Physical Geography Chapter 3: Rivers and Coasts

Chapter 3.1: The River System

Chapter Outline: Parts of the River System

volume, it has high energy. Factors affecting Speed (GRoW) Gradient: Refers to When it is steep (upper how steep the river course), the flow of water is. is faster, thus the speed increases. Roughness of When there are more Channel: Refers to obstacles, there is more how rough the river friction, thus the speed is is. reduced. Wetted Perimeter: The larger the wetted Refers to the area perimeter, the more (length and friction the river has, thus breadth) in contact the speed decreases. with the river. Affected by the shape of the river channel Factors affecting Volume (PVCD) Permeability of The more permeable the Rocks: Refers to rocks are, the lesser the how well the rocks surface area, thus leading can absorb the to lesser volume. water. Vegetation Cover: The more vegetation there Refers to how are, more rainwater much vegetation infiltrate the ground and there are near the more rain is intercepted by river. plants, thus lesser surface runoff, leading to lesser volume. Climate: Refers to Distinct wet and dry the rainfall and climate volume of river temperature of an drops. area for a long Dry: Low volume of water period of time (e.g. throughout the year. 30 years) Hot and Wet: High volume of water. Drainage Basin: The bigger the drainage Refers to the size basin, the larger the of the river system surface area, thus the that collects volume of the river rainwater. It increases. comprises of steam and rivers. Extra: Type of Soil. The more porous the soil, the more water absorbed into it, thus less surface runoff and thus leads to lower volume. O Level Questions 1. Why do some rivers have a greater volume than others? [5m]

1. 3 Courses: Lower, Middle, Upper. a. Upper Course: Where the stream begins
and many small streams and channels join up to form larger streams which join to form a river. b. Middle Course: River starts to meander as many tributaries join the river c. Lower Course: Meanders are common, many distributaries, river flows towards its mouth and enters the sea. Delta may form at river mouth. Watershed: A boundary that surrounds the drainage basin. Drainage Basin: A river system that collects rainwater and comprises of streams and rivers Tributaries: Streams that flow in the river which is mainly found in the upper course. Distributaries: Branch out from the river which is mainly found in the river delta. Confluence: The point where the tributaries join the main river. River Mouth: Place where the river meets the ocean River Delta: Landform created at the mouth of the sea where the river flows into. It is formed by the deposition of the sediment carried by the river as it flows into the sea. 3 main courses of the river (detailed): Middle Wider than upper course. Lower Wider than middle course (lateral erosion) Large volume (combined from the tributaries) Gentle (deposition takes place here) Floodplains / Deltas / River Mouth

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.

Upper Narrow and shallow channel due to vertical erosion. Small volume

Moderate volume Less steep

Steep gradient (higher speed, higher energy) River source

Tributaries

Chapter 3.2: Energy of River

Chapter Outline: Factors affecting the energy of a river: GRoW + PVCD

Chapter 3.3: River Processes

Chapter Outline: Processes of a river: Erosion (CASH), Transportation (SSST) and Deposition

1. When the river has both high speed and high

1. Erosion is the wearing down of banks and

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bed of a river and removal of the eroded materials by the action of gravity and moving water. a. In the middle course, lateral erosion becomes more prominent as the speed of flow increases, leading to greater discharge and thus a much bigger, deeper and higher speed of flow. b. A river can erode materials in 4 ways:

i. Corrasion (Abrasion), ii. Attrition, iii. Solution (Corrosion), and iv. Hydraulic Action
River erosional processes (CASH) Corrasion, also known as This widens and abrasion, is an erosional deepens the river process where the river channel as more uses its load (rock) to rocks are worn scrap and grind against down and carried the channels walls and away by the river. bed, wearing them down. Agent: Rock Fragments Attrition is the process This leads to the whereby rock fragments breaking down of carried by the water knock rock fragments into against each other. It does smaller pieces, not affect the bed/bank, causing them to only size of river load. become smoother Agent: Rock fragments and rounded in the process. Solution is the process A solution is whereby the water in the formed. For river reacts chemically instance, limestone with the minerals in the dissolves when rocks. water contains CO2 Agent: Acidic Water Hydraulic Action refers The water enters to the action of flowing cracks and breaks water that hits against the loose pieces of river banks and river bed. rock. The fragments Agent: Fast flowing water are then carried down by the river.

River transportation processes (SSST) Traction Occurs when there are large boulders that are too heavy to be lifted up by the water in the river, causing them to roll and slide along the river bed. E.g. Pebbles. (lots of energy required) Saltation Occurs when larger particles such as gravel are part of the river load. They are too heavy to be suspended, thus they bounce or hop along the river bed. E.g. Silt. Suspensio Suspended materials are fine n particles that are kept from settling down on the river bed by the flow of water. A large quantity of this, especially during floods, will cause the water to look cloudily. E.g. Gravels Solution Occurs when readily soluble rocks like limestone dissolve in water to form a solution which is transported downstream. (Dissolved materials) N.B. Not affected by river energy. 3. River Deposition: A river may deposit its load along the course when: a. Volume of flow is reduced, or b. Speed of flow is decreased. c. It is most commonly found at the lower course where gradient is gentle, and the load carried is at maximum.

d. The coarser and heavier load will be

deposited first whereas the finer particles will be transported into the sea or lake. 4. Dominant Process at Different Parts of River Course:

a. Upper Course: Dominated by Vertical

Erosion. b. Middle course: Erosive ability increases due to lesser friction. c. Lower Course: Deposition and Lateral Erosion.

N.B. Agent: The object that causes the process to occur.

2. Rivers transport their load in several ways depending on the size of the particles in the loads, and the speed and volume of flow. River load can be transported by: a. Traction, b. Saltation, c. Suspension, or d. Solution.

d. River transportation process occurs

throughout the river course as the amount of load transported increases progressively towards the river mouth in the lower course. The size of sediments also decreases.

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5. River discharge is the volume of water that flows through a point along the river channel within a given time.

2. Summary of Landforms:

Chapter 3.4: River Landforms

1. River Landforms can be categorized into 3 types: a. Erosional, b. Depositional, and

Erosional: Valleys, Waterfalls

Floodplains ,Leeves, Deltas, Distributari es

Both: Meanders and Oxbow Lakes

c. Erosional and Depositional

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Chapter 3.5: River Management Strategies

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a. Whether erosion takes place is determined by the amount of energy the wave possesses. b. The wave energy is affected by 3 main factors:

Chapter 3.6: Coasts (Introduction)

Currents are ocean currents that flow parallel to a coast. They are formed by waves that approach the coasts at an angle.

Wind Energy Duration of Wind Fetch

The faster the wind speed, the greater the wave energy. The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves Fetch refers to the distance of the sea over which wind blows to generate waves. The greater the fetch, the more energy the waves have.

2. Process of Erosion:

a. As waves approach the shore, the water

becomes shallower, and the friction of the waves against the surface of the sea floor slows down its movement.

b. As a result, this frictional force causes the

Chapter 3.7: Coastal Processes

1. Erosion occurs when waves wear away the
rocks along the coast and carry away the eroded materials.

waves to rise and bend forward, and eventually collapse into foaming water. (ref. fig. 2)

c. The forward movement of the wave to

the shore is called the swash, whereas the flow back to the sea due to gravity is

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the backwash.

6. Coastal Transportation is the process

whereby sediments are transported along coasts. One way this is done is through longshore drifts.

3. There are 2 types of waves: Constructive and

Destructive waves. Swash Backwash Wave Height Dominant Process Wave Frequency Constructive Stronger Weaker Lower Deposition 6 8 wave/min Destructive Weaker Stronger Longer Erosion 10 14 wave/min

4. Factors affecting Erosion: Less resistant rocks erode faster; rocks with more lines of weaknesses enable waves to attack easily. <<This limestone cave is formed by erosion. A coast exposed to strong onshore winds will be more susceptible to erosion. Erosion intensifies when there are strong prevailing onshore winds. Sea walls and breakwaters are built to reduce marine erosion.

When waves approach the coasts at an angle, the swash carries the materials in the water to the beach at an angle whereas the backwash pulls the materials perpendicularly down the beach due to gravity. This results in a zigzag movement of the materials along the beach, also known as longshore drift. The direction of the longshore drift is affected by the direction of the wind. Longshore drift is thus a powerful process capable of moving large amount of beach materials along the direction of movement.

Rock Composition/ Structure Location of coast

Climate

7. Deposition occurs when small/low energy

waves lay down sediments along the coast.

Human Interference

a. Caused by constructive waves (Swash >

Backwash) b. Lack of energy can be due to decrease in wind speed or increase in size of sediments.

5. Processes of Coastal Erosion Abrasion / Corrasion Attrition Refers to the impact of materials carried by waves scraping against the coast. Materials carried by waves knock against each other resulting in smaller, smoother and rounded pieces (doesnt affect coastline) Soluble minerals in rocks dissolved and removed by seawater. The direct impact of the waves against the coast. The sheer force of waves pounding against the sea cliff exerts great pressure on the cliff face. Air in the cracks may be compressed by water and pressure can widen the cracks, enlarging them and may cause the rocks to breakdown eventually.

c. It can also be caused by currents where

they meet a bend in the coast with shallow and sheltered water. d. Factors affecting deposition: Supply of Sediments Gradient of slope When wave energy is weak and the waves cannot carry their load of sediment, deposition takes place. On gentle slopes, wave energy is spread out and reduced due to friction with shore & gravitational pull, producing constructive waves. Coasts that are sheltered from strong winds and have calm coastal conditions allow deposition to take place.

Solution Hydraulic Action

Position of coast

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Chapter 3.8: Coastal Landforms and Features

Chapter 3.9: Coastal Management

1. There are 2 approaches to coastal management:

a. Hard Engineering: Refers to the

construction of physical structures such as breakwaters, groynes, seawalls and gabions to defend against the erosive power of waves.

b. Soft Engineering: Focuses on planning

and management to prevent coastal areas and property to be damaged.

Seawalls (e.g. Kallang River in Singapore)

Breakwate rs

1. They are walls built along the coast. 2. They are built along the coast which absorbs the energy of waves before they can erode away loose materials. 3. Waves breaking against seawalls direct their energy downwards, resulting in a strong backwash which wears away the base of the seawall. 4. Costly to build and maintain. 1. They are made of granite and built off the coast parallel to it. 2. Waves will break against them before reaching the coast. 3. A zone of calm water is created behind it where deposition can take place. 4. Unable to offer complete protection as they leave portions of the coast unprotected who are prone to erosion.

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Groynes

Gabions

1. They are built at right angles to the shore to prevent longshore drift. 2. They absorb/reduce the energy of the waves and cause materials to be deposited on the side of the groyne facing the longshore drift. 3. As no fresh materials are deposited on the downdrift side, that part will gradually be eroded. 4. To prevent this, the tips of groynes are sometimes angled about 5 to 10, but if failed, erosion can still take place on unprotected areas. 1. They 2. They need to are wire be maintained cages as they are filled with easily crushed corroded. rocks that 3. If not properly are piled maintained, up along the wire the shore baskets to reduce become coastal unsightly and erosion by pose a threat. weakening wave energy.

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Copyright 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.