1.

Plastics Types Compounding of plastics

Plastics: Plastics are basically polymers. The word plastic is derived from plastikos meaning capable of being shaped or moulded. It refers to their malleable nature which allows them to be cast, pressed or extruded into a variety of shapes such as films, fibres, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes and much more. A plastic material should have sufficient rigidity, dimensional stability and mechanical stability (strength) at RT to serve as a useful article, gadget or structural part. Resins: Resins are the basic binding materials which form a major part of the plastic, which has actually undergone polymerization and condensation reactions, during their preparation. Types of plastics/resins: (a) Thermoplastic resins are those, which can be softened on heating and hardened on cooling reversibly. Thus they soften on heating and remain soft as long as they are hot. On cooling they regain their original rigidity and hardness. Repeated heating and cooling do not alter the chemical nature of these materials because the changes involved are purely of physical nature. (b) Thermosetting resins are those resins which during moulding process (by heating etc.) get hardened and once they have solidified, they cant be softened i.e. they are permanent setting resins. Such resins during moulding, acquire three-dimensional cross-linked structure with predominantly strong covalent bonds.

Thermoplastics 1 Formed by addition (chain) Formed by

Thermosetting condensation (step)

polymerization only 2

polymerization

They have linear polymers with They have three dimensional structure negligible crosslinks

These resins become soft on heating During fabrication process these resins and rigid on cooling are moulded. once they are solidified they cannot be softened

The heating and cooling do not alter These resins are permanent setting the chemical nature of these resins resins because the changes involved are purely physical nature They cant be reshaped They cant be reclaimed from waste

5 6 7

They can be reshaped They can be reclaimed from waste

These resins are usually soluble in Due to strong bonds and cross links organic solvents. Ex: Polyethylene, they are insoluble in all organic Poly vinyl chloride etc. solvents. Ex: Bakelite, Nylon etc.

Compounding of plastics The process of including various additives into a plastic by mechanical means to get a homogeneous mixture is called compounding. These additives make the plastic colorful, improve the workability of plastics, change properties of the plastics or produce new properties. The additives are classified according to their purpose as, (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) Fillers Plasticizers Stabilizers Accelerators Colorants Fire retardants Lubricants

Usually the high polymer material is mixed with 4-10 ingredients each of which discharges a useful function during moulding or impart some useful property to the finished artifact.

(a) Fillers: Fillers are added to give the final plastic better hardness, tensile strength, opacity, finish and workability besides reducing cost, shrinkage on setting and brittleness. Sometimes, fillers are added to impart special character to the products. For Ex.(i) Carborandum, quartz and mica are added to provide extra hardness (ii) Barium salts are added to make the plastic impervious to X-rays (iii) Addition of asbestos provides heat and corrosion resistance. Commonly used fillers are wood flour, asbestos, china clay, gypsum, sawdust, marble flour, paper pulp, corn husk, mica, carbon black, metallic oxides (ZnO, PbO) and metal powders (Al, Cu, Pb). The percentage of filler varies and can be upto 50 % of total moulding mix. Those fillers which enhance mechanical strength are called reinforcing fillers. Ex: C -black to natural rubber increases 40 % tensile strength and also abrasion resistance.

(b) Plasticizers:

Plasticizers are materials that are added to resins to increase their

plasticity and flexibility. Their action is considered to be the result of the neutralization of part of the intermolecular forces of attraction between macromolecules of resins. Thus they impart greater freedom of movement between the polymeric macro-molecules of resins, thereby increasing the flexibility and plasticity of the compounded material. But at the same time reduces its strength and also decreases its chemical resistance. Ex: Vegetable oils (non-drying type), camphor, esters (stearic or oleic or phthalic acids) and some phosphates (like tri cresyl phosphate, tri butyl phosphate)

(c) Stabilizers: The purpose of adding stabilizers is to improve the thermal stability during processing. For example vinyl chloride & vinylidene chloride polymers show a tendency to undergo decomposition and discolouration at moulding temperature. So during their moulding heat stabilizers are used. Common stabilizers are (a) opaque moulding compounds like salts of Lead e.g. white lead, lead chromate, litharge, red lead, lead silicate and lead naphthenate (b) transparent moulding compounds like stearates of Lead, Cadmium and Barium

(d) Accelerators or Catalysts: they are added only in the case of thermosetting plastics with the object of accelerating the polymerization of fusible resin, during moulding operation, into cross-linked infusible form. Ex: H 2O2, Benzoyl peroxide, acetyl sulphuric acid, metals like Ag, Cu, Pb, ZnO, NH 3 and its salts. (e) Colourants: Colour appeal is important and therefore dye stuffs and inorganic pigments are commonly used as colourants. Carbon black (black colour), azodyes (yellow, orange, red colours), pthalo cyanines (green colour) and some inorganic pigmens like iron oxide (red), chromium oxide (green), zinc oxide, titanium oxide (white) are also used.

(6) Fire retardents: Hydrated fillers like Al(OH) 3 and Mg(OH)3 are used as fire retardents. (7) Lubricants: Lubricants like waxes, oils and grease (stearates, oleates) and soaps are employed to make the moulding of plastic easier and to impart a flawless, glossy finish to the products. Lubrication prevents the plastic material from sticking to the fabricating material (machine).

2.1 Moulding types

To give suitable shapes to plastics, several methods of fabrication are used. The important fabrication methods are (1) Compression moulding (2) Injection moulding (3) Transfer moulding (4) Extrusion moulding (5) Casting and Blowing (1) Compression moulding: (a) This method is applied to both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins. (b) The raw materials are taken in a mould and the mould is closed under pressure. (c) The mould is subjected to simultaneous heating and cooling

(d) In case of thermosetting resin, curing is done by heating while in thermoplastics curing is done by cooling (e) After completion, article is taken out by opening the mould. This method is used for manufacture of cylinders, gears, handles etc.

(2) Injection moulding (a) This is mainly applicable to the thermoplastic resins. (b) In this, the plastic powder is softened by heating and the hot softened plastic is forced under high pressure into the mould by a screw. (c) It is set by cooling the mould and the article is ejected.

(3) Transfer moulding (a) This is used for thermosetting resin. (b) In this the moulding composition is subjected to heat and pressure outside (pre heater) and then it is injected into the mould by a plunger (c) Due to high friction at the narrow orifice, the plastic turns into liquid and spreads into the cavity of the mould very easily. (d) Curing takes place under the influence of heat and pressure, after the setting it can be taken out.

(4) Extrusion moulding (a) It is similar to injection moulding and it is applicable to thermoplastics only. (b) Extrusion moulding is used for making continuous shapes like tubes/pipes, cables, rods, strips, etc (c) The material is forced by a screw conveyer into a heated chamber, where it softens and is forced out through a die. (d) The finished product coming out from the die is cooled by blowing air or spraying of water.

3. Fibre reinforced, Glass fibre reinforced plastics Bullet Proof Plastics

Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) A polymer that is reinforced with a fibre is called as fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP). The primary function of fibre reinforcement is to carry load along the length of the fibre and to provide strength and stiffness in one direction. FRP represents a class of materials, referred to as composite materials. Composite materials consist of two or more materials that retain their respective chemical and physical characteristics when combined together. FRP composites are anisotropic (properties apparent in the direction of applied load). The properties of FRP composites are directional i.e. the mechanical properties are in the direction of the fibre placement. The fibres are usually (i) (ii) (iii) Fibre glass Carbon Aramid Polymers are usually (i) epoxy (ii) Vinyl ester (iii) Polyester Thermosetting plastics

Fibre reinforced plastics are a category of composite plastics that specifically use fibrous materials to mechanically enhance the strength and elasticity of plastics. Glass-reinforced plastics (GRP) It is also known as glass fibre-reinforced plastic (GFRP). It is a fibre-reinforced polymer made of a plastic matrix reinforced by fine fibers made of glass GRP is a light weight, strong material, acid proof, fire proof and water proof. It has excellent corrosion resistance. Plastic matrix may be epoxy, a thermosetting plastic (most often polyester (or) vinyl ester or thermoplastic. Manufacturing: It is manufactured in a furnace by gradually melting the sand (SiO2) & chemical mix (lime stone + folic acid + some ingredients) to liquid form. It is then extruded through bundles of very small orifices (typically 17-25 micrometers in diameter for E-glass, 9 micro meters for S-glass. These are called filaments. These filaments are then sized with a chemical solution. The individual filaments are now bundled together in large numbers to provide a roving (long and narrow bundle of fibre). The diameter of the filaments in the roving determines its weight. This is typically expressed in yield-yards per pound or in tex-gram per km. These rovings are then either used directly in a composite application (methods for producing FRP) such as pultrusion, filament winding or used in intermediary steps to manufacture fabrics such as chopped strand mat (made of randomly oriented small cut lengths of fibre all bonded together). A glass reinforced plastic component is typically a thin shell construction. Applications: Used in telecommunication industry for shrouding the visual appearance of antennas Electrical insulator (sheet form) As a structural components in the power industries Building of boats, kayaks Due to light weight with inherent strength to provide a weather resistant finish Used in Gliders, Lorries, wind turbine blades, sports cars, karts, flat roofs, body shells, mine sweeper hulls, bodies for automobiles etc.

Bullet proof glass or Bullet resistant glass It is a type of strong, but optically transparent material that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck by bullets. It is also known as transparent armour. Bullet proof plastics or Aramid Fibre reinforced polymer Bullet proof plastics are usually constructed using polycarbonate thermoplastic and layers of polyamide. Aramid is a short form for aromatic polyamide. Aramids are family of nylons including Nomex and Kevlar. Kevlar is used to make bullet proof vests and puncture resistant tyres. Aramid has a high fracture energy and is therefore used for helmets and bullet-proof garmets. These fibres are sensitive to elevated temperatures, moisture and ultraviolet radiation and therefore not widely used in civil engineering applications. Kevlar is also known as poly (p-phenylene terephtalamide). It is an aromatic polyamide similar to nylons. Kevlar is prepared by polycondensation between aromatic dichloride and aromatic diamines. Bullet proof plastics: construction Polycarbonates are often sandwiched between the layers of regular aromatic polyamides (Kevlar)
Thermoplastic carbonates Layers of polyamide (aromatic)

Kevlar is exceptionally strong (5 times stronger than steel and 10 times stronger than Al on a weight for weight basis)

This structure makes the polymer form almost perfect fibre The unique properties of Kevlar are due to the delocalized bonding which causes the benzene rings to be inflexible. Therefore Kevlar is far more rigid than nylons. Applications of aramid fibres: 1. Motor cycle helmets and other high performance materials 2. Car parts (such as tyres, brakes, clutch linings etc.) 3. Sails for sail boats and yachts etc. 4. Air craft body parts and boat hulls 5. Bullet proof vests 6. Belts and hosing for industrial and automatic applications 7. Gasket for high temperature and pressure applications

4. Properties of plastics Engineering applications

Properties of plastics Plastics possess a wide variety of useful properties and are relatively inexpensive to produce. They are lighter than many materials of comparable strength and unlike metals and wood, plastics do not rust. Most plastics can be produced in any colour. They can also be manufactured as clear as glass, translucent or opaque. They can be also reinforced with glass or fibers to form strong materials. The important properties from design point of view are: (i) Elasticity: This is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the external forces are removed. (ii) Good thermal and electrical insulation: They possess very low thermal and electrical conductances. (iii) Corrosion resistance: Plastics are highly resistant to corrosion. (iv) Easy workability: Casting, moulding, drilling, sawing, machining, etc. of plastics can be easily done. Moreover, they can be easily fixed in position.

(v) Adhesiveness: Adhesives made out of plastic resins, produce very thin films, which are quite strong, durable and adhesive. Moreover, they possess a large covering capacity for adhesion. (vi) Low fabrication cost into desired shaped-products. (vii) Decorative surface effects: Plastic surfaces possess shining and glossy surfaces, which appeal eyes. (viii) Easy moulding into even intricate and complicated forms and shapes. (ix) Insect resistant: They are not affected by insects, moth, fungi, vermin, etc. (x) Low thermal expansion co-efficient: They expand/contract little on increasing/decreasing temperature of surroundings. (xi) Chemical inertness to the action of light, oils, acids and dampness. (xii) Transparency: Some plastics are highly transparent and translucent. They can be ground and used as optical lenses. (xiii) Low maintenance cost: They do not require any protective covering such as of paints; and the maintenance of exposed plastic surface is very easy. (xiv) Low softening points: Most of the plastics have low softening even as low as 50 0C. (xv) High refractive index (xvi) Ability to take variety of colours, shades, etc.: The shades/colours do not fade easily. (xvii) Good shock absorption capacity: Some plastics absorb shocks better than even steel. (xviii) High resistance to abrasion: Plastics like Teflon are highly resistant to abrasion. (xix) Dimensional stability: Plastics, in general, have good dimensional stability. (xx) Impermeable to water: They do not absorb water (xxi) Good strength: Some plastics have tensile strength upto 5,500 kg/cm2.

(xxii) Toughness: Some plastics can be made so tough that a bullet may pierce it without breaking or cracking it. (xxiii) Absorbent of vibrations and sound. Engineering Applications: Plastics have assumed very important position as engineering materials. Their importance can be compared with steel and ceramics. Some of the important uses are: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) For making electrical goods In aeronautical engineering For making furniture For making handles for tools and covers of machines For making special types of paints For making floor and wall linings For making Table tops and wind screens etc.

(viii) For making electrical appliances like such as plugs, switches, holders, radio and TV cabinets (ix) (x) For making bearings for propeller shafts, used in paper industry and rolling mills For heat and sound insulation in cold storage, refrigeration, air conditioning, buildings, theaters, auditoriums and for packing works. (xi) For making hoses, water tubes, electrical cables, floor tiles, gramophone records, pulleys, machine parts, telephone parts, packing bags, seat covers, boxes to hold storage batteries of automobiles, light fixtures, safety glass, tank linings for chemical processing, storage etc. (xii) For making over head water tanks and pipes to convey water, oils, gases, chemicals etc. (xiii) For making house hold articles like combs, toys, trays, toilet goods, lenses, films, racket strings, toothbrush bristles, syringes, etc. (xiv) For making synthetic fibres like terylene, nylon etc.