Sridhar.P Composite Materials The sand on a beach is an example of a natural composite material.

A composite material is a material made up of two or more materials that are combined in a way that allows the materials to stay distinct and identifiable. The purpose of composites is to allow the new material to have strengths from both materials, often times covering the original materials' weaknesses. Composites are different from alloys because alloys are combined in such a way that it is impossible to tell one particle, element, or substance from the other. Types Composite materials are usually classified by the type of reinforcement they use. This reinforcement is embedded into a matrix that holds it together. The reinforcement is used to strengthen the composite. For example, in a mud brick, the matrix is the mud and the reinforcement is the straw. Common composite types include random-fiber or short-fiber reinforcement, continuous-fiber or long-fiber reinforcement, particulate reinforcement, flake reinforcement, and filler reinforcement. Mud Bricks One type of very old composite material invented by early humans was the mud brick. A normal mud brick is sturdy and resistant to compression, but can break if bent. Straw is a material that has excellent tensile strength, meaning that it resists stretching. By combining both, early humans were able to create composite mud bricks that could resist weight and compression as well as stretching. Concrete Concrete is a composite material made of cement, sand, stones and water. Combined, concrete is stronger than any one of these materials. Concrete is used heavily in building and road construction. Fiberglass Fiberglass is a material made of tiny glass shards held together by resin and other components. In the automotive industry, fiberglass is important for making body kits. The body shell for a car is made up of different layers of fiberglass, such as a gel-coat layer, tissue layer, matting and cloth. The final product is a complete, waterproof, lightweight and strong body kit. Fiberglass can also be a less expensive alternative to other materials. Natural Composites Composites can be easily found in nature. Wood is an example of a composite because cellulose fibers are held together by substance called lignin. These fibers can be found in cotton and thread, but it's the bonding power of lignin in wood that makes it much tougher. Another natural composite is rock and sand, materials used in concrete. Rock is just smaller rocks held together, and sand is made of small grains. 1

Sridhar.P

Electro Discharge Machining

(Boring hole in turbine using EDM) Electric discharge machining (EDM), sometimes colloquially also referred to as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking or wire erosion, is a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape is obtained using electrical discharges (sparks). A machining method typically used for hard metals, Electrical Discharge Machining (commonly known as "EDM Machining") makes it possible to work with metals for which traditional machining techniques are ineffective. An important point to remember with EDM Machining is that it will only work with materials that are electrically conductive. With good EDM Machining equipment it is possible to cut small odd-shaped angles, detailed contours or cavities in hardened steel as well as exotic metals like titanium, hastelloy, kovar, inconel, and carbide. The EDM Process is commonly used in the Tool and Die industry for mold-making, however in recent years EDM has become a integral part for making prototype and production parts. This is seen in the aerospace and electronics industries where production quantities remain low. The Wire EDM / Spark EDM Process Wire EDM Machining (also known as Spark EDM) is an electro thermal production process in which a thin single-strand metal wire (usually brass) in conjunction with de-ionized water (used to conduct electricity) allows the wire to cut through metal by the use of heat from electrical sparks. Due to the inherent properties of the process, wire EDM can easily machine complex parts and precision components out of hard conductive materials. The Sinker EDM Machining Process In the Sinker EDM Machining process, two metal parts submerged in an insulating liquid are connected to a source of current which is switched on and off automatically depending on the parameters set on the controller. When the current is switched on, an electric tension is created between the two metal parts. If the two parts are brought together to within a fraction of an inch, the electrical tension is discharged and a spark jumps across. Where it strikes, the metal is 2

Sridhar.P heated up so much that it melts. One of the electrodes is called the tool-electrode, or simply the tool or electrode, while the other is called the workpiece-electrode, or workpiece. When the distance between the two electrodes is reduced, the intensity of the electric field in the volume between the electrodes becomes greater than the strength of the dielectric (at least in some point(s)), which breaks, allowing current to flow between the two electrodes. This phenomenon is the same as the breakdown of a capacitor (condenser). As a result, material is removed from both the electrodes. Once the current flow stops (or it is stopped depending on the type of generator), new liquid dielectric is usually conveyed into the inter-electrode volume enabling the solid particles (debris) to be carried away and the insulating proprieties of the dielectric to be restored. Adding new liquid dielectric in the inter-electrode volume is commonly referred to as flushing.

Advantages Complex shapes that would otherwise be difficult to produce with conventional cutting tools Extremely hard material to very close tolerances Very small work pieces where conventional cutting tools may damage the part from excess cutting tool pressure. There is no direct contact between tool and work piece. Therefore delicate sections and weak materials can be machined without any distortion. A good surface finish can be obtained. Very fine holes can be easily drilled.

Disadvantages The slow rate of material removal. The additional time and cost used for creating electrodes for ram/sinker EDM. Reproducing sharp corners on the workpiece is difficult due to electrode wear. Power consumption is high. "Overcut" is formed. Excessive tool wear occurs during machining. Electrically non-conductive materials can be machined only with specific set-up of the process.

Sridhar.P Applications Prototype production Coinage die making Small hole drilling

Electrochemical machining (ECM)

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a method of removing metal by an electrochemical process. It is normally used for mass production and is used for working extremely hard materials or materials that are difficult to machine using conventional methods. Its use is limited to electrically conductive materials. ECM can cut small or odd-shaped angles, intricate contours or cavities in hard and exotic metals, such as titanium aluminides, Inconel, Waspaloy, and high nickel, cobalt, and rhenium alloys. Both external and internal geometries can be machined. ECM is often characterized as "reverse electroplating," in that it removes material instead of adding it. It is similar in concept to electrical discharge machining (EDM) in that a high current is passed between an electrode and the part, through an electrolytic material removal process having a negatively charged electrode (cathode), a conductive fluid (electrolyte), and a conductive workpiece (anode); however, in ECM there is no tool wear. The ECM cutting tool is guided along the desired path close to the work but without touching the piece. Unlike EDM, however, no sparks are created. High metal removal rates are possible with ECM, with no thermal or mechanical stresses being transferred to the part, and mirror surface finishes can be achieved. In the ECM process, a cathode (tool) is advanced into an anode (workpiece). The pressurized electrolyte is injected at a set temperature to the area being cut. The feed rate is the same as the rate of "liquefication" of the material. The gap between the tool and the workpiece varies 4

Sridhar.P within 80-800 micrometers (.003 in. and .030 in.) As electrons cross the gap, material from the workpiece is dissolved, as the tool forms the desired shape in the workpiece. The electrolytic fluid carries away the metal hydroxide formed in the process. The ECM process is most widely used to produce complicated shapes such as turbine blades with good surface finish in difficult to machine materials. It is also widely and effectively used as a deburring process. In deburring, ECM removes metal projections left from the machining process, and so dulls sharp edges. This process is fast and often more convenient than the conventional methods of deburring by hand or nontraditional machining processes.

Setup and equipment ECM machines come in both vertical and horizontal types. Depending on the work requirements, these machines are built in many different sizes as well. The vertical machine consists of a base, column, table, and spindle head. The spindle head has a servo-mechanism that automatically advances the tool and controls the gap between the cathode (tool) and the workpiece. CNC machines of up to six axes are available. Copper is often used as the electrode material. Brass, graphite, and copper-tungsten are also often used because they are easily machined, they are conductive materials, and they will not corrode.

Advantages Because the tool does not contact the workpiece, its advantage over conventional machining is that there is no need to use expensive alloys to make the tool tougher than the workpiece. There is less tool wear in ECM Less heat and stress are produced in processing that could damage the part. Fewer passes are typically needed, and the tool can be repeatedly used.

Disadvantages High tooling costs of ECM Up to 40,000 amps of current must be applied to the workpiece.

Sridhar.P The saline (or Acidic) electrolyte also poses the risk of corrosion to tool, workpiece and equipment.

Applications It can be used for Die-Sinking operations. Drilling a jet engine turbine blade. Multiple Hole drilling. Steam turbine blades can be machined within close limits.

Similarities between EDM and ECM 1. The tool and Workpiece are separated by a very small gap, i.e. no contact in between them is made. 2. The tool and material must both be conductors of electricity. 3. Needs high capital investment. 4. These systems consume lots of power. 5. A fluid is used as a medium between the tool and the work piece (conductive for ECM and dielectric for EDM). 6. The tool is fed continuously towards the workpiece to maintain a constant gap between them (EDM may incorporate intermittent or cyclic, typically partial, tool withdrawal)

Laser Beam Machining

Sridhar.P Laser is an electromagnetic radiation. It produces monochromatic light which is in the form of an almost collimated beam that can be focused optically on to very small spots of less than 0.002 mm diameter. The word laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation Laser Beam machining (LBMb) is an unconventional machining process in which a beam of highly coherent light called a Laser is directed towards the work piece for machining. Since the rays of a laser beam are monochromatic and parallel it can be focused to a very small diameter and can produce energy as high as 100 MW of energy for a square millimeter of area. It is especially suited to making accurately placed holes. It can be used to perform precision micro-machining on all microelectronic substrates such as ceramic, silicon, diamond, and graphite. Examples of microelectronic micro-machining include cutting, scribing & drilling all substrates, trimming any hybrid resistors, patterning displays of glass or plastic and trace cutting on semiconductor wafers and chips. A pulsed ruby laser is normally used for developing a high power.

Principle of Laser Let us consider that the atoms of a medium are at ground state. When a quantum of energy from light sources is made to fall on this medium, it causes absorption of radiation by the atoms of the medium to jump to the upper energy level. The atoms in the upper energy level are then said to be in an excited state. The atom in an excited state immediately begins to drop spontaneously to the metastable (intermediate) state. From the metastable state the atom emits photon at random before it falls to the original energy level. This radiation of photons is known as spontaneous emission which is extremely rapid. However, in the presence of light of the appropriate frequency stimulated emission will occur in the upper energy level when the atoms will begin to emit and chain reaction will occur by causing more to emit and the whole avalanche dump down together. This is called Lasing action.

Accuracy The laser is best used for cutting as well as for drilling. In order to achieve the best possible results in drilling, it is imperative that the material be located within a tolerance of 0.2mm of focal point.

Sridhar.P Application of LBM Laser machining process is at present found to be suitable only in exceptional cases like machining very small holes & cutting complex profiles in thin, hard materials like ceramics.It is also use in partial cutting or engraving.

Abrasive jet machining (AJM)

Abrasive jet machining (AJM), also known as abrasive micro-blasting, pencil blasting and microabrasive blasting, is an abrasive blasting machining process that uses abrasives propelled by a high velocity gas to erode material from the workpiece.

Principle In abrasive jet machining (AJM), a fine stream of abrasives is propelled through a special nozzle by a gas carrier (CO2, Ni, or air) of pressure ranging from 1 to 9 bar. Thus, the abrasives attain a high speed ranging from 150 to 350 m/s, exerting impact force and causing mechanical abrasion of the WP (target material).

Setup AJM machines are usually self-contained bench-top units. Abrasives In AJM, Al2O3 or SiC abrasives of grain size ranging from 10 to 80 m are used.

Sridhar.P Carrier Gas The gas should be dry, clean, and under modest pressure. The carrier gas must not flare excessively when discharged from nozzle to atmosphere. Furthermore, it should be nontoxic, cheap, available, and capable of being dried and filtered. Air is widely used owing to its availability. In small stations, CO2 and N2 gas bottles are commonly used. Mixing Chamber The mixing of the abrasives with the gas takes place here. The mixing chamber is equipped with a vibrator to promote a uniform ow of grit. Nozzle The nozzles are generally made of tungsten carbides (WC) or synthetic sapphires of diameters 0.22 mm. For average material removal, tungsten carbide nozzles have a useful life of 12 to 30 hours, and sapphire nozzles last about 300 hours. To limit the jet flaring, nozzles may have rectangular orifices ranging from 0.1 0.5 mm to 0.18 3mm.The nozzle is mounted in a special fixture, and sometimes held in hand, depending on the type of operation required (cutting, trimming, engraving, frosting, or cleaning). When machining thin-walled fragile materials, it may be necessary to control the relative motion between the nozzle and the work by a cam and pantograph, depending upon the required size and shape of cut. Dust Collector The AJM-station must be equipped with a vacuum dust collector to limit the pollution. Strict measures and precautions should be undertaken in case of machining toxic materials such as beryllium to collect produced dust and debris.

Process The carrier gas from the gas supply (gas bottles or compressed air) is first filtered. After filtering, the pressure of the compressed gas of 79 bars is regulated, to suit the working conditions. The gas is then introduced in to the mixing chamber containing the abrasives. The mixing chamber sometimes uses a vibrator to promote a uniform ow of grit. The vibrator provides an amplitude of 12 mm at a frequency from 5 to 50 Hz. The abrasive flow rate is controlled through the adjustment of and frequency. From the mixing chamber, the gas/abrasive mixture is directed to the nozzle that directs the jet onto the target or WP. The hard nozzle is directed close to the workpiece at a slight angle. The WP is positioned from the nozzle at a distance called the stand-off distance (SOD), or the nozzle-tip distance (NTD). The jet velocity of 150350 m/s depends upon the gas pressure at the nozzle, the orifice diameter of the nozzle, and the mixing ratio. The flow rate of a typical working station is about 0.6 m3/h, which is controlled through a foot control valve.

Sridhar.P Advantages -Capable of producing holes and intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials. -Used to cut fragile materials of thin walls. -Heat-sensitive materials such as glass and ceramics can be machined without affecting their physical properties and crystalline structure, as no or little heat is generated during machining. -Safe to operate. -Characterized by low capital investment and low power consumption. -Can be used to clean surfaces, especially in areas that are inaccessible by ordinary methods. -The produced surfaces after cleaning by AJM are characterized by their high wear resistance. - Flexible. Its flexibility owes from its ability to use hoses to transport the gas and abrasive to any part of the workpiece.

Limitations -The application of AJM is restricted to brittle materials. It is not recommended for machining soft and malleable materials. -Abrasives cant be reused because they lose their sharpness and hence their cutting ability. -Nozzle clogging occurs if fine grains having a diameter dg <10 m are used. -The process accuracy is poor due to the flaring effect of the abrasive jet. -Deep holes are produced by significant taper. -Sometimes, machined parts have to undergo an additional operation of cleaning to get rid of grains sticking to the surface. -Excessive nozzle wear causes additional machining cost. -The process tends to pollute the environment.

Applications Cutting heat-sensitive, brittle, thin, or hard materials.Specifically it is used to cut intricate shapes or form specific edge shapes.

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Sridhar.P

Waterjet Machining

A diagram of water jet a cutter. #1: high-pressure water inlet. #2: jewel (ruby or diamond). #3: abrasive (garnet). #4: mixing tube. #5: guard. #6: cutting water jet. #7: cut material Water jet Machining is an unconventional manufacturing process in which high velocity and high pressure water jets are used for machining materials. The cutter is commonly connected to a high-pressure water pump (a local water main does not supply sufficient pressure) where the water is then ejected out of the nozzle, cutting through the material by bombarding it with the stream of high-speed water. Additives in the form of suspended grit or other abrasives, such as sand and silicon carbide, can assist in this process. Principle Water is pumped at a sufficiently high pressure, 200-400 MPa (2000-4000 bar) using intensifier technology. When water at such pressure is issued through a suitable orifice (generally of 0.20.4 mm dia), the potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy, yielding a high velocity jet (1000 m/s). Such high velocity water jet can machine thin sheets/foils of aluminium, leather, textile, frozen food etc. Process The potential or pressure head of the water is converted into velocity head by allowing the highpressure water to issue through an orifice of small diameter (0.2 0.4 mm). The orifices are typically made of sapphire. In commercial machines, the life of the sapphire orifice is typically around 100 150 hours. In pure WJM, commercially pure water (tap water) is used for machining purpose. However as the high velocity water jet is discharged from the orifice, the jet tends to entrain atmospheric air and flares out decreasing its cutting ability. Hence, quite often stabilisers (long chain polymers) that hinder the fragmentation of water jet are added to the water. This high velocity water jet is used for the required applications. 11

Sridhar.P

The cutting ability of water jet machining can be improved drastically by adding hard and sharp abrasive particles into the water jet. In AWJM, abrasive particles like sand (SiO ), glass beads
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are added to the water jet to enhance its cutting ability by many folds. AWJ are mainly of two types entrained and suspended type. In AWJM the jet from orifice is directed into the mixing chamber. Mixing Chamber The mixing chamber has a typical dimension of inner diameter 6 mm and a length of 10 mm. As the high velocity water is issued from the orifice into the mixing chamber, low pressure (vacuum) is created within the mixing chamber. Metered abrasive particles are introduced into the mixing chamber through a port.

The abrasive particles are metered using different techniques like vibratory feeder or toothed belt feeder. Mixing means gradual entrainment of abrasive particles within the water jet and finally the abrasive water jet comes out of the focussing tube or the nozzle. During mixing process, the abrasive particles are gradually accelerated due to transfer of momentum from the water phase to abrasive phase and when the jet finally leaves the focussing tube, both phases, water and abrasive, are assumed to be at same velocity. Focussing tube The mixing chamber is immediately followed by the focussing tube or the inserts. The focussing tube is generally made of tungsten carbide (powder metallurgy product) having an inner diameter of 0.8 to 1.6 mm and a length of 50 to 80 mm. Tungsten carbide is used for its abrasive resistance. In entrained AWJM, the abrasive water jet, which finally comes from the focussing tube or nozzle, can be used to machine different materials.

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Sridhar.P In suspension AWJM, preformed mixture of water and abrasive particles is pumped to a sufficiently high pressure and store in pressure vessel. Then the premixed high-pressure water and abrasive is allowed to discharge from a nozzle to form abrasive water jet. Catcher Once the abrasive jet has been used for machining, they may have sufficiently high level of energy depending on the type of application. Such high-energy abrasive water jet needs to be contained before they can damage any part of the machine or operators. Catcher is used to absorb the residual energy of the AWJ and dissipate the same. Fig. 9 shows three different types of catcher water basin type, submerged steel balls and TiB plate type.
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Disadvantages to Waterjet Cutting Waterjet cutting is a very useful machining process that can be readily substituted for many other cutting methods; however, it has some limitations to what it can cut. Listed below are these limitations, and a brief description of each. One of the main disadvantages of waterjet cutting is that a limited number of materials can be cut economically. While it is possible to cut tool steels, and other hard materials, the cutting rate has to be greatly reduced, and the time to cut a part can be very long. Because of this, waterjet cutting can be very costly and outweigh the advantages. Another disadvantage is that very thick parts cannot be cut with waterjet cutting and still hold dimensional accuracy. If the part is too thick, the jet may dissipate some, and cause it to cut on a diagonal, or to have a wider cut at the bottom of the part than the top. It can also cause a ruff wave pattern on the cut surface. Taper is also a problem with waterjet cutting in very thick materials. Taper is when the jet exits the part at a different angle than it enters the part, and can cause dimensional inaccuracy. Decreasing the speed of the head may reduce this, although it can still be a problem.

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Sridhar.P Advantages to Waterjet Cutting Beyond cost cutting, the waterjet process is recognized as the most versatile and fastest growing process in the world (per Frost & Sullivan and the Market Intelligence Research Corporation). Waterjets are used in high production applications across the globe. They compliment other technologies such as milling, laser, EDM, plasma and routers. No toxic gases or liquids are used in waterjet cutting, and waterjets do not create hazardous materials or vapors. No heat effected zones or mechanical stresses are left on a waterjet cut surface. It is truly a versatile, productive, cold cutting process. The most important benefit of the water jet cutter is its ability to cut material without interfering with the materials inherent structure as there is no "heat affected zone" or HAZ. This allows metals to be cut without harming their intrinsic properties. The waterjet has shown that it can do things that other technologies simply cannot. From cutting whisper thin details in stone, glass and metals; to rapid hole drilling of titanium; to cutting of food, to the killing of pathogens in beverages and dips, the waterjet has proven itself unique

Waterjet cutting has many applications, and there are many reasons why waterjet cutting is preferable over other cutting methods. Listed below are several advantages, along with a brief explanation. In waterjet cutting, there is no heat generated. This is especially useful for cutting tool steel and other metals where excessive heat may change the properties of the material. Unlike machining or grinding, waterjet cutting does not produce any dust or particles that are harmful if inhaled. The kerf width in waterjet cutting is very small, and very little material is wasted.

Waterjet cutting can be easily automated for production use. 14

Sridhar.P Waterjet cutting does not leave a burr or a rough edge, and eliminates other machining operations such as finish sanding and grinding. Waterjets are much lighter than equivalent laser cutters, and when mounted on an automated robot. This reduces the problems of accelerating and decelerating the robot head, as well as taking less energy. Applications Printed Circuit Boards: For circuit boards, waterjet cutting is mostly used to cut out smaller boards from a large piece of stock. This is a desired method, since it has a very small kerf, or cutting width, and does not waste a lot of material. Because the stream is so concentrated, it can also cut very close to the given tolerances for parts mounted on the circuit board without damaging them. Another benefit is that waterjet cutting does not produce the vibrations and forces on the board that a saw would, and thus components would be less likely to be damaged. Wire Stripping: Wire stripping is another application that can be used effectively in waterjet cutting. If no abrasives are used, the stream is powerful enough to remove any insulation from wires, without damaging the wires themselves. It is also much faster and efficient than using human power to strip wires. Food Preparation: The cutting of certain foods such as bread can also be easily done with waterjet cutting. Since the waterjet exerts such a small force on the food, it does not crush it, and with a small kerf width, very little is wasted. Tool Steel: For abrasive waterjet cutting, tool steels are one application, although a limited one. It can be very useful though because tool steel is generally very difficult to cut with conventional machining methods, and may cause an unwanted byproduct: heat. Abrasive waterjets, however, do not produce heat that could alter the structure of the material being cut, and thus the strength of the tool is retained. Wood Cutting: Woodworking is another application that abrasive waterjet machining can be used for. Since wood is a softer material compared to steel, almost all wood can be cut, and the abrasive particles sand the surface, leaving a smooth finish that doesnt require sanding. Cleaning Applications Other than cutting (machining) high pressure water jet also finds application in paint removal, cleaning, surgery, peening to remove residual stress etc. AWJM can as well be used besides cutting for pocket milling, turning, drilling Thus, WJM is typically used to cut so called softer and easy-to-machine materials like thin sheets and foils, non-ferrous metallic alloys, wood, textiles, honeycomb, polymers, frozen meat, leather etc, but the domain of harder and difficult-to-machine materials like thick plates of steels, aluminium and other commercial materials, metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites, reinforced plastics, layered composites etc are reserved for AWJM. 15