red) of the function f(x,y) = x
2
y
2
, the Hessian matrix
is indefinite.
Another matrix frequently used in geometrical situations is the Jacobi matrix of a differentiable
map f: R
n
R
m
. If f
1
, ..., f
m
denote the components of f, then the Jacobi matrix is defined as
[66]


If n>m, and if the rank of the Jacobi matrix attains its maximal value m, f is locally invertible at
that point, by the implicit function theorem.
[67]

Partial differential equations can be classified by considering the matrix of coefficients of the
highest-order differential operators of the equation. For elliptic partial differential equations this
matrix is positive definite, which has decisive influence on the set of possible solutions of the
equation in question.
[68]

The finite element method is an important numerical method to solve partial differential
equations, widely applied in simulating complex physical systems. It attempts to approximate the
solution to some equation by piecewise linear functions, where the pieces are chosen with
respect to a sufficiently fine grid, which in turn can be recast as a matrix equation.
[69]

Probability theory and statistics


Two different Markov chains. The chart depicts the number of particles (of a total of 1000) in
state "2". Both limiting values can be determined from the transition matrices, which are given
by (red) and (black).
Stochastic matrices are square matrices whose rows are probability vectors, i.e., whose entries
sum up to one. Stochastic matrices are used to define Markov chains with finitely many states.
[70]

A row of the stochastic matrix gives the probability distribution for the next position of some
particle which is currently in the state corresponding to the row. Properties of the Markov chain
like absorbing states, i.e. states that any particle attains eventually, can be read off the
eigenvectors of the transition matrices.
[71]

Statistics also makes use of matrices in many different forms.
[72]
Descriptive statistics is
concerned with describing data sets, which can often be represented in matrix form, by reducing
the amount of data. The covariance matrix encodes the mutual variance of several random
variables.
[73]
Another technique using matrices are linear least squares, a method that
approximates a finite set of pairs (x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
), ..., (x
N
, y
N
), by a linear function
y
i
ax
i
+ b, i = 1, ..., N
which can be formulated in terms of matrices, related to the singular value decomposition of
matrices.
[74]

Random matrices are matrices whose entries are random numbers, subject to suitable probability
distributions, such as matrix normal distribution. Beyond probability theory, they are applied in
domains ranging from number theory to physics.
[75][76]

Symmetries and transformations in physics
Further information: Symmetry in physics
Linear transformations and the associated symmetries play a key role in modern physics. For
example, elementary particles in quantum field theory are classified as representations of the
Lorentz group of special relativity and, more specifically, by their behavior under the spin group.
Concrete representations involving the Pauli matrices and more general gamma matrices are an
integral part of the physical description of fermions, which behave as spinors.
[77]
For the three
lightest quarks, there is a group-theoretical representation involving the special unitary group
SU(3); for their calculations, physicists use a convenient matrix representation known as the
Gell-Mann matrices, which are also used for the SU(3) gauge group that forms the basis of the
modern description of strong nuclear interactions, quantum chromodynamics. The Cabibbo
KobayashiMaskawa matrix, in turn, expresses the fact that the basic quark states that are
important for weak interactions are not the same as, but linearly related to the basic quark states
that define particles with specific and distinct masses.
[78]

Linear combinations of quantum states
The first model of quantum mechanics (Heisenberg, 1925) represented the theory's operators by
infinite-dimensional matrices acting on quantum states.
[79]
This is also referred to as matrix
mechanics. One particular example is the density matrix that characterizes the "mixed" state of a
quantum system as a linear combination of elementary, "pure" eigenstates.
[80]

Another matrix serves as a key tool for describing the scattering experiments which form the
cornerstone of experimental particle physics: Collision reactions such as occur in particle
accelerators, where non-interacting particles head towards each other and collide in a small
interaction zone, with a new set of non-interacting particles as the result, can be described as the
scalar product of outgoing particle states and a linear combination of ingoing particle states. The
linear combination is given by a matrix known as the S-matrix, which encodes all information
about the possible interactions between particles.
[81]

Normal modes
A general application of matrices in physics is to the description of linearly coupled harmonic
systems. The equations of motion of such systems can be described in matrix form, with a mass
matrix multiplying a generalized velocity to give the kinetic term, and a force matrix multiplying
a displacement vector to characterize the interactions. The best way to obtain solutions is to
determine the system's eigenvectors, its normal modes, by diagonalizing the matrix equation.
Techniques like this are crucial when it comes to the internal dynamics of molecules: the internal
vibrations of systems consisting of mutually bound component atoms.
[82]
They are also needed
for describing mechanical vibrations, and oscillations in electrical circuits.
[83]

Geometrical optics
Geometrical optics provides further matrix applications. In this approximative theory, the wave
nature of light is neglected. The result is a model in which light rays are indeed geometrical rays.
If the deflection of light rays by optical elements is small, the action of a lens or reflective
element on a given light ray can be expressed as multiplication of a two-component vector with a
two-by-two matrix called ray transfer matrix: the vector's components are the light ray's slope
and its distance from the optical axis, while the matrix encodes the properties of the optical
element. Actually, there will be two different kinds of matrices, viz. a refraction matrix
describing the refraction at a lens surface, and a translation matrix, describing the translation of
the plane of reference to the next refracting surface, where another refraction matrix will apply.
The optical system consisting of a combination of lenses and/or reflective elements is simply
described by the matrix resulting from the product of the components' matrices.
[84]

Electronics
Traditional mesh analysis in electronics leads to a system of linear equations which can be
described with a matrix.
The behaviour of many electronic components can be described using matrices. Let A be a 2-
dimensional vector with the component's input voltage v
1
and input current i
1
as its elements, and
let B be a 2-dimensional vector with the component's output voltage v
2
and output current i
2
as its
elements. Then the behaviour of the electronic component can be described by B = H A, where H
is a 2 x 2 matrix containing one impedance element (h
12
), one admittance element (h
21
) and two
dimensionless elements (h
11
and h
22
). Calculating a circuit now reduces to multiplying matrices.



14. ESTIMATION OF TRENDS IN THE DYNAMIC PRICE
STABILITY USING ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS

Reddy Deepika, Prathibha
CSE-B
Madanapalle Institute of Technology and Science, Madanapalle, India
Email: reddydeepikagurrala@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
In this paper, we present and discuss the dynamic time varying version of trend estimation and
the dynamic price stability as represented by the ordinary differential equations. These models often
underlie the analytical functions that are used in practice by actuaries and economists. We show that
the most commonly employed models in practice are analytical solutions of the basic differential
equations. Differential equations are used in many applications in real life such as engineering. For the
cases of the linear and exponential trend models, we demonstrate that these models yield the same
results. If the price of the product in the initial time period is greater than equilibrium price, then price
decreases and approaches the equilibrium price as a limit. The study finds the application in economics.
A technical note on the adjoint method is also presented. We then summarize and conclude the paper.

1. INTRODUCTION
Economics makes the assumption that human beings will aim to fulfill their self-interests.
It also assumes that individuals are rational in their efforts to fulfill their unlimited wants and
needs. Economics, therefore, is a social science, which examines people behaving according to
their self-interests. The definition set out at the turn of the twentieth century by Alfred Marshall,
author of "The Principles of Economics" (1890), reflects the complexity underlying economics:
"Thus it is on one side the study of wealth; and on the other, and more important side, a part of
the study of man."
Supply and demand is perhaps one of the most fundamental concepts of economics and
it is the backbone of a market economy. Demand refers to how much (quantity) of a product or
service is desired by buyers. The quantity demanded is the amount of a product people are
willing to buy at a certain price; the relationship between price and quantity demanded is known
as the demand relationship. Supply represents how much the market can offer. The quantity
supplied refers to the amount of a certain good producers are willing to supply when receiving a
certain price. The correlation between price and how much of a good or service is supplied to the
market is known as the supply relationship. Price, therefore, is a reflection of supply and
demand.
Equilibrium
When supply and demand are equal (i.e. when the supply function and demand function
intersect) the economy is said to be at equilibrium. At this point, the allocation of goods is at its
most efficient because the amount of goods being supplied is exactly the same as the amount of
goods being demanded. Thus, everyone (individuals, firms, or countries) is satisfied with the
current economic condition. At the given price, suppliers are selling all the goods that they have
produced and consumers are getting all the goods that they are demanding.

This figure is referred to as equilibrium price and quantity. As you can see on the chart,
equilibrium occurs at the intersection of the demand and supply curve, which indicates no
allocative inefficiency. At this point, the price of the goods will be P* and the quantity will be
Q*. In the real market place equilibrium can only ever be reached in theory, so the prices of
goods and services are constantly changing in relation to fluctuations in demand and supply.
Disequilibrium
Disequilibrium occurs whenever the price or quantity is not equal to P* or Q*.
In this paper, we estimate trends in the dynamic price stability as represented by the ordinary
differential equations (ODEs). We show that the most commonly employed models in practice are
analytical solutions of the basic differential equations. Differential equations are used in many
applications in real life such as engineering. For the cases of the linear and exponential trend models, we
demonstrate that these models yield the same results. To provide further insight into the modeling and
estimation of trends, we present and discuss in some detail the relationship between the continuous
time dynamics of the time series variable and their analytical solutions. In other words, we want to
highlight the link between the continuous time dynamics and their solutions. Dynamic estimation, i.e.,
fitting models that are represented by equations that describe the time evolution of the
economic/actuarial variables, is also performed (Ussif 2003; Ussif, Sandal and Steinshamn, 2002). In
areas such as oceanography and meteorology such dynamic parameter estimation technique is called
data assimilation (Evensen, Dee and Schroeter, 1998). The goal is to point out that such a capability
exists and can be used to perform more advanced dynamic systems estimation. This can be used to fit
nonlinear dynamic systems that arise from the relaxation of the linearity assumptions often made in
economics.
The objective of the present study is to estimate the trends in dynamic price stability using ordinary
differential equations. The structure of this paper is as follows. In the next section, we discuss the
dynamic representation of the models. This is followed by the estimation of the trends of dynamic
stability and a discussion of the results. A technical note on the analytical method is also presented. We
then summarize and conclude the paper.

2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Let ( ) P t be the price of a particular product at time t. If ( )
t
Lt P t P

= then the price for this

product is said to be dynamically stable and P is referred to as the equilibrium price.
A mathematical model often used is one that assumes there is a maximum price attainable say
M and the rate of price function is proportional to the difference between that achieved, P and that
attainable M. Mathematically , ( )
dP
k M P
dt
= .
Consider a differential equation 10 0.5 , 0
dP
P t
dt
= > (1)
Now we solve the differential equation (1), estimate P , find particular solutions that satisfy the initial
conditions (0) 40, (0) 10, (0) 20 P P P = = = and discuss the long term behaviour of the price of this
product.

3. METHOD OF SOLUTION
The differential equation (1) is a linear in P and is of first order and first degree equation, it can
be solve analytically using the Integrating Factor (IF).
Equation (1) is written as 0.5 10, 0
dP
P t
dt
+ = > (2)
The Integrating Factor (IF) =
0.5t
e
The general solution of linear differential equation (2) is,
0.5 0.5
. 10
t t
P e e dt c = +
}
(3)
0.5
0.5 0.5
1
( ) 10
0.5
t
t t
e c
P t
e e
= +

0.5
( ) 20
t
P t ce

= +
(4)
Equilibrium price P = ( )
t
Lt P t

0.5
20
t
t
Lt ce

( = +


P = 20 (5)
4. PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS:
(i) If P(0) = 40,
From equation (4),
0
(0) 20 40 20 P ce c = + = =
The solution is
0.5
( ) 20 20
t
P t e

= + (6)
(ii) If P(0) = 10,
From equation (4),
0
(0) 20 10 10 P ce c = + = =
The solution is
0.5
( ) 20 10
t
P t e

= (7)
(iii) If P(0) = 20,
From equation (4),
0
(0) 20 20 0 P ce c = + = =
The solution is ( ) 20 P t = (= P ) (8)
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
From the mathematical analysis we observed that equilibrium price P does not depend on the
constant c and consequently does not depend on the initial value of the price function P(0).









The above results are summarized as follows
I. (0) P P > , then price decreases and approaches P as a limit.
0.5
( ) 20 10
t
P t e

=
0.5
( ) 20 20
t
P t e

= +
( ) 20 P t = = P
40
20
10
Particular solutions
II. (0) P P < , then price increases and approaches P as a limit.
III. (0) P P = , then price remains constant for all t.
If the price of the product in the initial time period is greater than equilibrium price, then price
decreases and approaches equilibrium price as a limit or if the price of the product in the initial time
period is less than equilibrium price, then price increases and approaches equilibrium price as a
limit, and if the price of the product in the initial time period is equal to equilibrium price then price
remains constants for all time periods.

6. CONCLUSIONS:
A mathematical model is presented to estimate the trends in the dynamic price stability using
ordinary differential equations and analyzed graphically. We observed that, If the price of the product in
the initial time period is greater than equilibrium price, then price decreases and approaches
equilibrium price as a limit or if the price of the product in the initial time period is less than equilibrium
price, then price increases and approaches equilibrium price as a limit, and if the price of the product in
the initial time period is equal to equilibrium price then price remains constants for all time periods.

7. REFERENCES
Engineering mathematics volume-1, Dr.T.K.V.Iyengar, Dr.B.krishnagandhi, S.Ranganatham,
M.V.S.S.N.Prasad.
AText book of EngineringMathematics, B.V.Ramana.
Evensen, G., Dee, D.P. & Schroeter, J., (1998). Parameter Estimation in Dynamical Models. NATO ASI,
Ocean Modeling and Parameterizatious edited by E.P.Chassignet and J. Verron, (Eds)
Ussif A. M. Econometric Analysis of Insurance Frequency Trends: Which Model Should we Choose?
Casualty Actuarial Forum, Summer 2003.
Ussif, A.M., Leif, S.K. and Steinshamn, S.I. 2002. Estimation of Biological and Economic Parameters of a
Bioeconomic Fisheries Model Using Dynamical Data Assimilation. Journal of Bioeconomics. 4:39-
48.


















15. APPLICATION OF MATRIX IN GRAPH THEORY
N. SHIREESHA
nettem.sirisha@gmail.com.
Mobile : 9493368703.
GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
GOOTY, ANANTAPUR (DIST), (A.P.) 515401.


Abstract
In recent times the study of graphs associated with some number theoretic concepts and
functions like Euler totient function |(n) and other arithmetical functions and algebraic structures like
quasigroups, loops and groups has gained importance. Many authors find the shortest path problems in
graph theory. But we present the shortest path between different areas by using matrix representation.
Introduction

We now delve into our first application in graph theory which shows its face in communications,
sociology, business, transportation sciences and many other fields. I begin by stating the basic
definitions.
1.Definition: A graph is an ordered pair (G, R) consisting of a non empty set G and a relation R on G. So
the edge xy determind by the vertices is also represented by the ordered pair (x, y).

2.Definition: Digraph (Directed Graph) : Digraph is a set of points P
1
, P
2
, P
n
called verticles and
ordered pair of points P
i
P
J
are called edges.

3.Definition: A digraph can have a vertex that does not belong to any edge or two points that are
connected by edges in both directions.

Example : The digraph with points P,Q,R,S and edges PQ, QP, PR and QR is shown below.

Let G be a digraph with n vertices then the adjency matrix of A is written A(G) is the
nxn matrix with A(G)
ij
equal to 1 if P
i
P
J
is an edge and zero otherwise.
Example : The adjacency matrix of the graph in the above example is

4.Theorem:[1]

Let A(G) be the adjacency matrix of a digraph G then the number of r stage accesses that P
i
has
to P
J
given by [A(G)
r
] thus the total number of ways that Pi has access to P
J
in r or fewer stages is the (I
J)
th
element of the matrix

A(G) + A(G)
2
+ - - - - - + A(G)
r


Example :

Five students A, B, C, D and E have formed a study group. A has C and D phone numbers, B has
Es number, C has D and Es numbers, D has A and Bs numbers and D has everyones number then graph
of it as shown below.




The adjancency matrix of it is





Now my aim is number of ways of getting phone numbers from one to another in shortly


Example : I can calculate no of ways A getting Bs phone number using no more than two edges.





To find out how many ways there are of A getting Bs number using no more than two edges we
just take the 12
th
element of this matrix. This is 1. so there is exactly one way of A getting Bs number
using no more than two edges.
Strongly connected graphs:

5.Definition: A graph is called strongly connected if for every two distinct vertices Pi and P
J
there is a
path leading from P
i
to P
J
and from P
J
to P
i
. Otherwise they are not strongly connected.
Example :
Consider the digraph below

The adjacency matrix is

Now by above theorem


We see that this matrix has no zero entries. So the graph is strongly connected.

From this example, I find out that there is a way from one vertex to another vertex. So if the
vertices presents the streets corners and edges presents the roads then from the above there is a link to
one street to another street then civil engineers wants to ensure that a car can get from any street
corner to another corner. The post man, new papers circulated bots etc., are very easy to move one
street to another street with in the short distance by using the example.
This idea also applies to network systems such as telephone lines.

6.Some more Applicantions :

I). To find the shortest path between different areas.
ii). To calculate the winning possible probability of players or countries in different games and
other fields.
iii). To find the relations between persons as described in semigroup theory in sociology.
iv). To solve the system of linear equations.
v). To calculate the gain and loss value of the shares in the market and different companies.
Reference
*1+. Parthasathy.K.R : Basic Graph Theory, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi.

[2]. An introduction to Graph theory by Narasingh Deo

16. APPLICATIONS OF MATRIX IN CURVE FITTING
A.srujana
Gates institute of technology
Gooty , anantapur (Dist), (A.P)-515401.
email :sujjialnmurthy@gmail.com
Abstract:
The data is plotted on a graph paper and a curve is drawn through the
plotted points. This is the usual method to fit a mathematical equation to experimental
data. The method of matrix transformation is the most systematic procedure to fit a
unique curve through the given points. Its applications are wide in practical computations.
Introduction:
1. Definitation: The rectangular array of elements is called Matrix.
2. Definitation: General problems of finding the equation of an approximate curves which
fits the given data is Curve Fitting.
In our engineering syllabus linear, non linear, exponential, power of variable and variable power
constant curves can be fit by using least square method but I fit the these type of curves by using
matrix method
So the method of matrix transformation is the most systematic procedure to fit a unique
curve through the given points.
3. Multiple linear fitting :
General procedure to fit curve
Consider a data set of the form

Suppose that we search for a data fitting of the form
y = b
0
+ b
1
x
1
+ b
2
x
2
+ b
3
x
3
+.+ b
n
x
n
.
We can obtain least square approximation to the value of the coefficients
B = [b
0
b
1
b
2
..b
n
] (1)
By putting together the matrix

X =
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

nm m m m
n
n
n
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
. . . 1
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . 1
. . . 1
. . . 1
3 2 1
3 33 23 13
2 32 22 12
1 31 21 11

Then, the vector of coefficient is obtain from
B = (X
T
.X)
-1
.X
T
.Y,
Where y is the vector.
X
1
X
2
X
3
. X
n
Y
x
11
x
21
x
31
.. x
n1
y
1

x
12
x
22
x
32
x
n2
y
2

x
13
x
23
x
33
x
n3
y
3

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
X
1n
X
2n
X
3n
. x
nm
y
m
Y = [y
1
y
2
y
3
.y
m
]
T

By substituting the values of B in (1) required linear equation.
4. Example: Use the following data to obtain the multiple linear fitting.
y = b
0
+ b
1
x
1
+ b
2
x
2
+ b
3
x
3

x
1
x
2
x
3
y

1.2 3.1 0.2 5.7
2.5 3.1 2.5 8.2
3.5 4.5 2.5 5.0
4.0 4.5 3.0 8.2
6.0 5.0 3.5 9.5

First , enter the vectors x
1
, x
2
, x
3
and y as row vectors.
x
1
= [1.2 2.5 3.5 4.5 6.0]
x
2
= [3.1 3.1 4.5 4.5 5.0]
x
3
= [2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.5]
y = [5.7 8.2 5.0 8.2 9.5]
Next, we form matrix X and replace y by its transpose.
X =
(
(
(
(
(
(

5 . 3 0 . 5 0 . 6 0 . 1
0 . 3 5 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 1
5 . 2 5 . 4 5 . 3 0 . 1
5 . 2 1 . 3 5 . 2 0 . 1
0 . 2 1 . 3 2 . 1 0 . 1

The vector of coefficients for the multiple linear equation is calculated as
B = (X
T
.X)
-1
(X
T
.Y)
B =
(
(
(
(
(
(

0941849 . 7
7850398 . 1
7144632 . 0
1649851 . 2


Thus , the multiple linear regression equation is
y = -2.1649851-0.7144632x
1
-1.7850398x
2
+7.0941849x
3

This function can be used to evaluate y for values of x given as [x
1
, x
2
, x
3
]
For example , for [x
1
, x
2
, x
3
] = [3, 4, 2] then the vector X is
X = [1 3 4 2]
Y = XB
Y = [1 3 4 2]
(
(
(
(
(
(

0941849 . 7
7850398 . 1
7144632 . 0
1649851 . 2

Y = 2.739836
Now verifying it for the above data i.e the fitted values of y corresponding to the
values of x
1
, x
2
and x
3
from the table are obtain from y = XB
Y=
(
(
(
(
(
(

4526839 . 9
2270378 . 8
0371769 . 5
2506958 . 8
6324056 . 5

Compare these fitted values with original data as shown in the table below
X
1
X
2
X
3
y Y fitted
1.20 3.10 2.0 5.7 5.63
2.5 3.1 2.5 8.2 8.25
3.5 4.5 2.5 5.0 5.03
4.0 4.5 3.0 8.2 8.22
6.0 5.0 3.5 9.5 9.45

From the above table we observe that y and y fitted values are approximately equal
Similarly we can fit the polynomial (non linear curve) by continuing the same process
with small changes.
5. Some other applications:
i. To calculate variable values of system of linear equations in different fields
ii. To calculate areas and volumes of triangle , rectangle, rhombus, cone, cylinder,
hyperbola e.t.c in geometry.
iii. To calculate rankings of players and countries in different games
iv. Matrices are used in coding and decoding theory of automata computer and synthetic
analysis.
Reference:
[1] Urroz,G., 2000, Science and Engineering Mathematics with the HP 49G- Volume I and II,
Charleston, S.C.





17. APPLICATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1.D.SUKANYA,I ECE, AITS Rajampet,sujitha4a0@gmail.com
2. B.SUJITHA GOWRI
,
I ECE, AITS Rajampet

Abstract
A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or
several variables that relates the values of the function itself and its derivatives of various
orders. Differential equations play a prominent role in engineering, physics, economics
and other disciplines.Differential equations arise in many areas of science and technology:
whenever a deterministic relationship involving some continuously varying quantities (modeled
by functions) and their rates of change in space and/or time (expressed as derivatives) is
known or postulated. This is illustrated in classical mechanics, where the motion of a
body is described by its position and velocity as the time varies. Newton's Laws allow
one to relate the position, velocity, acceleration and various forces acting on the body and
state this relation as a differential equation for the unknown position of the body as a
function of time. In some cases, this differential equation






INTRODUCTION
In this paper we consider the ordinary differential equation which plays a basic role in
science and engineering. Some standard methods of solving ordinary equations of first order and
first degree are presented. The process of determining the orthogonal trajectories through
differential equations is also illustrated. A differential equation is an equation involving
derivatives of an unknown function with respect to one or more independent variables.in general
we have to find the unknown function satisfying the equation and also some prescribed
conditions.
There exits many real world phenomena which can be described through either
differential equations involving ordinary derivatives or partial derivatives. Every branch of
science and engineering will be dealing with rate measure problems which involve differential
equations. Differential equations are encountered in particle dynamics, rigid dynamics, fluid
mechanics, elasticity, heat transfer, electrical engineering, chemical process, economics, and
anthropology.
DEFINATION
An equation involving a dependent variable and its derivatives with respect to one or
more independent variables is called a differential equation.
The differential equations are two types
a) Ordinary differential equation:
A differential equation is said to ordinary if the derivatives in the equation are ordinary
derivatives.
Example: (dy/dx)
3
- (dy/dx
)
+7y=cos x

b) Partial differential equations:
A differential equation is said to be partial if the derivatives in the equation have reference
to two or more independent variables.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE
Order of differential equation:
A differential equation is said to be of order n, if n
th
derivative is the highest derivative in
that equation.
Example: (x
2
+1)dy/dx+2xy=4x
2
dydxis the highest derivative , order=1.
Degree of differential equation:
The degree of differential equation is the degree of highest differential coefficient.
Example: 1+dy/dx
4
= a
2
d
2
ydx2
3

Degree = 3
In general first order and first degree differential equations can be classified as below
1. Exact and non-exact equations
2. Linear equations
3. Bernoullis equations.

1.a) EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
Let Mdx+Ndy =0 be the first order first degree differential equation where M and N are the
functions of x and y. Then the equation Mdx+Ndy =0 is said to be the exact differential equation.
If My=Nx
Then the solution is Mdx+term N is not contain xdy=c
1.b) NON EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
The non-exact differential equations can be made exact after multiplying suitable
function such function is called integrating factor.
Rule for finding Integration Factor:
a) Mx+Ny =0 is homogeneous function in x and y i.e., M, N are homogeneous functions of
same degree in x and y. Then
Integration factor =
Ny Mx +
1

b) If the equation in the form y f
1
(x,y)dx + xf
2
(x,y)dy=0 , Then

Integration factor =
Ny Mx
1

c) If the equation is in the form of Mdx+Ndx=0 and it satisfies the condition
My-Nx N = f(x) then
Integration Factor =efxdx
d) If the equation is in the form of Mdx+Ndx=0 and it satisfies the condition
Nx-My M = f(y) then
Integration Factor = ef(y)dy
2) LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:
An equation of the form dydx + P(x) y = Q(x) the solution of the differential equation is
y(I.F) = QxI.F dx +c
Where,
I.F=ePxdx
3) BERNOULLIS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
An equation of the form dydx + P(x) y = Q(x)y
n
is called Bernoullis differential equation.
The Solution for Bernoullis differential equation can be obtained by changing the
Bernoullis differential equation into linear differential equation.
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:
The applications of differential equations are
Newtons law of cooling
Orthogonal Trajectories
Natural growth and decay
1. Newtons law of cooling:
The rate of change of the temperature of a body is proportional to the difference of the
temperature of the body and that of surrounding medium.
i.e.

(T-T
0
)

=-k(T-T
0
)
Separate the variable
0
1
T T
dT=-kt
Integrating on both sides we get T=T
0
+c.

2) Orthogonal Trajectories:
A curve which cuts every member of a given family of curves at a right angle is an
orthogonal trajectory of the given family.
Working rules:
(i) For Cartesian form:
To find the family of orthogonal trajectories in Cartesian form
Let F(x,y,c)=0
Eliminate c from above equation and obtained the differential equation
F(x,y,y)=0
Replace

by -

, then the differential equation of the family of orthogonal
trajectories is
F(x,y,-

)=0.

(ii) For polar form:
To find the family of orthogonal trajectories in Cartesian form
Let F(r,,c)=0
Eliminate c from above equation and obtained the differential equation
F(r,,

)=0
Replace

by
2

, then the differential equation of the family of orthogonal

trajectories is
F(r,,
2

)=0.
3) LAW OF NATURAL GROWTH AND DECAY:
If the rate of change of quantity is proportional to quantity present at any time t. let y be
the quantity then

y
For growth

= ky by integrating ,we get

Y= c.

where k>0
For decay

= - ky by integrating ,we get

Y= c.

where k>0
Application of differential equation in Newtons law of cooling:
If the temperature of the air is 20
0
c and the temperature of the body drops from 100
0
c
to80
0
c in 10 minutes. What will be the temperature after 20 minutes, when will be the
temperature is 40
0
c ?
Sol:
T be the temperature of the body
T
0
be the temperature of the air
By Newtons law of cooling

(T-T
0
)
By integrating we get T-T
0
=c.

T
0
=20
0
c then T-20 = c.

(1)
t=0, T=100
0
c substitute in equation (1) we get c=80 then the equation becomes
T-20= 80

..(2)
t=10, T=80
0
c substitute in equation (2) we get
10
= 3/4
t=20 and
10
substitute in equation (2) we get T=65
0
c
So the temperature of the body will be 65
0
c after 20 minutes.
Put T=40
0
c in equation (2)
Then
20=80

t
=1/4 where

=
4
3

1/10

Then t=
) 4 / 3 log(
) 4 / 1 log( 10

Therefore,
the temperature of the body will be 65
0
c after 20 minutes and t=
) 4 / 3 log(
) 4 / 1 log( 10
at 40
0
c.
We consider the ordinary differential equation which plays a basic role in science and
engineering. Some standard methods of solving ordinary equations of first order and first degree
are presented. The process of determining the orthogonal trajectories through differential
equations is also illustrated.


REFERENCE:
1. Engineering mathematics volume-1,Dr.T.K.V.Iyengar,Dr.B.krishnagandhi, S.Ranganatham
M.V.S.S.N.Prasad
2.Text Book of Engineering Mathematics B.V.Ramana.
3.Text Book of Engineering Mathematics Thomson Book collection.




















18. APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES IN ENGINEERING

1. A.VEENA, ROLL NUM:10701A04B1, ECE, AITS, RAJAMPET
e-mail:veenareddyavula@gmail.com
2. U.VENI, ROLL NUM:10701A04B2, ECE, AITS, RAJAMPET
e-mail:venireddy.obireddy@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:
In this we study the nature of solution of a system of linear equations with the help of rank and
its related procedures. We shall first considered system of homogeneous linear equations, and
then proceed to discuss the system of non- homogeneous linear equations.
Here we will briefly review some definations, types and applications of matrices in engineering
field.


INTRODUCTION:
Cayley discovered matrices in the year 1860, but it was not until the 20
th

centuary was well advanced that engineers head of them. This days however matrices have been
found to be great utility in many branches of applied mathematics such as algebraic and
differential equations, mechanics theory of electrical circuits, nuclear physics, aerodynamics and
astronomy with the use of computers, the use of matrix methods have been greatly facilitated.
The student are already familiar with the definations and properties of a matrix.
Hence we will briefly review some.
(a).DEFINATION OF A MATRIX:
The arrangement of elements in a rectangular array having m rows and n columns is called a
m*n matrix. In generally m*n matrix can be represented as

A11 a12 a13..a1n
A21 a22 a23a2
A = .
..
Am1 am2 am3..amn m*n
(b).TYPES OF MATRICES:
There are different types of matrices.
(1).COMPLEX MATRIX:
A matrix in which atleast one element is imaginary is called a complex matrix.


Ex: 2 0 i
3 4 2+3i

(2)DIAGONAL MATRIX:
A square matrix in which all non diagonal elements are zero is called a diagonal matrix.
Ex: 12 0 0
0 4 0
0 0 15 3*3
(3).UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX:
A square matrix in which all the elements below the principle diagonal are zero is called upper
triangular matrix,
Ex: 1 2 6
0 4 3
0 0 2 3*3
(4).SINGULAR MATRIX:
A square matrix A is said to be singular if its determinant is equal to zero.
Ex: 1 2
3 6 2*2

(5).INVERSE MATRIX:
Let A be a square matrix then a matrix B is exists such that AB=BA=I then B is called
inverseof A and it is denoted by A~1
APPLICATIONS:
(1).Matrices have a wider applications engineering. many problems can be transformed into
simultaneous equations and their solutions can easily find with the help of matrices.
(2).Echolongs form is used to find rank of a matrix.
(3).Display of screen , memory in RAM and in hard disk in networking field.
(4).Complex number are used in variety of fields, one of them is electrical engineering.as
soon as AC circuits are
Analysed.
(5).Matrices are used basically to solve linear equations.equations are generally solved to get
value of unknown variables.
APPLICATION S BY USING SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
There are two types.
(1).Homogeneous
(2).Non- homogeneous
HOMOGENEOUS:
The given system will be reduced on AX=0 which is known as homogeneous system of linear
equations.
CONSISTENT
If the system of linear equation have one or more solutions, then the system is said to be
consistent.
INCONSISTENT:
If the system of linear equations have no solution is said to be inconsistent.
CONDITIONS FOR HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS:
The system of homogeneous equation AX=0 are always consistent.since X=0,Y=0.Z=0 be a
solution of AX=0 this solution is called a zero solution or null solution or trivial solution.
(1).If rank of A=no. of unknowns, the system ofAX=0 will have a trivial solution.
(2).If rank of A<n0. Of unknowns,the system AX=0 will have infinite no. of solutions.
EXAMPLE FOR HOMOGENEOUSEQUATION:
Given that,
(1-k)x+2y+3z=0
3x+(1-k)y+2z=0
2x+3y+(1-k)z=0


We write AX=0
1-K 2 3 X 0
3 1-K 2 Y = 0
2 3 1-K Z 0
Consider det A=0
1-K 2 3
3 1-K 2 = 0
2 3 1-K
R1=R1+R2+R3
6-K 6-K 6-K
3 1-K 2 =0
2 3 1-K
1 1 1
3 1-K 2 ( 6-K)=0
2 3 1-K
C2=C2-C1, C3=C3-C1

1 0 0
6-K 3 -K-2 -1 =0
2 1 -K-1
6-K(K*K3K+3)=0
6-K=0



K=6 is only real value and another value is complex number.
When k=6
Ax=0
-5 2 3 x
3 -5 2 y =0
2 3 -5 z
Consider AX=0
-5 2 3
3 -5 2
2 3 -5
R2=5R2+3R1,R3=5R3+2R1
-5 2 3
= 0 -19 19
0 19 -19
R3=R3+R2
-5 2 3
= 0 -19 19
0 0 0
Rank ofA=2< no.of unknowns, so it has infinite no.of solutions.
AX=0
-5 2 3 X 0
0 -19 19 Y = 0
0 0 0 Z 0

-19Y+19Z=0 -5X+2Y+3Z=0
-19(Y-Z)=0 -5X+2Z+3Z=0
Y=Z X=Z
X=Y=Z=K


NONHOMOGENEOUS LINEAREQUATION:
DEFINATION:
If atleast one of d1,d2,d3 not equal to zero in AX=B then that system is called
Nonhomogeneous linearequation.
CONDITIONS:
(1). If the rank of(A:B)=rank of(A)=no.of unknowns , then that system is said to be
consistent and has unique solution.
(2). Rank of (A:B)= rank of A <no.of unknowns, then the system is said to be
consistent and has infinite no.of solutions.
(3).Rank of (A:B) not equal to rank of A , then the system is said to be inconsistent and
has no solutions.
Ex: given x+y+z =1;x+2y+4z=k;x+4y+10z=k*k; by nonhomogeneous
Given AX=B



1 1 1 x 1
1 2 4 y = k
1 4 10 z k*k


Consider A:B=

1 1 1 1
= 1 2 4 K
1 4 10 K*K


R2=R2-R1,R3= R3-R1
1 1 1 1
= 0 1 3 K-1
0 3 9 K*K-1
R3=R3-3R2
1 1 1 1
= 0 1 3 K-1
0 0 0 K*K-3K+2
Now the equation will be consistent if and only if
K*k-3k+2=0
K*k-2k-k+2=0
K(k-2)-1(k-2)=0
K=1,2
Case(1): if k=1
Rank of A =2, rank of A:B=2
Rank of A:B= rank of =2< no.of unknown solutions
.: the system is said to be consistent and has infinite no.of solutions.
AX=B
1 1 1 x 1
0 1 3 y = 0
0 0 0 z 0
X+y+z=1
Let z=k
Y+3z=k
Y=-3k
X=2k+1
X 1+2k
Y = -3k
Z k
2 1
=K -3 + 0
1 0

Case(2). If k=20
Rank of A= rank of A:B=2
Rank of A:B= rank of A = 2< no .of unknowns
The system said to be consistent and has infinite no. of solutions .
AX=B
1 1 1 X 1
0 1 3 Y = 1
0 0 0 Z 0

X+Y+Z=1
Z=K,Y+3Z=1
Y=1-3K
X+1-3K+K=1
X=2K
X 2K
Y = 1-3K
Z K

















19.
Sri Sai institute of technology & science


Paper presentation
on

APPLICATIONS

OF

FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS






By

V. vinod kumar reddy,

Y.Santhosh,

E.C.E,

Sri Sai institute of technology & science,

Rayachoty.





ABSTRACT


In this paper we are saying about the applications of first order differential equations. In our daily life

we have so many uses with differential equations. Some of the applications of differential equations are

determination of motion of rocket - satellite - planet, growth of population, determination of charge,

current.

We would like to discuss about the real life uses of first order differential equations:

- Law of cooling / warming
- Radio active decay & carbon dating
- Population Growth and Decay















1.Cooling/Warming law:
We have seen in that the mathematical formulation of Newtons empirical law of
cooling of an object in given by the linear first-order differential equation
)
m
T (T
dt
dT
=
This is a separable differential equation. We have
dt
)
m
T (T
dT
=

or ln|T-T
m

|=ot+c
1

or T(t) = T
m
+c
2
e
ot _____________________________
(1)
Example 1: When a chicken is removed from an oven, its temperature is measured at 300
0
F. Three
minutes later its temperature is 200
o
F. How long will it take for the chicken to cool off to a room
temperature of 70
o
F.
Solution: we know that law of cooling formula
T(t) = T
m
+c
2
e
ot

put T
m
= 70 and T=300 at for t=0.
T(0)=300=70+c
2
e
o.0
This gives c
2
=230
For t=3, T(3)=200
Now we put t=3, T(3)=200 and c
2
=230 in (1) then
200=70 + 230 e
o.3
or
230
130
3
e =
or
23
13
ln 3 = o
or 19018 . 0
23
13
ln
3
1
= = o
Thus T(t)=70+230 e
-0.19018t
_________________________ (2)
We observe that (2) furnishes no finite solution to T(t)=70 since
limit T(t) =70.
t
2. Population Growth and Decay:
We have seen that the differential equation
) (
) (
t kN
dt
t dN
=
Where N(t) denotes population at time t and k is a constant of proportionality, serves as a model for
population growth and decay of insects, animals and human population at certain places and duration.
Solution of this equation is
N(t)=Ce
kt
,
where C is the constant of integration:
kdt
t N
t dN
=
) (
) (

Integrating both sides we get
lnN(t)=kt+ln C
or kt
C
t N
=
) (
ln
or N(t)=Ce
kt

C can be determined if N(t) is given at certain time.
Example 2: The population of a community is known to increase at a rate proportional to the number of
people present at a time t. If the population has doubled in 6 years, how long it will take to triple?
Solution : Let N(t) denote the population at time t. Let N(0) denote the initial population (population at
t=0).
) (t kN
dt
dN
=
Solution is N(t)=Ae
kt
, where A=N(0)
Ae
6k
=N(6) =2N(0) = 2A
or e
6k
=2 or k = ln

2
Find t when N(t)=3A=3N(0)
or N(0) e
kt
=3N(0)
or
t
e
) 2 (ln
6
1
3 =
or ln 3=
6
) 2 (ln t

or t=
2 ln
3 ln 6
~9.6 years (approximately 9 years 6 months)
Example 3 Let population of country be decreasing at the rate proportional to its population. If the
population has decreased to 25% in 10 years, how long will it take to be half?
Solution: This phenomenon can be modeled by ) t ( kN
dt
dN
=
Its solution is
6
1
N(t)=N(0) e
kt
, where
N(0) in the initial population
For t=10, N(10)= N(0)
N(0) = N(0) e
10k

or e
10k
=
4
1

or k=
10
1
ln
4
1

Set N(t)=
4
1
N(0)
) 0 ( N
2
1
e ) 0 ( N
t
4
1
ln
10
1
=
or t=
4
1
ln
10
1
2
1
ln
~ 8.3 years approximately.
3. Radio-active Decay and Carbon Dating :
As discussed a radioactive substance decomposes at a rate proportional to its mass. This rate is
called the decay rate. If m(t) represents the mass of a substance at any time, then the decay rate
dt
dm
is proportional to m(t). Let us recall that the half-life of a substance is the amount of time for it to decay
to one-half of its initial mass.
Example 4. A radioactive isotope has an initial mass 200mg, which two years later is 50mg. Find the
expression for the amount of the isotope remaining at any time. What is its half-life?
4
1
4
1
Solution: Let m be the mass of the isotope remaining after t years, and let -k be the constant of
proportionality. Then the rate of decomposition is modeled by
dt
dm
= - km,
where minus sign indicates that the mass is decreasing. It is a separable equation. Separating
the variables, integrating, and adding a constant in the form lnc, we get
lnm+lnc = - kt
Simplifying,
lnmc = - kt __________________________ (1)
or mc = e
-kt

or m = c
1
e
-kt
, where c
1
=
c
1

To find c
1
, recall that m =200 when t=0. Putting these values of m and t in (1) we get
200 = c
1
e
-ko
= c
1
.1
or c
1
=200
and m = 200e
-kt
______________________ (2)
The value of k may now be determined from (2) by substituting t=2, m=150.
150 = 200 e
-2k

or
4
3
2
=
k
e
or 2k=ln
4
3

This gives
2
1
3
4
ln
2
1
k = = (0.2877)= 0.1438 ~ 0.14
The mass of the isotope remaining after t years is then given by
m(t) =200e
-.1438t

The half-life t
h
is the time corresponding to m=100mg.
Thus
100 = 200 e
-0.14t
h

or
2
1
= e
-0.14t
h
or t
h
= - years 95 . 4
14 . 0
693 . 0
5 . 0 ln
14 . 0
1
=

=



3.1 Carbon Dating: The key to the carbon dating of paintings and other materials such as fossils
and rocks lies in the phenomenon of radioactivity discovered at the turn of the century. The physicist
Rutherford and his colleagues showed that the atoms of certain radioactive elements are unstable and
that within a given time period a fixed portion of the atoms spontaneously disintegrate to form atoms of
a new element. Because radioactivity is a property of the atom, Rutherford showed that the
radioactivity of a substance is directly proportional to the number of atoms of the substance present.
Thus, if N(t) denotes the number of atoms present at time t, then
dt
dN
, the number of atoms that
disintegrate per unit time, is proportional to N; that is,
=
dt
dN
N --------------------------------------- (1)
The constant , which is positive, is known as the decay constant of the substance. The larger is, the
faster the substance decays.
To compute the half life of substance in terms of , assume that at time t=t
0
, N(t
0
)=N
0
. The
solution of the initial value problem
=
dt
dN
N
N(t
0
) = N
0
---------------------------------- (2)
is
N(t)=N
0
e
-(t-t
o
)
or
o
N
N
e
-(t-t
o
)
Taking logarithms of both sides we obtain
- (t-t
0
)=ln
o
N
N
--------------------------------------------- (3)
If
o
N
N
=
2
1
, then - (t-t
0
)=ln
2
1
, so that
t-t
0
=

6931 . 0

2 ln

Thus the half life of a substance is ln2 divided by the decay constant .
The half-life of many substances have been determined and are well published. For example,
half-life of carbon-14 is 5568 years, and the half-life of uranium 238 is 4.5 billion years.
Remark a) In (1) is positive and is decay constant. We may write
equation (1) in the form
=
dt
dN
N, where is negative constant, that is, <0.
b) The dimension of is reciprocal time. It t is measured in years, then has the dimension of
reciprocal years, and if t is measured in minutes, then has the dimension of reciprocal
minutes.
c) From (3) we can solve for
t-t
0
=
N
N
ln
1
o

-------------------------------------- (4)
If t
0
is the time the substance was initially formed or manufactured, then the age of the
substance is
N
N
ln
1
0

. The decay constant is known or can be computed in most cases. N can be

computed quite usually. Computation or pre-knowledge of N
0
will yield the age of the substance.
By the Libbys discovery the present rate R(t) of disintegration of the C-14 in the sample is given
by R(t)= N(t)= N
0
e
-t
and the original rate of disintegration is R(o)=N
0
. Thus
t
e
R
t R

=
) 0 (
) (
so that
t=
) (
) (
ln
1
t R
o R

------------------------------------ (5)
d) If we measure R(t), that present rate of disintegration of the C-14 in the charcoal and observe
that R(o) must equal the rate of disintegration of the C-14 in the comparable amount of living wood
then we can compute the age t of the charcoal.
e) The process of estimating the age of an artifact is called carbon dating.
Example 6 : Suppose that we have an artifact, say a piece of fossilized wood, and measurements show
that the ratio of C-14 to carbon in the sample is 37% of the current ratio. Let us assume that the wood
died at time 0, then compute the time T it would take for one gram of the radio active carbon to decay
this amount.
Solution: we know that
km
dt
dm
=
This is a separable differential equation. Write it in the form
kdt dm
m
=
1

Integrate it to obtain
ln|m|=kt+c
Since mass is positive, lml=m and
ln(m)=kt+c.
Then
m(t) = e
kt+c
=Ae
kt
, where A = e
c
is positive constant. Let at some time, designated at time zero,
there are M grams present. This is called the initial mass. Then
m(o) = A = M, so
m(t) = Me
kt.

If at some later time T we find that there are M
T
grams, then
m(T) = M
T
= Me
kT
.
Then
kT
M
M
ln
T
= |
.
|

\
|

hence
|
.
|

\
|
=
M
T
M
T
k ln
1

This gives us k and determines the mass at any time:
m(t) =
|
.
|

\
|
M
M
ln
T
t
T
Me
Let T= be the time at which half of the mass has radiated away, that is, half-life. At this time,
half of the mass remains, so M
T
=M/2 and M
T
/M =
2
1
.
Now the expression for mass becomes
m(t) =
)
2
1
ln(
t
Me

or m(t) =
2 ln
t
Me

Half-life of C-14 is 5600 years approximately, that is,
= 5600
00012378 . 0
5600
2 ln
~
~ means approximately equal (all decimal places are not listed).
Therefore
m(t)=Me
-0.00012378t

or
t
e
M
t m
00012378 . 0
37 . 0
) (

= =
by the given condition that
M
t m ) (
is .37 during t.
T= - =
00012378 . 0
) 37 . 0 ln(
8031 years approximately.