a

~~).
. R

Fig. 7-22 The ,erie., f?l.C

circuit.

enables

us to write' the expression ILJ!. =

=-

for the"current

response - tan
17-181 )
-

V Z

RC

+ VLO (u;L

l/wC)c

~_I(tJL

R l/wC

Therefore.

the magnitude

and phase of the effective

current

are

I =
and
fJ

\'R"

"

-'- (wL _I

l/wCt l/wC

17-182) 17-183)

= - tan
is

wL ----

The corresponding -

time solution
(wI

i=

Y21 sin

+ 8) = \ / R-' + (wL'" - l/wC)' ,sin

(wt

&)

(7-184)

A study of Eq. (7-183) reveals that the current phasor may either lead or lag the voltage phasor. depending upon the relative values of the inductive and capacitive reactance wL and l/wC. Whenever wL > l/wC the RLC circuit essentially behaves as an inductive circuit insofar as the current is concerned. It is interesting to note that this condition can be satisfied either by having a large inductance or else by operating at a high frequency. On the other hand. whenever wL < l/wC the current leads the voltage. thereby indicating that the RLC circuit behaves as a capacitive circuit as far as the current is concerned. However. there are some differences: these are discussed presently. Appearing in Fig. 7-23 is the phasor diagram for the circuit of Fig. 7-22.

Fig. 7-23 Phasor diagram circuit for wI. > l/wC.

of the

f?/I

290

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response of Circuits

Cilap.

Again note the exact metbods.

correspondence

of this result

with those

obtained

by the other

The use of Norton's theorem in solving this problem is left as an ex~rcise for the reader.

7-10 RESONANCE
Resonance is identified with engineering situations which involve energy-storing elements subjected to a forcing function of varying frequency. Specifically, resonance is the term used to describe the steady-state operation of a circuit or system at that frequency fOTwhich the resultant response is in time phase with the source function despite the presence of energy-storing elements. Resonance cannot take place when only one type of energy-storing element is present, e.g., inductance or mass. There must exist two types of independent energy-storing elements capable of interc\1anging energy between one another-for example, inductance and capacitance or mass and spring. Although attention here is confined to electric circuits, resonance is a phenomenon found in any system involving two independent energy-storing elements be they mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, or whatever. In the material which follows, the parallel as well as the series arrangement of the energy-storing elements-L and C-are treated as functions of frequency, with particular emphasis focused on the performance at resonance.
Series Resonance. The series arrangement of Land C along with resistance R is shown in Fig. 7-22. The expression for the effective current flow caused by a sinusoidal forcing function is given by Eq. (7-179) and is repeated for convenience. Thus

= -----== R + j(wL - l/wC) Z

(7-201)

What is the effect on of increasing the frequency w of the source function from zero to infinity? A glance at Eq. (7-201) indicates that a change in frequency means a change in the magnitude and phase angle of the comple~ impedance. Note that for w close to zero the inductive reactance is almost zero but the capacitive reactance approaches infinity. Hence the current magnitude approaches zero. As w increases, the reactance part of Z decreases, thus causing an increase in current. As w continues to increase, a point is reached where the reactance term is zero. Calling this frequency Wo we have
7.

woL -

C=
Wo
__

(7-202)

or
2

Wo -

LC

(7-203)

296

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response of Circuits

Chap. 7

(7-204)

I w, ~. V ~c I
The frequency Wo is called the resonant frequency of the circuit. Its value is specified entirely in terms of the parameters of the two energy-storing elements of the circuit in the manner call,ed for by Eq. (7-204). At resonance the impedance of the circuit is a minimum, and specifically it is equal to R. Consequently; when a series RLC circuit is at resonance, the, current is a maximum and is also in time phase with the voltage. The power factor is unity. The complete expression for the current phasor is then

_.

V VLQ: V = = -- = - /0 Z RLJr. R~

(7-205)

where 10 denotes the current at resonance. For operation at a frequency below Wo the resultant j part of Z is capacitive so that the current leads the voltage. When w > Wo (he inductive reactance prevails, so that the current then lags the voltage. Depicted in Fig. 7-27 is the plot of the impedance in the complex plane. The magnitude of Z at a frequency WI is obtained as the length of the line drawn from the origin to the point WI on the heavy vertical line. This heavy vertical line denotes the value of the reactance portion of Z. Note that at w = Wo it has a zero value. An alternative way of representing the information of Fig. 7-27 is illustrated in Fig. 7-28. A plot of the variation of the magnitude and phase of the current with frequency for two values of the ratio woLI R is depicted in Fig. 7-29. Note that when the ratio of inductive reactance to resistance in a series RLC circuit is high, a very rapid rise of current to the maximum value occurs in the vicinity of the resonant frequency. A characteristic of this type is especially useful in radio and other communication applications.

JW

Locus

of Z

WI

Iw incrEiasmg

Fig. 7-27 Locus of the complex impedance Z as a function of frequency w; Z = R + j(wL - l/wC).

Fig. 7-28 Variation of impedance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance as a function of frequency.

Sec. 7-10

Resonance

297

-R- - 2"

woL

00

+900 ,
w,rod/sec Current-i-Current leads logs voltage voltage
( b)

(0)

Fig. 7-29 Variation of current (a) magnitude: (b) phase angle.

in a series

RLC circuit

with frequency:

Bandwidth.

To describe the width of the resonance

curve the term bandwidth

is used. For the series RLC circuit bandwidth is defined as the range of frequency for which the power delivered to R is greater than or equal to Po/2, where Po is the power delivered to R at resonance. From the shape of the resonance curve it should be clear that there are two frequencies for which the power delivered to R is half the power at resonance. For this reason these frequencies are referred to as those corresponding to the half-power points. The magnitude of the current at each half-power point is the same. Hence we can write I~R

= Y~R = nR
point and subscript

(7-206) 2 the higher

where subscript I denotes the lower half-power half-power point. It follows then that
10

II =

12

= V2 = 0.707/0

(7-207)

Accordingly, the bandwidth may be identified on the resonance curve as that range of frequency over which the magnitude of the current is equal to or greater the than 0.707 of the current at resonance. In Fig. 7-29(a) for woLI R = frequency at the lower half-power point is denoted WI and that of the upper halfpower point is denoted W2' Hence the bandwidth is W2 - WI' In view of the fact that the current at the half-power points is 10/V2, it

follows that the magnitude of the impedance must be equal to V2 R to yield this current. This information can now be used to obtain an expression for the bandwidth in terms of the parameters of the series circuit. Calling the reactance at the lower half-power frequency XI' we have
XI

wlL

- wlC

-R

(7-208)

298

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response of Circuits

Chap. 7

The minus sign appears on the right side of the equation because below resonance the capacitive reactance exceeds the inductive reactance. Rearran~in~ Eq. (7-208) leads to

,
wi The roots are therefore

ZWI - LC

=0

(7-209)

(WI)I.2

= - 2L R

J (2L r + LC I
R

= -

.~

(7-210)

where

R
a
== -

2L

(7-211)

Although Eq. (7-210) provides two solutions to Eq. (7-209), only one of these is physically realizable. The negative frequency is meaningless and so may be discarded. Hence the expression for the lower half-power frequency is'
WI

-a

,/ ya

2 Wo

(7-212)

The upper half-power we have

frequency

is found in a similar fashion. In this instance

(7-213) which leads to

R w~ Y-W2 -

_I LC

= 0

(7-214)

The expression

for the useful

W2

is then

W2

,/2 ya

2 Wo

(7-215) becomes, from Eqs. (7-212)

Therefore, and (7-215),

the expression

for the bandwidth

(7-216) This expression is significant because it reveals that the bandwidth of the series RLC circuit depends solely upon the R/ L ratio. Note that it is not the individual values of R or L but rather their ratio that is important. Note too that bandwidth depends not at all upon the capacitance parameter C. By forming the ratio of the resonant Quality Factor Qo of the RLC Circuit. frequency to the bandwidth we obtain a factor which is a measure oqhe selectivity or sharpness of tuning of the series RLC circuit. This quantity is called the quality factor of the circuit and is denoted by Qo. Thus (7-217)

Sec. 7-10

Resonance

299

..........

Moreover, when Eq. (7-216) is inserted into the last equation an alternative expression results:
Q _ ~ _ woL _ o - R/ L R XLO

(7-218)

A glance at the curves appearing in Fig. 7-29(a) should make it clear as to why the quality factor Qo is used as a measure of the selectivity or sharpness of tuning. Note how much narrower the resonance curve is for Qo = 10 than for Qo = !. Equation (7-216) shows that the value of C in no way influences the bandwidth but it does alter the value of Wo0 Hence if C is changed, Wo may be made to occur at a different position along the frequency scale in Fig. 7-29(a) without in any way affecting the .sharpness of tuning. This feature of the highQ circuit is used often in communiC'ation networks. For example, in a radio the antenna may be considered in terms of an equivalent RLC circuit where C is adjusted by means of the dial tuning knob. If the dial is turned to the position which tunes in the frequency (wo) of a given radio transmitting station,' the sharpness of tuning (i.e .. small bandwidth) allows only signals from that station -to produce large resonant current signals. The signals from other broadcasting stations. although present in equal strength at the antenna, produce little or no signal strength in the circuit because the dial is tuned to a frequency considerably off resonance relative to their broadcasting frequencies. Values of Qo Of the order of 100 are typical in radio circuits. By making use of the knowledge that Qo is very large in many resonant circuits, we can express the lower and upper half-power points in terms of the resonant frequency and the bandwidth. Returning to Eq. (7-212), we can rewrite it as R --+

2L (7-219)

- 2L R

J (2L r + (fo L R

R2

For values of

Qo

which are 5 or greater ve: y little error is made by writing R R . R (7-220) WI = - 2L + IQo = - 2L + Wo (7-221-)

Inserting Eq. (7-216) into Eq. (7-220) yields Similarly, it can be shown that
W2

Wo

!Wbw

(7-222)

Another characteristic of a series RLC circuit at resonance is worth noting. It has to do with the magnitude of the voltage drop' appearing across Land C. In terms of a phasor formulation the phasor voltage drop across L at resonance

300

Sinusoidal Steady-StateResponse01Circuits

Chap. 7

is given by (7-223) Therefore the magnitude of the voltage across the terminals of the inductor is Qo times the rms value of the applied voltage. For high-Q circuits this represents a considerable amplification of the source voltage. By proceeding in a similar fashion for the capacitor we find

- co = -(I) V 10 jwC
V' Again note the resonant voltage-rise phasor voltage diagram at resonance

V(I) F R woC / - 90 .

(7-224)

= -.(woL)/-90 R

= QoVL=90
terminals. The

effect across the capacitor is depicted in Fig. 7-30.

Vco

10

Fig. 730 Voltage phasor diagram of the series RLCcircuit at resonance.

On the basis of Eqs. (7-223) and (7-224) ,mother definition of the quality factor Qn is possible. It represents the extent to which the voltage across L or C rises at resonance expressed as a multiple of the applied voltage. Stated mathematically. we have
Qo

VVLO _

Vco

(7-225)

where

Vu) and V co are both measured at resonance. The definitions of Qo given by Eqs. (7-218) and (7-225) are restrictive in the sense that they apply specifically to the series RLC circuit. The definition

of Eq. (7-217) is more generally applicable because it is based on the frequencyselectivity characteristic of the circuit. However, the most universally applicable definition is one that is expressed in terms of energy. In this connection, then, let us assume that the instantaneous expression for the forced solution of current at resonance is io The total energy Inserting stored

= =

Imo cos wot

(7-226)

by the circuit in both Land.C

W !Li~

can be expressed

as
(7-227)

+ Kv~o
VcO

the appropriate

expressions I

for io and

yields

Sec. 7-10

Resonance

301

--~------

= Z LI mO 122
1
2

COS
2

wof

+ zC c Icr2
I~o.

Jo I
2

mO

COS wof

r
(7-228)

= = =

-LImO 2 1 ZLI 1
2
mO

cos
2

wof

+ 2Wo 2C
1
2

SIn
.

wof
2

cos

wof
2

ZLlmo

SIn

wof

ZLImo

LIo

where 10 is the rms current at resonance. It is interesting to note that at resonance this energy is a constant quantity. Returning to Eq. (7-218) and multiplying both numerator and denominator by I~ we can write for Qo
_

Qo -

woLl~ R/~

_ -

21TfoLl~ RI~

_ -

21T

I~L
I~R/fo

(7-229)

Now since I~L represents the total stored energy at resonance and I~R/fo is the energy dissipated per cycle, Eq. (7-229) may be written more generally as Q _
o -

21T energy

total stored energy d" lsslpate d per cyc I e

(7-230) of its composition. the quality factor

Equation (7-230) is applicable to any resonant system regardless As long as the quantities on the right side can be determined can, in turn, be found.

Parallel Resonance. The circuit configuration for the study of parallel onance appears in Fig. 7-31. The expression for the total current is

res-

] = Vy = V(C + jB)

(7-231)

where] is a fixed, known quantity and V is the nodal voltage, which varies as varies with frequency. For the circuit of Fig. 7-31 the expression for the admittance is Y
-

= C + jB = - + jwC + -.- = - + j wC - R1 JwL 1 R1

wL 1)

(7-232)

I
R

Fig. 7-31 Circuit configuration for studying parallel resonance.

302

Sinusoidal Steady-StateResponseof Circuits

Chap. 7

Hence

1 = V[~. + j( wC

W~)]

(7-233)

A study of this equation reveals that for small values. of W the susceptance B will be large. Then to keep the product of the right side constant and equal to 1, the nodal voltage V must be correspondi~gly small. As W increases, B decreases, and so V increases. When B equals zero, V has its maximum value. At this point the output nodal voltage is in time phase with the current source, and the circuit is said to be in parallel resonance. The. frequency at which resonance occurs is found from
B.

woC - woL

= 0

(7-234)

or

I
Wo

= ,yLC /-

(7-235)

which is identical to the expression which applies to the series RLC circuit. As W increases beyond wo, the susceptance gets ever larger, thus causing the nodal voltage to diminish toward zero. A sketch of V as a function of frequency is depicted in Fig. 7-32. The bandwidth is identified as the frequency range lying between WI and W2' For the parallel case, the lower frequency is found from
w1C - -

= --

w,J..

(7-236)

which leads to

WI + -WI RC
Ignoring the negative solution,

- LC = 0
expression is

(7-237)

the desired

WI

= - 2RC +

J (2RC r + LC I I
I
a =
2RC

-a +

Va2 +

--

w~

(7-238)

where

(7-239)

va'

0.707 I R

01

w,

Wn

w,

w,rod/sec

Fig. 7-32 Variation of the nodal voltage of Fig. 7-31 as a function of frequency.

II

Sec. 7-10

Resonance

303

Similarly

for'the

upper half-power
W2C

frequency - -

point

W2L

=-

(7-240)

This leads to
W.

= -2RC

J( 2RC )2 I

--

+-

LC is

= a

+ va- +

/.

Wu
2

(7-241 )

Therefore,

the expression

for the bandwidth

(7-242)
W.w

=.

W, -

W,

= 20 =

fc: I

Employing to

the definition

of the quality factor given by Eq. (7-217) leads Wo Wo =.- = --IIRC

Wbw

Qo

= woRC

(7-243)

It can be shown that Eq. (7-230) also applies with equal validity in determining Qo Just as there occurs a resonant rise in voltage associated with Land C in the series-resonant case, so too there occurs a resonant rise in current in the L and C elements when the circuit is at parallel resonance. This is readily demonstrated. Recall that the value of the nodal voltage Vo at resonance is

Vo = IRLJr.
Since this voltage appears across

(7-244)

L we can write
IwoRC/-900= IQo/-90 (7-245)

lLO= .Vo = IR /-90= JWoL woL For th'(' capacitor

Ico =

TC I
JWo

Vo

= jlRwoC = Qol/90

(7-246)

The subscript 0 denotes the resonant condition. An inspection of each of the last two expressions shows that the magnitude of the current through L or C is Qo times the source current I. It follows then that another way of expressing Qo in the parallel-resonance case is to write
Qo = ~

I I

= ~

I I

(7-247)

Equation (7-247) is analogous to Eq. (7-225) for the series-resonant case. Appearing in Fig. 7-33 is the phasor diagram for the currents using the nodal voltage at resonance, Vo, as the reference phasor. Note thatlLO lags and Ico leads Vo by 90, as called for by Eqs. (7-245) ar.d (7-246). Of course, the resultant of the three currents is the source current I.

304

Sinusoidal Steady-StateResponseof Circuits

Chap. 7