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ASPEE College of Horticulture & Forestry Navsari Agricultural University Navsari 396450

Course No: FSC-507 Course Title: Post Harvest technology For Fruit Crops

An Assignment on Processing Waste and Food Safety & Standards of Fruit Crops
Submitted to: Er.A.K.Senapati Assistant Professor Post Harvest Technology ACHF, Navsari. Submitted By: Bhakti G. Naik M.Sc (Horti.) 2nd Sem. Post Harvest Technology ACHF, Navsari. Reg.No.04-1088-2011

Processing Waste During the canning of fruits and vegetables and the preparation of juice, squashes, jams, jellies, dried products etc, large quantities of waste materials are left over, and these have to be utilized for the manufacture of by-products in order to reduce the cost of production of the main products. The waste products are in various forms. For instance we have the peel, rag and seeds in the case of citrus fruits; peel and stones in mangoes; ling and seeds in jack fruit; core and peel in guavas; seeds' skin and trimmings in tomatoes etc. Then there is the problem of utilization of over ripe and blemished fruits and vegetables. It is necessary to find suitable profitable outlets for such wastes. In this country, a considerable amount of work has already been done on this important aspect of the fruit and vegetable preservation industry, especially in the case of fruit and vegetable wastes for which there is not much available published data.

Types of Food Wastes It is difficult to discuss the nature and composition of wastes from different food industries. But each type of waste has a characteristic BOD that may be high, low or intermediate and each presents its own problems of treatment and disposal. Dairy wastes, for examples, are usually high in protein and lactose and contain many microorganisms. Such wastes, if not already treated will turn acid if kept under anaerobic conditions and then will be more difficult to treat. Some wastes may be acid originally wastes from fruit canneries, malthouse, brewery, distillery. Maize products plant wastes are high in carbohydrates and likely to become acid under anaerobic conditions. Wastes high in proteins are likely to putrefy under anaerobic conditions. Other wastes may contain antiseptic chemicals, such as the sulphite in waste liquors from paper mills, and therefore may be difficult to decompose by means of microorganisms. Ranges of 5-day BOD values reported for wastes from various types of food-processing plants are shown in the table below. Factors to be Considered in Waste Disposal Problems The high organic strength of the usual cannery wastes is the principal reason for the difficulty encountered in their disposal. Raw untreated cannery wastes consist of small particles and sometimes discarded whole pieces of raw products and skins and seeds suspended in water which carries the solution. As
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compared to domestic sewage, cannery wastes are unusually high in sugars and starches, and the pollution strength is approximately ten times greater. The pollution effect of cannery waste when discharged of the waste, the amount of dilution afforded by the stream, and the amount of available oxygen present in the stream water. As long as oxygen is present, decomposition of the organic waste will proceed without occurrence of the stream conditions usually associated with pollution. However, if the strength and volume of the waste water is such that dissolve oxygen disappears from the water, then fish and other forms of aquatic life will disappear. Foul odours will arise from the sludge deposits and the floating scum. Wastes from food plants ordinarily contain a variety of organic compounds, which range from simple and readily oxidizable kinds to those that are complex and difficult to decompose. The strength of the sewage or food waste containing organic matter is expressed in terms of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which is the quantity of oxygen used by aerobic microorganisms and reducing compounds in the stabilization of decomposable matter during a selected time at a certain temperature. A period of 5 days at 20C is generally used, and results are expressed as 5-day BOD. The BOD is determined by dilution of a measured quantity of waste with water that has been saturated with oxygen and incubation of the mixture at 20C, along with a control of dilution water alone. After five days, the residual oxygen in both control and test sample is measured by titration. The difference represents the oxygen-consuming capacity of the waste, and is calculated and expressed as parts per million of oxygen taken up by the waste. Whenever appreciable amounts of wastes, high in oxidizable organic matter (high BOD) are emptied into natural waters, such as streams, ponds, or lakes, the 7 to 8 ppm of free oxygen normally present in the waters is used up soon by oxidation processes carried out the aerobic or facultative microorganisms. When the oxygen drops below 3 ppm, the fish either leave or die, and when anaerobic conditions have been attained, hydrolysis, putrefaction, and fermentation by microorganisms will follow with the result that the body of water will become malodourous and cloudy and hence unsuited for recreational use and unfit for drinking and for use in the food plant Wastes from a food plant, then, to be emptied into a body of water, must either be so greatly diluted by that water or must be treated first to reduce the oxidizable compounds to a harmless level. Even the effluent from an efficiently operated sewage treatment system will encourage the growth of algae and higher aquatic plants in the water and
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make it less attractive for various purposes. Preliminary treatments of food plant wastes by chemical means may be employed, but most systems of treatment and disposal depend upon, (1) screening out of large particles ; (2) Floating off of fatty and other flating materials; (3) hydrolysis, fermentation, and putrefaction of complex organic compounds; and finally (4) oxidation of the remaining solids in the vater to a point where they can enter a municipal sewage treatment and disposal system, a plant disposal system, a lake a stream, or into soil. The completeness of oxidation required will depend upon the disposal to be made. Thus, less oxidation might be required for feeding to a municipal system or for irrigating soil than for entering a stream or lake.

Methods of Disposal There are generally two types of methods used in waste disposal. Chemical Treatment In a chemical treatments, chemical or mixture of chemicals is added to the sewage or waste to cause formation of flocculent precipitate, which, while settling carries with it much of the suspended and colloidal material, including the bacteria. The effluent is then run into a body of water, onto soil, or into a biological treatment system. The chemicals commonly used are soluble aluminum or iron salts, such as alum or ferrous sulphate plus lime, giving a flocculent precipitate of aluminum or ferric hydroxide. Disposal of the sludge (settlings) so obtained may be difficult. Biological Treatment and Disposal The general biological methods for waste disposal and/or treatment include (1) dilution, by running waste waters into a large body of water; (2) irrigation, in which waste waters are sprayed onto fields of open-textured soil; (3) lagooning by running the waste waters into shallow artificial ponds (with or without other treatments); (4) use of trickling filters, made of a crushed rock, coke, filter tile, etc ; (5) use of the activated sludge method, in which the waste water is. Inoculated heavily with the sludge from a previously run sample and is actively aerated in tanks; and (6) use of anaerobic tanks of various kinds, where settling, hydrolysis, putrefaction, and fermentation take place usually to be
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followed by some aerobic treatment. The dilution method is seldom practicable because a sufficiently large or rapidly moving volume of water is rarely available or because the location is such that sewage decomposition cannot proceed without objections from nearby populations. Irrigation is increasing in popularity and is especially adaptable to use by plants located in rural areas and near open textured soil. Lagooning has been used especially for seasonal wastes, as from canning factories. The wastes are decomposed slowly in these shallow ponds or lagoons until the liquid part can be run into a stream or other body of water during the rainy season or time of melting snow, when there is a good volume of water. Usually sodium nitrate is added to reduce obnoxious odours. Sometimes, the liquid is pumped from and returned to a lagoon, or it may be pumped from one lagoon to another in a series of lagoons. Trickling filters and activated sludge systems are probably the most effective of the systems listed, but they also expensive to run and require supervision by an expert.

Utilizing Waste Material Materials that are at present being wasted in the fruit and vegetable processing industry can be utilized profitably in some cases. Setting up of a by-product industry is a fairly costly venture, and its success depends upon the ready availability of large quantities of the waste materials in the neighbor hood. In the following section, some suggestions and recommendations have been made in regard to the utilization of various waste materials from different sources. The satisfactory disposal of waste water from processing plant if a complex problem. Extreme conditions arising from the discharge of organic wastes have led to the passage of stronger pollution control laws and greater activity by control agencies. Failure of a food processor to plan accordingly could eventually result in excessive costs for treatment or disposal of his waste water. The cleanliness and sanitation of plant premises includes not only the maintenance of the clean and well-sanitized housekeeping, in and about the plant but also adequate treatment and disposal of wastes. The food sanitation is concerned directly or indirectly with the adequate treatment and disposal of wastes from the plant. Solid and concentrated wastes ordinarily are kept separate from the watery wastes, and may be used directly for
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food, fertilizer, or other purpose. It may first be concentrated, dried or fermented may be carted away to available (able land as unusable waste. Care is taken to keep out of the waste waters as much wasted liquid or solid food material as possible, by taking precautions to avoid introduction into the watery wastes of drip; leakage, overflow, spoilage, large residues in containers, foam, frozen food, and food dust during the handling and processing of the food. Apple The pomace left over after the extraction of apple juice can be dried and utilized for the preparation of pectin. In fact, a large quantity of dried apple pomace forms the basis for the commercial production of pectin in the U.K., Denmark, Switzerland, etc. The other important source for commercial production of pectin in powder form is citrus peel and pomace. Apple pomace being a rich source of pectin and a fairly good source of sugars, can be utilized on a small-scale for blending with fruits poor in pectin for the preparation of jams, jellies, etc. which require additional pectin. Apple chutney similar to mango chutney can also be prepared from fresh apple pomace. Apricot According to Sid dap pa and Mustafa, white apricot kernel it sweet and can be peeled and added to apricot jam to improve its appearance and consumer appeal. It can also be used in confectionery just like almond. According to Cruess, edible oil can be extracted from the kernels by pressing or by using a solvent this oil can be refined and used just like almond oil. It can also be used in cosmetics and in pharmaceutical preparations. The kernels are sometimes used for making macaroon paste which is usually made from almonds. Apricot kernel oil cake is rich in protein and can be used as a cattle feed. Grape In the preparation of grape juice and wine, stems and pomace are the main waste products. The stems can yield cream of tartar. From the pomace, the seeds can be separated and pressed to extract an oil which is edible in its refined state. It can also be used to dip the grapes prior to drying so that they acquire a lustrous appearance. The oil-cake can be treated with water, and calcium tartrate precipitated by adding to the extract, a mixture of calcium hydroxide and calcium chloride. The calcium tartrate precipitate is treated with dilute sulphuric acid to precipitate the calcium as calcium sulphate which can be filtered off. From the filtrate, tartaric acid can be recovered by crystallization. Tannin extracts can be
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extracted from the hulls of the decorticated grape seeds. The pomace can be used for the preparation of grape jelly and also grape chutney. According to El well and Dehn, grape marc can be a suitable source of commercial pectin under certain conditions. In the preparation of grape juice for bottling, it is necessary to cold store the extracted juice so that the argols (potassium hydrogen tartrate) may settle down gradually in the form of crystals. This is a valuable byproduct, which can be recovered and refined. Guava Cheese The core along with the seeds and also the peel can be utilized for the preparation of guava cheese, which is a fruit confection of the type of Indian halwa and it has a potential home as well as foreign market. Jain, Das and Girdhari Lai have standardized an improved method for its preparation. According to them, cold pulping of the material is more convenient and far better than hot pulping in several respects. The pulp embedding the seeds and the seeds themselves are not as useful for the preparation of guava cheese as the peel and the main pulpy portion of the fruit. . The fruit is minced and passed through a screw-type juice extractor fitted with a 40-50 mesh sieve. All the ingredients except citric acid are heated together in a pan. When the temperature of the material reaches 105C, the citric acid is added and heating continued to bring about inversion of sugar so that in the finished product there will be 36 per cent of invert sugar. The oiling is finished at 115C at sea level. The cooked mass is then spread over the smooth surface of a tray, which has been smeared with a small quantity of butter or hydrogenated oil or glycerine and allowed to cool and set. When properly made the resulting cheese is of good set and it has a light brown colour and a good flavour. Using the above recipe and process, it has been observed that the peelings, seeds and pulp in the seed core can be utilized for making guava cheese. Cheese made from the peelings alone, has good set and is of deep brown colour and possesses satisfactory flavour. Cheese made from the seeds is rather soft in texture, is sticky and is of dark brown colour. It, however, possesses good flavour. The cheese from the pulp in the seed core is of a soft texture and has fairly good flavour. The cheese can be cut into small slabs and wrapped in butter paper.

Jack Fruit The waste material, namely the thick rind with the inner perigones, has been found by Siddappa and Bhatia to be a good raw material for a high class jelly. Being fairly rich in pectin, it can be used for the preparation of pectin. The seeds which are starchy, can be roasted or cooked in salt water and eaten as a food. They can also be dried and. made into flour, which can be blended with other cereal flours. In fact, the seeds as well the fruit bulbs form an important source of food for several months during the fruit season in some parts of Kerala and Karnataka and Tamil Nadu States. Analytical and nutritional studies carried out by Siddappa and Bhatia have hown the usefulness of jack fruit which is cheap and available in plent) over a period of several months. Jack fruit 'leather' similar to mango leather which is dried mango pulp, can be made from broken bulbs. It is made on a home scale in several parts of Kerala and South Canara district in Karnataka.

Mango In the mango canning industry 25 to 30 per cent of the fruit is lost in the form of peelings. These peelings can be extracted with water and fermented into fruit vinegar. The kernel of the stone can be dried, powdered and utilized for edible purposes. The possibility of utilizing mango stones which form a fairly large proportion of the fruit (15 to 20 percent), as a source of food in times of scarcity of cereal foods, is of considerable importance. Some work has been done in this direction. Sometimes, mango pulp recovered from trimmings, stones etc., can also be profitably utilized for the preparation of dried mango pulp in the form of sheets popularly known as 'mango leather'.

Passion-Fruit The thick hard rind of the fruit can be used for the recovery of pectin, and the seeds for oil. Much work has been done on these aspects by Pruthi and his colleagues at the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore.

Peach Just as in the case of apricots, peach kernels can be used for extraction of kernel oil for industrial use. Pear The peel and core can be fermented into an alcoholic beverage called 'perry which can also be converted into a fruit vinegar by further acetic fermentation.

Pineapple The utilization of pineapple waste, which constitutes nearly 40 to 50 per cent of the fruit in the pineapple canning industry, has recently become an important problem in this country as they are not being used on any large and systematic scale for the recovery of by-products, as is being done in Hawaii, Australia and other large pineapple processing countries. According to Cruess, the shells, trimmings and other waste materials are shredded and pressed in a continuous press to recover the juice which is refined by de-acidifying and decolourizing, and then mixed with cane sugar syrup for use in the canning of pineapple slices and titbits. At one time, the juice was fermented into alcohol for use in automobiles. Citric acid also was recovered from the juice by neutralizing it with CaC03 and treating the calcium carbonate formed to get citric acid as in the case of lemon juice. The cores have been found suitable for candying. Juice also can be recovered from the cores. The press cake from the juice can be dried and used as a component of animal feed. The pomace left over after extraction of juice from the peeled fruit, trimmings and cores, is not quite suitable for the preparation of pineapple jam of high quality. At the moment pineapple vinegar is the only by-product that is being made to a small extent is one or two pineapple canning factories in this country. Some experimental work has, however, been conducted to demineralise the peel juice by using ion-exchange techniques and prepare a sugar syrup from it Further work is necessary for commercial exploitation of the techniques. Manufacture of cattle feed can, however, be taken up now as a profitable outlet for the wastes, by installing rotary driers as m the case of dehydration of pea hulls. Of course, some work has been done at the CFTRl on the utilization of pineapple tops and leaves.

Peas The vines and pea hulls can be dehydrated and used in the preparation of stock feeds by suitable blending with other materials, as is being done in Tasmania and some other countries.

CITRU PRODUCTS In the case of citrus fruits the, the most important waste materials are thin peels from oranges, the rags and seeds .and the sludge, which is deposited when lime juice is stored to settle to get a clear juice for the preparation of lime juice cordial. The peels are generally employed for candying or for the extraction or distillation of essential oil which finds a ready market in the confectionery and prefumery industries. Orange peel oil of high quality got by cold pressing is extensively used in the soft juice beverage industry for flavouring. It is used in the preparation of orange squash also. Only small quantities of orange peel are produced in this country. Orange peel, especially peel from loose jacket mandarin oranges, can be pressed is a sharples-type roller chain press or in a double or triple roll mill with indentations, and the liberated oil washed out oy means of sprays of water to form an emulsion. From this emulsion, orange oil can be separated by centrifuging in a Sharpies-type centrifuge, dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate and packed in glass or aluminum containers. From this oil, terpeneless oil can be prepared by adopting special refining processes. The terpeneless oil which finds a use in the cosmetic industry fetches a premium price. The deoiled peel can be used for the extraction of pectin. The rags can be utilized for the preparation of citrus pectin. It can also be used in the preparation of marmalade and orange toffee. The rag can be dried and used as cattle feed. According to Jain, Das, and Girdhari Lai, lime oil can be recovered by distillation from the lime juice sludge. Citric acid also can be prepared from the sludge. Orange residues can be fermented into fruit vinegar. Orange and lime seed can be utilized for the extraction of seed oil, which can find use in several industries. Citric Acid According to Lai Singh and Girdhari Lai, citric acid can be prepared from cull limes, galgal, khatta etc. The juice is first fermented naturally to remove gums, pectins and sugars which hinder its filtration. The fermented juice is then treated with a filter aid like Kieselguhr at 60 to 66C and then filtered. Hydrated lime and calcium carbonate are added to precipitate the calcium citrate. The
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precipitate is separated and dried quickly to avoid discolouration. For conversion of the citrate into citric acid, the wet precipitate itself is used in the form of a thin paste. It is treated with the calculated amount of concentrated sulphuric acid to decompose the citrate into citric acid. The calcium sulphate precipitated is removed and the liquor concentrated to crystallize the citric acid. From the unfermented juice, calcium citrate may be prepared and decomposed with a strong solution of sodium carbonate to form sodium citrate. The precipitated calcium carbonate may be filtered of and the solution concentrated to crystallize sodium citrate. The manufacture of citric acid on a large-scale is not profitable on account of the high cost of the fruits. Imported citric acid, which sells at Rs 8 to Rs 9 per 454 g, is much cheaper. Further, citric acid is produced cheaply in other countries from sugars by the fermentation process. Of late, citric acid is being produced in this country also by the fermentation process. CITRUS OILS According to Lai Singh and Girdhari Lal, fresh orange peels yield about 0.54 per cent of oil by the cold press method. Citrus peels oil, extracted by the cold process fetches a better price than distilled oil which is of inferior quality. Fuel oil is extracted in several ways. In Italy, the lemon peels are pressed by hand over a bowl and the juice and oil are caught on a sponge. The oil and juice are squeezed from the sponge periodically and the oil separating is decanted from the mixture. After the oil has stood overnight, it is filtered through paper, dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate and filled into copper cans. In the case of oranges, the outer portion of the fruit containing the oil : bearing cells is scraped by means of revolving abrasive discs, and the scraped fruit is wiped with a sponge to recover the oil. In another type of machine, oranges or lemons are made to roll on numerous pointed spikes which puncture the oil cells and release the oil. The oil is washed with sprays of water and recovered in centrifugal separators. In the S fumatric-type of press, the peel is fed on to a moving chain belt and crushed gradually between the roll and the chain with diminishing clearance between the two, from the entry to the exist end. The oil released from the peel is washed with sprays of water, and the washings filtered and centrifuged to separate the oil. This type of extractor is used in Italy. Similar equipment has been installed in a few citrus processing plants in this country. In the case of fresh peels of loose jacket oranges, oil of good quality can be
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obtained by bending the turgid peel between the fingers and scraping the exuded oil and juice across the sharp edge of fingers placed over a bottle. The peel juice and the oil collect in the bottle. The oil, which is at the top, can be decanted or separated by means of a separating funnel. Other simple methods have been investigated at the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore. The preliminary treatment of the peel with hydrated lime or with calcium chloride facilitates the extraction of oil. The residue, however, is not quite suited for subsequent use in the preparation of pectin. Fresh peels can be steamed or water-distilled to recover the oil they can also be sun-dried, and the oil distilled subsequently after a preliminary soaking of the dried peel in water. Experiments carried out at the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, have shown that mincing of the peel helps in quickening the liberation of the oil by distillation. Sarangapani and Siddappa have conducted a series of investigations on the recovery of orange oil from the dried peel of Coorg mandarin oranges. Prut hi and Girdhari Lai have analyzed two samples of cold pressed Nagpur mandarin orange peel oil and have reported the following data : The ester content of Nagpur orange oil is somewhat lower than that of the Italian product, but is higher than that of the Florida oil. The constants for Nagpur orange oil resemble closely the specifications for tangerine oil as laid down by the U. S. Department. Of Agriculture. Banana Wastes In the processing of banana for canning and dehydration, the banana peel is a waste product Nanjundaswamy, Saroja and Siddappa, working at the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, have shown that the pulpy portion scraped from the thick peel of the banana can be utilized for the preparation of banana cheese similar to guava cheese. The pseudo stem of the banana plant which is cut down after harvesting the bunch can be utilized as raw material for the preparation of paper pulp. From the stem, nearly one per cent of starch of edible quality can be recovered by crushing the stem and tabling. This can add to the starch resources of the country. Papaya In the processing of ripe papaya fruit, greenish fruit can be lanced on the tree for the collection of the latex, which can be dried to get the proteolytic enzyme papain which finds industrial application in textile and pharmaceutical
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industries. After tapping the fruit can be allowed to ripen, or it can be collected d utilized for the preparation of pectin. An integrated process for the recovery of papain as well as pectin has been worked out by Krishnamun & siddappa and their colleagues at the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore. Active research is continuing to explore the possibility of developing useful products from wastes in the case of other fruits and vegetables. This is much scope for this kind of work in this country. Recent work at the CFTRI on the development of by-products from citrus mango and tomato wastes from processing factories, passion fruit, rind and seed, pineapple tops and leaves, etc is described briefly in the following sections. Citrus Pectin and Essential Oil There has been considerable interest in recent years, in developing useful products from a number of waste materials from fruit and vegetable canning and preservation factories. Researchers Pruthi and Agarwal (1971) have studied the effect of different treatments and sun-drying of mandarin orange, pomace and peel on the recovery and quality of pectin extracted there from. They have recommended combined drying of peel and pomace and blanching of the material to improve somewhat the rate of drying. Jelly grade of blanched peel (210) and pomace (200) remained unchanged daring sun-drying. Parekh & Pruthi and Lai (1959) have studied earlier the possibility of development of an integrated process for the recovery of cold pressed essential oil and pectin. They have enumerated the various products from peels, marc and seeds present in citrus wastes. Parekh, Pruthi and Lai (1961) have reviewed the chemistry and technology of citrus essential oils with special reference to physico-chemical characteristics of sweet orange oil, lemon oil. Lime oil, grape-fruit oil. mandarin oils and other citrus fruit oils, their storage properties, use in citrus beverages etc., in India. Cold-pressed Nagpur mandarin oil has the following composition : Limonine, 97 per cent; methyl enthranilate, traces; crystalline wax, 0.6 per cent; non-crystalline wax, 2.4 per cent; and unidentified constituents, 0.16 per cent.' The chemical constituents are not significantly altered by season, year, etc. The best conditions for storage of mandarin oil are: treatment with anhydrous sodium sulphate; use of Na HC03 for deacidification; dcmineralisation with Zeo-karb 226; aluminum bottles as containers and gas packing under nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Addition of about 0.05 per cent NDGA prolongs storage life. Distilled oil is comparatively more stable than the cold-pressed oil under similar conditions of storage. The presence of M-carvone and dl-carveol in deteriorated
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orange oil is reported to be responsible for the 'terpency' off-flavour in orange squash. Padival, Bhatnagar and co-workers at CFTRI (1971) have prepared calcium and sodium citrates from limes. Several of the papers published on the subject from the CFTRI, Mysore, may by consulted. Mango Wastes Published information regarding the utilization of mango wastes has been reviewed by Pruthi, et al, (1959, 1963) and of tomato waste by Krishnamurthy et al. (1959) of the CFTRI. Parekh et al. (1959) reviewed the existing literature regarding utilization of citrus waste. Their subsequent work on some aspects of waste utilization has been referred to elsewhere. Among the by-products from mango peel, peel juice is one which can be extracted, concentrated and used as molasses for cattle and also for fermentation into alcohol, etc. The dried peel meal may be incorporated in cattle feed. The mango stone kernels can be converted into flour, by soaking in water, washing to remove the astringent taste and then drying. The flour is reported to contain 5.56 per cent protein, 16.1 per cent fat, 0.35 per cent minerals and 69.2 per cent carbohydrate. The food value of this flour is nearly equal to that of rice. The dried kernels with about 10 per cent moisture can be fed to animals without any further treatment. Starch can be recovered from the kernels (67.5 per cent) and used in industry. These kernels have certain medicinal properties on account of the astringent principle in them. They are also a good manure for plants The kernel oilcan be pressed and used in medicine and for making soap. An integrated process for the recovery of starch and fat from the seed kernel is worth fuller investigation on account of its economic importance. The possibility of canning mango slices without peeling them has been investigated at the CFTRI. Tomato Wastes In the case of tomato wastes, the peel can be utilized for the preparation of varnishes and resins. Oil can be expressed (17 per cent) or solvent extracted (33 per cent) from the seeds. The oil which is golden yellow in colour, can be used as salad oil and in the manufacture of margarine and soap. It compares well with wheat germ oil in vitamin E. The seed meal (37 per cent protein) can be used in feeds and fertilizers and also for the preparation of surfactants such as wetting agents, detergents etc. The marc which consists of peels cores, and seeds, can be
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dried and used in feeds (8-10 per cent protein and 10-12 per cent fat). It is estimated that from every 1000 tonnes of tomatoes processed for juice nearly 123.8 tonnes of marc (equal to 11.3 tonnes of total solids) are obtained from the cyclones. There is thus good scope for developinng by-products from tomato processing wastes.

Citrus WastesBy-products From citrus wastes, a variety of useful by-products can be developed. In the processing of citrus fruit, nearly 50 per cent of the fruit, comprising peel, marc and seeds goes waste. From the peels a number of by-products can be developed. Candied peel, peel juice for molasses, essential oils, pectin, citric acid (lemon peel), vitamins C and P can be prepared. The marc along with the peel can be utilized for the extraction of pectin. Low methoxyl pectin can be prepared from citrus peel and it is finding increasing uses. Glucosides from the peel known as bioflavins are finding use as a anti-oxidants and in physiological application. Citrates have been prepared from lemon peel. The seed oil (25-30 per cent) is extremely bitter owing to the presence of limonin, but after refining, it can be used in cooking. The crude oil can be utilized in soaps and detergents. The seed meal (32.5 per cent protein, 7.5 per cent fat and 8 per cent crude fibre) is a good poultry feed. In view of the growing economic importance of the citrus processing industry in the country, there, is scope for detailed investigations into the possibility of utilizing the available wastes for the manufacture of highly useful products such as essential oil, pectin, vitamin P concentrate, poultry feed, seed oil, etc. Passion Fruit Pruthi (1955, 1962), Pruthi and Lai (1960), Pruthi, Susheela and Lai (1960) made a thorough study of the utilization of practically every part of the passion fruit and published a number of papers on the subject. Some of the important references are cited under bibliography. The rind is a-source of pectin.

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Food Safety INTRODUCTION Concerns about food safety when handling fresh fruits and vegetables have increased over the past decade. Recent outbreaks of food-borne disease have been associated with berries, tomatoes, leafy greens and cut fruits. Wholesale buyers and consumers are increasingly interested in the use of handling practices that will ensure food safety. It is the responsibility of growers and postharvest handlers to document their practices to protect fresh produce from contamination. Retailers such as large supermarket chains are demanding compliance with food safety practices from their suppliers. And soon it may be impossible to export produce to Europe or the U.S. without documenting its-safe handling from the farm to the market Some general food safety practices are being promoted by universities, governmental agencies and private sector organizations around the world. For growers who want to export their produce to the European Community, you should be aware that new standards are being developed by the retail produce industry to guide handling practices for growers and shippers (known as EUREP-GAP). Key concepts are the implementation of GAP (Good Agricultural Practices) on the farm, in the packinghouse and during transport of all fresh produce and HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) to document the safe handling of farm chemicals, pesticides, packaging materials, etc., especially for processed or fresh-cut produce. CAUSES AND SOURCES OF FOOD SAFETY PROBLEMS The typical causes and sources of food safety problems during production and postharvest handling fall into the following three major categories. Physical Hazards Examples of physical hazards which may become imbedded in produce during production handling or storage are such things as: fasteners (staples, nails, screws, bolts) pieces of glass wood splinters
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Chemical Hazards Examples of chemical hazards which may contaminate produce during production handling or storage are such things as: pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodentacides machine lubricants from forklifts or packing line equipment heavy metals (Lead, Mercury, Arsenic) industrial toxins compounds used to clean and sanitize equipment Human Pathogens There are four main types of human pathogens associated with fresh produce: soil associated pathogenic bacteria (Clostridium botulinum, Listeria monocytogenes) feces associated pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., E. coli 0157 : H7 and others) pathogenic parasites (Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora) pathogenic viruses (Hepatitis, Enterovirus). Many of these pathogens are spread via a human (or domestic animal) to food to human transmission route. Handling of fruits and vegetables by infected field-workers or consumers, cross contamination, use of contaminated irrigation water, use of inadequately composted manure or contact with contaminated soil are just a few of the ways that transmission of human pathogens to food can occur. While produce quality can be judged by outward appearance on such criteria as colour, turgidity and aroma; food safety can not. Casual inspection of produce cannot determine if it is in fact safe and wholesome to consume. Management of growing and postharvest handling conditions are paramount in preventing the contamination of fresh produce by physical hazards, harmful chemicals and human pathogens. (Gorny, 1999) FOOD SAFETY ON THE FARM Practices related to these four simple principles can reduce the risk that produce may become contaminated on the farm.
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Clean soil Avoid the improper use of manure. Compost manure completely to kill pathogens and incorporate it into soil at least two weeks prior to planting. Keep domestic and wild animals out of fields to reduce the risk of fecal contamination. Provide portable toilet facilities* near the field. Prevent run-off or drift from animal operations from entering produce fields. Do NOT harvest produce within 120 days of a manure application. Clean water Test surface water that is used for irrigation for fecal pathogens on a regular basis, especially if water passes close to a sewage treatment or livestock area. Keep livestock away from the active recharge area for well-water that will be used for irrigation. Keep chemicals away from the active recharge area for well-water that will be used for irrigation. Filter or use settling ponds to improve water quality. Where feasible, use drip irrigation to reduce crop wetting and minimize risk. Use potable water for making up chemical pest management sprays. Clean surfaces Tools and field containers must be kept clean. Wash and sanitize these items before each use. Clean hands Workers who harvest produce must wash their hands after Using the toilet. Provide soap, clean water and single-use towels in the field and insist that all workers wash their hands before handling produce. Minimizing pathogen contamination during harvest During harvesting operations field personnel may contaminate fresh fruits and
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vegetables by simply touching them with an unclean hand or knife blade. Portable field latrines as well as hand wash stations must be available and used by all harvest crew members. Monitoring and enforcement of field worker personnel hygiene practices such as washing hands after using the latrine are a must, to reduce the risk of human pathogen contamination. Workers who are ill with hepatitis A or who have symptoms of nausea, vomiting or diarrhea should not be assigned to harvest fresh produce. Produce once harvested should not be placed upon bare soils before being placed in clean and sanitary field containers. Field harvesting tools and gloves should be clean, sanitary and not be placed directly in contact with soil. Field containers should be cleaned and sanitized on a regular basis as well as being free of contaminants such as mud, industrial lubricants, metal fasteners or splinters. Do not allow workers to stand in field bins during harvest to reduce pathogen spread by shoes. Plastic field bins and totes are preferred to wooden containers since plastic surfaces are easier to clean and sanitize, which should be done after every use. If containers are not cleaned and sanitized after every use, they may become contaminated and then contaminate the next products which are placed in the container. Wooden containers or field totes are almost impossible to sanitize since they have a porous surface and wooden or metals fasteners such as nails from wooden containers may accidentally be introduced into produce. Cardboard field bins if reused should be visually inspected for cleanliness and lined with a polymeric plastic bag before reuse to prevent the risk of cross contamination. Depending upon the commodity, produce may be field packaged in containers that will go all the way to the destination market or be temporarily placed in bulk bins, baskets or bags which will be transported to a packing shed. Employees, equipment, cold storage facilities, packaging materials and any water which will be contacting the harvested produce must be kept clean and sanitary to prevent contamination (Gorny, 1999). Minimizing pathogen contamination during postharvest handling Employee Hygiene Gloves, hairnets and clean smocks are commonly worn by packinghouse employees in export oriented packing sheds. The cleanliness and personnel hygiene of employees handling produce at all stages of production and' handling
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must be managed to minimize the risk of contamination. Adequate bathroom facilities and hand wash stations must be provided and used properly to prevent contamination of produce by packinghouse employees. Shoe or boot cleaning stations may also be in place to reduce the amount of field dirt and contamination which enters the packing shed from field operations. Employee training regarding sanitary food handling practices should be done when an employee is hired and reviewed before they begin work each season. Equipment Food contact surfaces on conveyor belts, dump tanks etc. should be cleaned and sanitized on a regular scheduled basis with food contact surface approved cleaning compounds. A 200 parts per million sodium hypochlorite (bleach) solution is an excellent example of a food contact surface sanitizer. Sanitizers should be used only after thorough cleaning with abrasion to remove organic materials such as dirt or plant materials. Use of steam to clean equipment should be avoided since steam may actually cake organic materials and form a bio film, which renders equipment almost impossible to sanitize. Steam may also aerosolize bacteria into the air and actually spread contamination throughout the packing house facility. Packaging materials All packaging materials should be made of food contact grade materials to assure that toxic compounds in the packaging materials do not leach out of the package and into the produce. Toxic chemical residues may be present in some packaging materials due to use of recycled base materials. Empty packages such as boxes and plastic bags should be stored in an enclosed storage area to protect them from insects, rodents, dust, dirt and other potential sources of contamination. These actions protect not only against the potential loss of valuable materials but protect the integrity and safety of these materials. Wash and Hydrocooling Water All water which comes in contact with produce for washing or hydrocooling must be safe to drink. Water should contain between 100 and 150 parts per million total chlorine and have a pH of between 6 and 7.5. Chlorine use prevents the potential for cross contamination of all produce in the washing or hydrocooling system, it will not sterilize the produce. Change the water in dump tanks and hydro-coolers regularly.
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Ice for cooling Use ice made from only potable water sources. Refrigerated Transport Produce is best shipped in temperature controlled refrigerated trucks. Pre-cool the vehicles prior to loading. Maintaining perishables below 5C (41 F) even while being transported to destination markets will extend shelf-life and significantly reduce the growth rate of microbes including human pathogens. Temperatures used for transporting chilling sensitive produce will not protect against the growth of most pathogens. Trucks used during transportation should be cleaned and sanitized on a regular basis. Trucks which have been used to transport live animals, animal products or toxic materials should never be used to transport produce (Gprny, 1999; Cornell University GAPs Program, 2000 and Harris et al, 2002). Sanitizing field containers, tools and pack house surfaces High pressure wash, rinse and sanitize all crop containers, tools and pack house surfaces prior to each day's harvest. Sanitizers should be used only after thorough cleaning with abrasion to remove organic materials such as dirt or plant materials. Most commercial sanitizers contain chlorine or quaternary ammonium compounds (QUATS, QAC, benalkonium chloride, N-alkyl dimethybenzyl ammonium chloride). Chlorine solutions prepared from chlorine gas, hypochlorites and chloramines are not compatible with quaternary ammonium compound sanitizers. Selection of the sanitizer to use depends upon the surface to be cleaned, hardness of the water, application equipment available, effectiveness under ambient conditions and cost. All require extreme care when handled as either compressed gas, powders or concentrated liquids. Use the following table to assist in the selection of appropriate sanitizers for your operation.

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Used for

Chlorine gas

Hypochlorites (Na, K or Ca hypochlorite) All food contact Surfaces 25 to 200 ppm High General Fastest Powder better than Liquid Good Low Best at 6-7.5

Sanitizer properties Concentration Germicidal activity Specificity Speed Form Stability Toxicity pH range Temperature Effectiveness in hard water

All food contact surfaces 25 to 200 ppm High General Fastest Compressed gas Good Low Best at 6-7.5 Maximum 115F Activity decreases in very hard water (>500.ppm) Slight to moderate Very corrosive at pH <6 or over 115F

Chloramines (diQuaternary or ammonium tri-chloro-isocyanu Compounds arate) All food contact Non-food contact, surfaces porous materials, 1 drains, walls. 25 to 200 ppm 200 ppm High Varies General Fast Powder

Corrosion

Good against molds Moderate Concentrated Solution Good Excellent Lv None Best at 6-7.5 Effective over broad range Maximum 115F Maximum 115F Maximum 120'F Activity decreases in Activity decreases in Inactivated in hard very hard water very hard water Water (>500 ppm) (>500 ppm) Slight to moderate Low Very corrosive at pH Very corrosive at pH None <6 or over 115F <6 or over 115F

TRACEBACK The ability to identify the source of any fresh produce product is an essential part of good 1 agricultural practices. This is especially important whenever several growers are contributing to a single load, or when produce is being exported by one grower from several different fields.

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Example of a Package Label Useful for Traceback


Product Variety Farm name Location Field code Date of harvest Harvester code Packer code Mango Alphonso Pathak Brothers Kanpur, U.P. India 12 20 June #4 #2

The following practices are advocated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1. 2. Develop procedures to track produce from the farm, to the packer, distributor and retailer Documentation should indicate the source of the product (farm identification and the field where it was produced), the date of harvest and who handled the produce. Growers, packers and shippers should partner with transporters, distributors and retailers to develop management tools to facilitate the traceback process.

3.

Standards of different fruits:

Mango: In all classes, subject to the special provisions for each class and the tolerances allowed, the mangoes must be: whole; sound, produce affected by rotting or deterioration such as to make it unfit for consumption is excluded; clean, practically free of any visible foreign matter; practically free of damage caused by pests;

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free of abnormal external moisture, excluding condensation following removal from cold storage; free of any foreign smell and/or taste; firm; fresh in appearance; free of damage caused by low temperatures; free of black necrotic stains or trails; free of marked bruising; sufficiently developed and display satisfactory ripeness. When a peduncle is present, it shall be no longer than 1.0 cm. The development and condition of the mangoes must be such as to enable them: to ensure a continuation of the maturation process until they reach the appropriate degree of maturity corresponding to the varietal characteristics; to withstand transport and handling; and to arrive in satisfactory condition at the place of destination. In relation to the evolution of maturing, the colour may vary according to variety.

Banana: In all classes, subject to the special provisions for each class and the tolerances allowed, the bananas must be: whole (taking the finger as the reference); sound, produce affected by rotting or deterioration such as to make it unfit for consumption is excluded; clean, practically free of any visible foreign matter; practically free of pests affecting the general appearance of the produce; practically free of damage caused by pests; free of abnormal external moisture, excluding condensation following removal from cold storage, and bananas packed under modified atmosphere conditions; free of any foreign smell and/or taste; firm; free of damage caused by low temperatures; practically free of bruises;
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free of malformation or abnormal curvature of the fingers; with pistils removed; with the stalk intact, without bending, fungal damage or dessication. In addition, hands and clusters must include: a sufficient portion of the crown of normal colouring, sound and free of fungal contamination; a cleanly cut crown, not bevelled or torn, with no stalk fragments. The development and condition of the bananas must be such as to enable them: to reach the appropriate stage of physiological maturity corresponding to the particular characteristics of the variety; to withstand transport and handling; and To arrive in satisfactory condition at the place of destination in order to ripen satisfactorily.

Papaya: In all classes, subject to the special provisions for each class and the tolerances allowed, the papayas must be: whole; sound, produce affected by rotting or deterioration such as to make it unfit for consumption is excluded; clean, practically free of any visible foreign matter; practically free of damage caused by pests; practically free of pests affecting the general appearance of the produce; free of abnormal external moisture, excluding condensation following removal from cold storage; free of any foreign smell and/or taste1; firm; fresh in appearance; Free of damage caused by low and/or high temperatures. The peduncle, if present, should not exceed a length of 1 cm. The papayas must have reached an appropriate degree of development and ripeness account being taken of the characteristics of the variety and/or commercial type and the area in which they are grown. The development and condition of the papayas must be such as to enable them:
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to withstand transport and handling; and to arrive in satisfactory condition at the place of destination.

Guava: In all classes, subject to the special provisions for each class and the tolerances allowed, the guavas must be: whole; sound, produce affected by rotting or deterioration such as to make it unfit for consumption is excluded; clean, practically free of any visible foreign matter; practically free of pests affecting the general appearance of the produce; practically free of damage caused by pests; free of abnormal external moisture, excluding condensation following removal from cold storage; free of any foreign smell and/or taste; firm; Practically free of bruising. The guavas must have reached an appropriate degree of development and ripeness in accordance with criteria proper to the variety and to the area in which they are grown. The development and condition of the guavas must be such as to enable them: to withstand transport and handling; and to arrive in satisfactory condition at the place of destination.

Pineapple: In all classes, subject to the special provisions for each class and the tolerances allowed, the pineapples must be: whole, with or without the crown; sound, produce affected by rotting or deterioration such as to make it unfit for consumption is excluded; clean, practically free of any visible foreign matter; practically free of damage caused by pests; practically free of pests affecting the general appearance of the produce;

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free of abnormal external moisture, excluding condensation following removal from cold storage; free of any foreign smell and/or taste; fresh in appearance, including the crown, when present, which should be free of dead or dried leaves; free of damage caused by low and/or high temperatures; free of internal browning; free of pronounced blemishes. When a peduncle is present, it shall be no longer than 2.0 cm, and the cut must be transversal, straight and clean. The fruit must be physiologically ripe, i.e., without evidence of unripeness (opaque, flavourless, exceedingly porous1 flesh) or overripeness (exceedingly translucent or fermented flesh). The pineapples have reached an appropriate degree of development and ripeness in accordance with criteria proper to the variety and/or commercial type and to the area in which they are grown. The development and condition of the pineapples must be such as to enable them: to withstand transport and handling; and to arrive in satisfactory condition at the place of destination. Maturity Requirements The total soluble solids content in the fruit flesh should be at least 12Brix (twelve Brix degrees). For the determination of Brix degrees a representative sample of the juice of all the fruit shall be taken.

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