Introduction to the Finite Element Method

This section presents the general steps included in the finite element method.
Typically, for the structural stress analysis, it is required to determine the stresses and
deformation (strains) throughout the structure which is in equilibrium and is subjected to
applied loads.
The finite element method involves modeling of the structure using small units
(finite elements). A displacement function is associated with each finite element. The
followings are the steps used in finite element method. This will be followed by illustration
of the application of these steps on springs and plane stress cases.
Step 1. Discretize and Select Element Types
Divide the structure into an equivalent system of finite elements with associated nodes. The
simplest line elements, Fig.1.a has two nodes, one at each end. The basic two-dimensional
elements, Fig. 1.b are loaded by forces in their own plane (plane stress). They are triangular
or quadrilateral elements. The common three dimensional elements, Fig.1.c, are tetrahedral
and hexahedral (brick) elements. They are used to perform three dimensional stress analysis
in 3-D solid bodies.
Step 2. Select a Displacement Function
Choose a displacement function within each element using the nodal values of the element.
Linear, quadratic, and polynomials are frequently used functions.
Step 3. Define the Stress/Strain Relationships
= du/dx
= E
Step 4. Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations
The stiffness matrix and element equations relating nodal forces and displacements are
obtained using force equilibrium conditions or the principle of minimum potential energy.
Step 5. Assemble the Element Equations to obtain the Global Equations
Step 6. Solve for the Unknown Displacements
Step 7. Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses
Step 8. Interpret the Results
The final goal is to interpret and analyze the results for use in the design process.
Stiffness (Displacement) Method in Finite Element Analysis
The linear spring is introduced to provide a simple yet generally instructive tool to illustrate
the basic concepts of stiffness method.
The principle of minimum potential energy is introduced and applied derive the spring
element equations, and use it to solve a spring assemblage problem. This principle will be
illustrated using the simplest of elements (those with small numbers of degrees of freedom)
so that it will become a more easily understood concept when necessarily applied to
elements with large numbers of degrees of freedom in subsequent discussions.
Derivation of the Stiffness Matrix for a Spring Element
The symbol k is called the spring constant or stiffness of the spring.
Analogies to actual spring constants arise in numerous engineering problems.A prismatic
uniaxial bar has a spring constant k = AE/L, where A represents the cross-sectional area of
the bar, E is the modulus of elasticity, and L is the bar length. Similarly, a prismatic
circular-cross-section bar in torsion has a spring constant k=JG/L, where J is the polar
moment of inertia and G is the shear modulus of the material. For one-dimensional heat
conduction, k=AK
xx
/L, where K
xx
is the thermal conductivity of the material and one-
dimensional fluid flow through a porous media, k=AK
xx
/L, where K
xx
is the permeability
coefficient of the material.
Consider the linear spring element shown in Figure1. The reference points 1&2 are called
the nodes of the spring element. The local nodal forces are d
1x
and d
2x
for the spring element.
These nodal displacements are called the degrees of freedom at each node.
A relationship between nodal forces and nodal displacements for a spring element need
to be developed. This relationship is the stiffness matrix. The nodal force matrix is related to
the nodal displacement matrix as follows:

'

1
]
1

'

x
x
x
x
d
d
k k
k k
f
f
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
(1)
Where the elements k
ij
of the matrix in Eq. (1) are to be determined.
Step 1 Select Element Type
Consider the linear spring (Fig.2) subjected to resulting nodal tensile forces T. The
original distance between nodes before deformation is denoted by L.
Step 2 Select a Displacement Function
A displacement function u is assumed. Here a linear displacement variation along the
x axis of the spring is assumed. Therefore

f
1x
, d
1x
Figure 1 Linear spring element with positive nodal
displacement and force conventions
1 2
f
2x
, d
2x
k
L
x

x a a u
2 1
+ (2)
In general, the total number of coefficients
a
is equal to the total number of degrees
of freedom associated with the element. Here the total number of degrees of freedom is two
an axial displacement at each of the two nodes of the element. In matrix form, Eq. (2)
becomes

[ ]

'

2
1
1
a
a
x u
(3)
Evaluating u at each node and solving for
1
a and
2
a from Eq.(2) as follows:

1 1
) 0 ( a d u
x

(4)

x x
d L a d L u
1 2 2
) ( +
(5)
Or, solving Eq. (5) for
2
a ,

L
d d
a
x x 1 2
2

(6)
On substituting Eqs.(4)and (6) into Eq. (2), we have

x
x x
d x
L
d d
u
1
1 2
) ( +

(7)
Figure 2 Linear spring subjected to tensile forces
d
1x
1
2
d
2x
k
x
T
L
1
2
x
In matrix form, we express Eq. (7) as

'

x
x
d
d
L
x
L
x
2
1
] 1 [
(8)
or

'

x
x
d
d
N N u
2
1
2 1
] [
(9)
Here
L
x
N 1
1
and
L
x
N
2
(1)
are called the shape functions because the s N
i
,
express the shape of assumed displacement
function over the domain of element when the ith element degree of freedom has unit value
and all other degrees of freedom are zero.
In addition, they are often called interpolation functions because we are interpolating to find
the value of a function between given nodal values.
Step 3 Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships
The tensile forces T produces a total elongation (deformation) of the spring. For
the linear spring, T and are related through Hookes law by
k T (11)
where is the deformation of the spring,

x x
d d
1 2

(12)
Step 4 Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations
Nodal forces are

T f
x

1

T f
x

2
(13)
Using Eqs. (11), (12), and (13), we have

) (
) 14 (
) (
1 2 1
1 2 1
x x x
x x x
d d k f T
d d k f T




) (
) 15 (
) (
1 2 2
1 2 1
x x x
x x x
d d k f
d d k f


Now expressing Eqs.(15) in a single matrix equation yields

'

1
]
1

'

x
x
x
x
d
d
k k
k k
f
f
2
1
2
1
(16)

Stiffness Matrix is
1
]
1

k k
k k
k
(17)
Step 5 Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global Equations and Introduce
Boundary Conditions

N
e
e
k K K
1
) (
] [
and

N
e
e
f F F
1
) (
] [
(18)
Wherek and
f
are now element stiffness and force matrices expresses in global
reference frame.
Step 6 Solve for the Nodal Displacements
The displacements are then determined by imposing boundary conditions and solving
a system of equations, d K F simultaneously.
Step 7 Solve for the Element Forces
Finally, the element forces are determined by back-substitution, applied to each
element.