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ELSEVIER Sensorsand ActuatorsA 56 (1996) !-9

Impact of MEMS technology on society

Janusz Bryzek
Intell~gen! MicroSensor Technology. 250 L/nda Vista Terrace, Fremont CA. 94539. USA

Abstract One of the newest technologies receiving increased attention in recent years is silicon micmmechanics, known in the USA as MEMS, or microelectromechanical systems. This paper briefly discusses the basic properties of silicon that make it attractive for MEMS. It then overviews the impact that MEMS technology has made on society by characterizing the evolution of the MEMS market. It follows with the growth forecast of the MEMS market for the next 10 years, pointing to several emerging billion dollar market opportunities. It finally characterizes the growth of MEMS in Silicon Valley, which with 32 commercial organizations currently active represents the world's most focused MEMS commercialization effort.
Keywords: Microelectromechanical systems;Technology

1. Introduction The foundation of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) is the capability of creating controllable, mechanical, moveable structures using IC processing technology. MEMS technology has developed gradually over the last four decades after the discovery of piezoresistivity at Bell Laboratories [ 1] in the early 1950s stimulated development of silicon sensors. Later, the turning point for MEMS was a paper summarizing the use of silicon for mechanical structures published by Petersen in 1982 [2]. Many consider this paper a beginning of the MEMS era, which was followed up by two Silicon Valley start-up companies, Transensory Devices (1982) and NovaSensor (1985), focusing not only on sensors, but also on silicon microstructures. So far the first and also most successful commercial application of MEMS is the micromachined silicon pressure sensor. Shipments of silicon pressure sensors grew from about three million units in 1983 to over 50 million units in 1995, with forecasted growth to over 125 million units/year within the next decade. In parallel, however, other MEMS developments have started to reach the market in recent years, promising to make non-sensing applications of MEMS bigger than the sensor market in just 10 years. Ail these developments make a visible change in our society by creating jobs, making the environment cleaner, products more energy efficient and safer, and life more exciting and easier. Sensors became the critical components that determine the feasibility of new products. As such, they often have a significant leverage factor, enabling the production of sen0924-4247/96/$15.00 1996ElsevierScienceS.A. AHrightsreserved PII S 0 9 2 4 - 4 2 4 7 ( 96 ) 01284- 8

sot-based systems exceeding sensor cost by several orders of magnitude, e.g., a $10 manifold absolute pressure {MAP) sensor enables the production of fuel-efficient and low-polluting $25 000 cats. Originally an expensive and exotic technology, siliconbased pressure transducers were initially used only in specialized aerospace and process-control applications. Within the past decades, however, the advances in silicon micromachining manufacturing technology have opened up many new uses for the technology in lower-cost segments. One Gf the most active development centers for MEMS technology ts ~gain Silicon Valley, as it w ~ in the past for semiconductors, con0puters, hard drives, bioteclmology, and software. MEMS technology receives a lot of attention from the US government agencies. Many of the early silicon sensor developments were funded by NASA. During the last seve~'al years MEMS funding got another significant boost from government agencies, and currently US ARPA is investing 8-15 million dollars a year in various research projects. Other US government agencies are also pouring money into MEMS research, to the tune of over 20 million dollars a year. That should be compared with the two to three million dollar funding just a few years ago. However, it is not so impressive when compared with the 70 million dollars a year invested by Germany in a variety of MEMS research, or the ten-year 200 million dollar micromachine program run by the Japanese government agency MITI. All this funding not only underscores the importance that governments assign to MEMS, but more significantly it will accelerate the availa-

J. Bryzek/Sensors and Actuators A 56 (1996J I-9

bility of many new technologies. This in turn will increase the impact of MEMS on the world we all live in. Additional information about this emerging MEMS technology can be found in the following references: [3-8].

A sensor performance level of 0.1% is typically required for many applications. Such performance is defined as a combined electrical and mechanical hysteresis, repeatability and stability of the sensing elements. It can be translated to a very challenging sensor-resistance stability of 0.0002%, or 2 ppm:

2. Silicon micromechanics Silicon is widely used in the manufacture of electronic integrated circuits, where only its electrical properties are exploited. Micromechanics takes advantage of both the electrical and mechanical, or just the mechanical properties of silicon, and thus creates a new generation of electromechanical silicon chips. There are three major factors that make silicon micromachining technology very attractive for the MEMS industry. Surprisingly to many, the potential of integrating an eleeIronic circuit together with a sensor is not one of them. In the largest MEMS pressure-sensor market, only about four million out of about 50 million ~ total 1995 shipments (8% of the total market) featured on-sensor-chip integrated signalconditioning electronics. In the acceleration sensor market, the situation was similar, with about 12% of devices incorporating integrated electronics. While this represents a small market penetration, it should be pointed out that as recently as 1990, on-sensor-chip integrated devices represented only 2% of the pressure sensors and 0% of acceleration sensors. As volumes increase and the cost of integration decreases, circuit integration becomes more appealing and feasible. The key factors behind the increase of the silicon pressure sensor market share from 40% in 1985 to 80% in 1995, are the following: Excellent mechanical properties Batch manufacturability of mechanical structures Available infrastructure of the IC industry

Stability:~--

0.2% 0.1% -- 2 ppm

2. i. Mechanical properties
Mechanically, silicon is almost a perfect material for pressure sensors. It eliminates one of the major problems plaguing mechanical sensors for decades: hysteresis, repeatability, and long-term drift. Hysteresis is defined as a difference in a sensor reading at a given input for increasing and decreasing variable (e.g., pressure). Repeatability defines the sensoroutput difference between two cycles of increasing input variable. To appreciate the magnitude of the problems, one has to take into account that typical mechanical sensors (e.g., for pressure, acceleration, force, etc.) based on metal strain gages work with a full-scale signal that represents only 0.2% of the sensing-element resistance:

For silicon sensors the output is 10 to 50 times higher, respectively reducing the requirements for the relative stabil. ity of the gage resistance. What makes it more challenging, however, is a high temperature coefficient of resistance, on the order of 2000 ppm C- t, which makes a direct resistance measurement of uncompensated devices almost impossible 2 [9]. Controlling most of the traditional sensor material (e.g., steel) performance at a ppm level is, to a large degree, black magic and not science, as there are no available data bases characterizing material properties with such an accuracy. Silicon, however, is available at a super purity level with a subppm defect density, eliminating a parasitic influence of the random micro-contaminants. As a result, properly designed silicon sensors deliver negligible hysteresis, repeatability and drift 3. It should be mentioned, however, that achieving a ppm-level stability from silicon diffused or implanted resistors requires substantial know how, and most silicon sensors were characterized for a long time by their very poor longterm stability. Many other mechanical properties of silicon are also very attractive for MEMS devices: Silicon is stronger than steel, enabling a structure topology similar to that of traditional mechanical devices, thus not requiring reinvention of the 'design wheel'. Silicon is as light as aluminum with the strength of steel, enabling significantly better vibrating element performancc (which is based on a strength-to-weight ratio). Silicon is highly sensitive to stress, delivering a significantly higher output (10 to 100 times) than metal strain gages for the same level of input stress. Silicon is highly sensitive to temperature, which is both a curse ( requires temperature compensation) and a blessing (makes possible temperature sensing directly from a pressure sensor). Silicon can be 'coated' with a variety of materials, such as silicon nitride, which brings a high abrasion resistance and an excellent corrosive media protection.

2.2. Batch manufacturing

IC processing technology is based on creating a large number of identical devices on a single wafer, and processing a
"For reliable data, performance must be measured in a bridge configuration compensating first-order thermal effects, 3 The most accurate commercially available silicon sensors, such as the LG-1237 from Honeywell, delivered 0.02% absolute accuracy traceable to NIST over a - 5 5 to 125 C temperature range, any operating pt~sure and 25 years.

FSO:~

= 0.2%

I Silicon pressure transducers represented almost 40 millionunits in 1995.

J. Bryzekl Sensors and Actuators A 56 (1996) !-9

large number of wafers (25 to 100) in a single batch. This process results in a very high volume capacity and low unit cost. Silicon can also be easily batch micromachined, which was gladly adopted by the MEMS industry. This delivers a highvolume manufacturability of MEMS structures that cannot be matched by any other technology. For example, Lucas NovaSensor located about 6000 silicon fusion bonded pressure sensors with an outline of ! m m 1 mm on a single 4 inch wafer. In a batch of 25 wafers, 150 000 sensors are processed in one lot. Such a large volume enabled low-cost consumer applications, such as tire pressure gages, to be achieved.
2.3. IC

industryinfrastructure

Broad support available from the mainstream electronics industry gives the MEMS industry a unique ability to increase development speed dramatically, as major parts of a necessary infrastructure have already been developed. This infrastructure includes the following: Access to proven semiconductor manufacturing processes. Readily available design and simulation tools. Availability of ultrapure, defect-free, low-cost materials, critical to low hysteresis and long-term stability. Available 'off the shelf' advanced high-volume wafer and package manufacturing equipment. Existing pool of educated technologists. This available infrastructure solves many problems faced by other sensor technologies. The importance becomes clear when one compares the R&D funding of sensor developments. The world R&D budget for a diverse range of technologies is on the order of 200 million dollars per year. The single IC industry and supporting services fund new developments to the tune of billions of dollars per year. Adopting electronic industry developments significantly shortens the development time and cuts cost for MEMS devices. New micromachining or sensor-specific technologies, such as silicon fusion bonding or deep reactive ion etching, are being developed on a rich foundation created for the electronic ICs. Silicon sensor technology has reached a stage where, in essence, a single sensor design may support either a very low cost in a multimiilion unit volume (such as disposable bloodpressure or automotive sensors), or a very high performance application (such as aerospace air data sensors). The differentiating factors are sensor packaging, testing and compensation. No other technology can offer such a combination of, on the surface, contradictory characteristics.

visible part of the society. About 25% of sensor market revenues were generated by MEMS-based devices. The sensor market is very diversified and fragmented. The largest market segments include: Wocess control, industrial control, aerospace/military, transportation, automotive, medical, and consumer. The sensor market can be characterized by measured variables as follows: 40% pressure (including flow measurements with differential pressure sensors) 25% temperature 13% acceleration 9% flow 5% force The overall market growtl, is about 6%/year. The fastestgrowing market segments include automotive/uanspoftafion sensors and smart sensors, with growth rates close to 20%1 year. The world's largest sensor company is Rosemount, with estimated sales of pressure transmitter shipments 400 million dollars. The most aggressive growth plans in the sensor market were recently announced by two companies: Motorola and Analog Devices. Motorola has made a commitment to build a billion dollar automotive sensor business. Their current portfolio includes silicon pressure, inertial, position, and chemical sensors, as well as limited non-silicon technologies such as ceramic oxygen sensors. Analog Devices annomged a plan to be a major market player in the emerging billion dollar inertial sensor market.
3. !. First high-volume sensor applications

The two first high-volume applications for pressure sensors were the automotive manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP) and disposable blood-pressure sensor.
3.1.1. Manifold absolute pressure sensor

3. Sensor and MEMS market overview and forecast The ! 995 global sensor market is estimated at six billion dollars. Assuming average revenues of$1(30 000/employee/ year, the sensor market employed about 60 000 people, a very

The gasoline crisis in early 1970s stimulated the US government to undertake a program leading to the significantly improved corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) of passenger cars in the USA over the next two decades: from about 10 miles/gallon (23.5 !/100 km) in 1974 to 27.5 mpg (8.5 1/1(30 kin) in 1994. The program simultaneously required a significant reduction of the pollutants. The fundamental solution that the automotive industry developed was the incorporation of a tight control of the ~toichiometric ratio between air and fuel. The critical component of the system was a manifold pressure sensor. The first such sensor was developed by Gulton in 1974 based on a variable reluctance. It was, however, too expensive for the automotive taste. The next solution, a piezoresistive pressure sensor, was developed by Honeywell for General Motors. This sensor was incorporated in th~ Oldsmobile Toronado model 1976, and about 10 000 units were used in this model year. In the following year, not being able to agree with Honeywell on the price, GM decided to start production of

J. Bryzek/Sensor~and ActuatorsA 56 (1996) 1-9

their own pressure sensors. Currently, GM Delco manufactures over a million MAP transducers per month, enjoying about 40% market share in automotive pressure transducers, with a cumulative volume shipped of over 100 million MAP transducers. The total 1995 market for MAP sensors is about 25 million/year. It means that many cars offer better fuel economy while reducing the pollution, providing a better environment for all of us, thanks to a small silicon pressure sensor.
3.1.2. Medical disposable pressure sensor

Table ! Bryzek's' MEMS marketforecast

Year 1995 2005

Pressuresensors Inertial sensors Fluidiccontrols Data storage Displays Biochips Communication Misc Total MEMS Total non-sensingMEMS

$ 1.0B $0.4B $0.01B $O,OB $0.0B $0.0B $0.01B $0.03B $1.45B $0.05B

$9.5B $0.8B $0. IB $1.0B $1.0B $0.2B $1.0B $0. I B $6.7B $3.4B

Prior to using silicon micromachined pressure sensors, blood pressure was measured with expensive ($600) and unreliable (easily damaged when dropped on the floor) pressure transducers. These transducers required sterilization and calibration before each use, with an average cost of these procedures of $50 in 1982. The lechnical and commercial success of the automotive MAP sensor, combined with the trend toward safer, disposable medical products, inspired sensor manufacturers to develop a disposable blood-pressure transducer [I0,11]. This device is used as a part of the patient's IV system and measures blood pressure inside the heart transmitted by a column of a saline solution. The sensor is required to provide at least 8 kV electrical isolation between the fluid port and electrical output, and delivers a ! % measurement accuracy over an operating life of about 72 h. The objective for a disposable sensor was to deliver the measurement function at a lower cost than the cost of sterilization and recalibration of reusable transducers. The first low-cost disposable blood-pressure sensor was developed by the author in 198 !, and introduced into the US market in 1982. In 1995 the world market grew to about 18 million units. Almost all disposable blood-pressure sensors are ,sed to diagnose or monitor a patient's status during critical and dangerous procedures, such as catheterization or heart operation..Th.e big social impact is clearly visible: each sensor helps to save human life.
3.2. Market forecast

"The author's forecast is significantlylower than estimates of the ARPA sponsored S?l's MEMS Market Study, which appraises the Year 2000 MEMS sensor market at $6.06B, and the non-sensing market at $7.84B. Based on personalexperience,advanced MEMS products create the actual markets with a 10 to 20 year time lag, a~er the development of first prototypes. market would create in the year 2005 approximately 35 000 new jobs in the world economy. A short justification behind this forecast is provided below.
3.2.1. Pressure sensors

Significant growth of pressure sensors will be fueled primarily by the growth of automotive applications and smart sensors with networked output. Some of the emerging automotive applications include fuel vapor sensors, high-pressure fuel injection, diesel MAP sensors, and electronic braking in passenger cars and trucks [ 12]. Requirement for many of these products is driven by the government legislation in the areas of fuel economy, pollution, and safety. Many sensors are already designed into the next generation of cars, often without the available production-ready products.
3.2.2. Inertial sensors

Very rapid growth of inertial sensors (acceleration, rate, gyro) is expected to occur primarily in the automotive (stability control, navigation) and consumer (virtual reality controllers, camcorders) sectors.
3.2.3. Fluidic controls

While 10 years ago silicon pressure sensors represented the only large market segment., currently dte situation is quite different. During the last three years the acceleration sensor market has grown from 0.2 to 15 million units/year, and several other applications entered the commercialization phase, promising the formation of several billion dollar market segments. While the market for the non-sensing application of micromachining is currently barely visible, the author forecasts in the next decade a significant growth of not only sensor markets, but also selected non-sensing MEMS applications. Key growth areas are summarized in Table 1. Forecasted growth is very significant. Assuming an improved average industrial productivity of MEMS companies to $150 000 employee/year, the growth of the MEMS

The expected significant growth of fluidic components, such as pressure valves, will finally materialize, however, it will require the next generation of components [ 13,14 ]. The author believes that the current generation of products is not yet capable of meeting the traditional users' requirements necessary for a significant growth of the business. Limitations of the current MEMS fluidics include restricted media compatibility, narrow operating temperature range, and few pressure and flow ranges.
3.2.4. Data storage

Computer data storage is a very large market currently dominated by hard drives. While their density is increasing every year, demand for new applications, such as the on-

J. Bryzek/ Sert~orsand ActuaWrsA 56 (1996) 1-9

demand movie industry, outpaces the available progress. Several new technologies are being explored, some of them including MEMS. The most commercially promising ones, from the author's perspect!ve, are: Development of the hard-drive head suspension (gimble) with on-chip servomotor driven by an industry consortimn initiated by UCLA and UC at Berkeley [ 151. This servomotor enables 0. I /zm positioning accuracy of the head, corresponding to about I00 GB/in 2 read-write density, and fits into the 'sockets' of the existing mechanical devices. As industry volume is on the order of I million heads/day, with an estimated volume price of a gimble/ head assembly of about $5, this application represents 1.3 billion dollars/year business potential. Development by IBM of a plastic disk read-write technology, where micro-dimples are created by an MEMS tip during the write operation, and the read operation is similar to a record player reading of dimples. Demonstrated storage density is 20 GB/in 2 [ 16], with 80 GB/in 2 planned in 1996. Such an assembly could sell for $50, forming a foundation for a 13 billion dollar industry. Many other developments in this field are funded, e.g., [ 17].
3.2.5. Display chips

MEMS display chips will finally reaching the market. The current leader, Texas Instruments (with their micromirror display technology under development for over 15 years) reportedly started limited production and shipments of display chips. TI may, however, be passed by new start-ups which focus on simpler technology. There is currently one Silicon Valley start-up focusing on this technology [ 181. It can be expected that MEMS-based displays will capture a visible fraction of the current multi billion dollar display industry.
3.2.6. Biochips

Biochips will enter the market in a big way. They will bring a new generation of products to the market, such as DNA multipliers, chemical reactors, and bacteria processors on a chip. DNA multipliers alone indicate a potential for a billion units/year chip consumption [ 19,20].
3.2. Z Communication M E M S

Communication MEMS, such as fiber-optic aligners, have already been shipped for a number of years. Recent developments of fiber-optic MEMS reflective modulators have a large probability for enabling the implementation of residential on-demand movies, and are expected to grow very quickly [21,22].

4. Silicon Valley MEMS growth The roots of silicon micromachining technology date back to Bell Laboratories. The research team developing the basics of semiconductor technology discovered a piezoresistive

effect in silicon and germanium. The first paper, published in 1954 [ I l, characterized basic piezoresistive properties of these materials. The piezoresistive effect creates a resistance change in the semiconductor material in response to stress. This change is approximately two orders of magnitude larger than the equivalent resistance change of metals (used previously for strain gage applications). As with many advanced technologies, Silicon Valley played an important role in bringing the MEMS devices to the market. Following the pattern of many semiconductor companies, the first start-ups spun-off from Fairchild in the 1970s: IC'['ransducers (now Foxboro/ICF) in 1972, National Semiconductor Sensor Group (now Sensym) in 1972, and Cognition (now Rosemount) in 1976. The commercial infrastructure of the silicon sensor industry includes three traditional types of companies: Sensor component manufacturers (such as Kulite Semiconductor or Rosemount) Electronic component manufacturers (such as Analog Devices or Motorola) Systems businesses (such as Honeywell Process Control or Foxboro) US industry appears to be most advanced in bringing the innovative MEMS technologies to the market. The presence of many innovative, entrepreneurial Silicon Valley sensor start-ups has driven the commercialization of solid-state sensor technology in the United States. They have produced basic technology innovations such as silicon fusion bonding, have driven the costs down for high-volume products such as medical pressure sensors, and have been responsible for the first commercial introductions of a variety of new silicon sensors and microstructures. Their presence creates a competitive and innovative environment which forces larger companies in the United States to commercialize more rapidly. No equivalent entrepreneurial start-ups exist elsewbeie in the world, and this is partly responsible for an apparently slower pace of commercialization there, r'~amg the last decade the Silicon Valley MEMS activ;.~ies emerged to form a mini industry. This industry is ~,aining a growth momentum, becoming more and more visible, as shown in Table 2. Four types of MEMS-related companies evolved in the Valley: MEMS sensor companies, which focus primarily on commercializing pressure and acceleration sensors. Examples include Lucas NovaSensor, EG&G ICSensors, BTR Sensym and Foxboro/ICT. These companies are most mature, and deliver the best financial performance. They are still relatively small and fc,cus on different market segments, thus not facing too much local competition. Sensor electronics companies, which specialize in de:,Aoping smart sensor signal-conditioning integrated circuits primarily for silicon sensors, such as Integrated Sensor Solutions and MCA Technologies. Sensor-based subsystem companies, which specialize in developing systems based on silicon sensors develoced elsewhere, such as Crossbow Inc.

6
Table 2 MEMS growth in Silicon Valley Year Number of active commercial 1980 3 1985 .5

J. Bryzek/SerLvors and Actuators A 56 (1996) 1-9

neer. Some ~,fmese start-ups received h,gn-level funding and recruited top managers to run Ihe new businesses.
1990 I0 1995 32

organizations Numberof MEMS sensor companies Numberof sensorelectronics companies Namberof MEMS non-sensor (.,. ~,)ani~ Numb.. ',f activeacademic R&D centers Commercialemployment (people) Sales Sales of sensorcompanies Sales of non-sensorcompanies (includingR&D contracts)
Sales/employee, sensor companies: Average Best

3 0 0 2 130 $9M $9M 0

$69k $70k

5 0 0 2 160 $11M $I I M 0
$69k $75k

6 I 4 I 420

II 3 18 3 940

5. Overview of Silicon Valley M E M S

companies

$35M $110M $33M $100M $3M $10M

$83k $95k $117k $ i 35k

Silicon Valley MEMS companies usually start with a specific focus, which after a while, evolves to cross the bridge between the categories listed below. The selection given here was based on the initial focus of companies. More comments were provided on sensor-related companies, as they represent the majority of the current business. It should be pointed out that currently more mature companies are in the process of redefining their strategy, with the objective of sustaining a profitable growth.

5. I. Sensor manufacturers
MEMS non-sensor companies, which focus on developing advanced micromachined structures, such as displays, valves or biochips. Many of these developments are supported by commercial R&D contracts and large government funding. The market for many of the products under development has yet to be created. Examples of the larger companies in this group include Redwood Microsystems commercializing silicon valves, and Echelle 4 developing high-resolution display chips. Silicon Valley MEMS companies currently employ a visible number of people (over 900), and the efficiency of the manufacturing operations (measured in terms of revenues per employee per year) for the best companies, while still not the state-of-the-art ( > $200 000), is solidly profitable and shows a continuous improvement. Major companies in this field have initiated very aggressive growth plans ~, which may double both local employment and revenues before the end of the current decade. Table 2 summarizes the growth of this MEMS mini-industry. It is interesting to note that during the last five years Silicon Valley gave birth to many MEMS start-ups that focus on nonsensing applications, such as pressure valves, optical displays or chemical instruments (see the summary below). It can be expected that over the next ten y~ars many of these companics will become dominating players in the new fields they pio'* Echelle is the best-funded MEMS company in Silicon Valley, according to the author's data base. In addition to a high multimillion 1994 start-up funding by local *angels' and Venture Capital finns, the company received additional $8 million equity fundin~ in 1995 (as reported by a local newspaper, the San Jose Mercu~. News) from Venture Capital finns and reportedly $4.5 million ARPA tunding. The biggest plan ever for MEMS growth, however, was announced by a non Silicon Valley company, Motorola, which revealed a plan to build a billion dollar automotive sensor business. Thus far, they manufacture pressure, acceleration and chemical sensors based on MEMS technology.

This group of companies represents the largest revenue base in Silicon Valley. Some of the start-up companies are inactive in the Valley, as they were acquired and moved out of the area. It is interesting to point out that none of these start-ups went out of business.

5. i.i. Sensor start-ups active in Silicon Valley

Integrated Circuit T r a n s d u c e r (ICT) was formcd in 1982 as a management buyout of the Fairchild Sensor Group led by one of the pioneers in this field, Don Lynam. It was acquired by Fo,,'boro in 1976 forming Foxboro/ ICT. Prior to the acquisition, part of the technology was transferred to Ametek. Foxboro/ICT makes pressure transducers. National Semiconductor Sensor G r o u p was formed in 1982 by another silicon sensor pioneer, Art Zias. In 19'32, through a management-led buyout, this g:oup was convened to Sensym. In 1988, Sensym was acquired by Hawker Siddeley, later acquired by British Tire and Rubber (BTR). Sensym makes pressure transducers. National Semiconductor restarted micromachining activity in 1994, and is rumored to be developing selected acceleration sensors for high- volume markets. Endevco opened an R&D laboratory around 1971. It was and is managed by one of the more innovative sensor technologists, Bruce Wilner. The company produces pressure and acceleration sensors. ICSensors was formed as a spin-off from Foxboro/ICT in 1982. It was funded by Borg-Warner in 1993, and was acquired by EG&G in 1994. It makes pressure and acceleration sensors, as well as a broad range ofmicrostructures.

J. Bryzek/ Sensors and ActuatorsA 56 (i 996) 1-9

Silicon Microstructures was formed in 1992 as a spinoff from ICSensors, and was acquired by Exar in 1995. The company develops pressure and acceleration sensors and microstructures. Next Sensors was formed in 1993 as a spin-off from Sensym, and was acquired by Data Instruments in 1995. It manufactures pressure sensors. Sentir was formed as a spin-off from ICSensors in 1993, and was funded by Merit Medical. It makes pressure sensors. BEI/Systron Donner was formed as an internal silicon sensor development group in 1993. It is rumored to work on silicon inertial and pressure sensors. Intelligent MicroSensor Technology is the newest startup company, formed in 1996 by Bryzek, focusing on the next generation of smart pressure and inertial sensors.

5.4. Microstructure start-up activities

There is a visible high-level development activity in the field of silicon microstructures in Silicon Valley. Developments began in the new start-ups, as well as in the dedicated groups within large organizations and government laboratories. In this group there were first failed MEMS start-ups, reflecting the less-developed market as compared to the sensor industry.

5.1.2. Sensor start.ups inactive in Silicon Valley Cognition was formed as a spin-off from Fairchild, acquired by Emerson Electric/Ro~emount in 1979 with assets transferred to Minneapolis. Rosemount currently makes pressure tra,lsducers. Captor was funded as an R&D group by Dresser in 1986, and absorbed by Dresser Industries in 1993 after completion of the developmen~ of a low differential pressure sensor. Silicon Micromachines wa:- formed in ! 994 as a spin-off from NovaSensc,t" and UC D3vis, was acquired by and moved to Kavlico in 1995. The. company develops a new generation of pressure sensors based on a junction semiconductor sensor.

5.4.1. MEMS microstructure businesses in Silicon Valley Microsensor Technology (acquired by Tylan in 1986) Redwood Microsystems MicroFlow Analitical (acquired by Input-Output in 1994) TiNi Alloys Berkeley Microinstruments Piedmont Microactuators Echelle Caliper Molecular devices Microscape Nanostructures Adagio Associates Cepheid Lawrence Livermore Laboratory IBM oHP Xerox Perkin Elmer

5.2. Sensor electronics start-ups

5. 4.2. Inactive in Silicon Valley: Transensory Devices (acquired by ICSensors in 1986)

Ir,~egrated Sensor Solution (ISS) was formed in 1986 as a spin-off from National Semiconductor. The company makes custom ASICs for sensor signal conditioning and DSP, as well as assembling transducers based on purchased sensing elements. MCA Technologies was formed in 1993 as aspin-offfrom ISS. It develops custom and customized ASICs for a variety of silicon and traditional sensors, both piezoresistive and capacitive.

5.4.3. Out of business Teknekron Micromachining (closed in 1993) Fluid IC (closed in 1994) Rohm Micromachining (closed in 1995)

5.5. Academic MEMS R&D centers

5.3. Sensor-based subsystem start-up

Crossbow was formed in 1995 to focus on virtual reality sensor-based sub-systems. The first system is based on acceleration and magnetic sensors.

Stanford University University of California at Berkeley San Jose State University Academic activity in Silicon Valley started in the late 1960s at UC Berkeley and Stanford universities. Recently, San Jose State University initiated research in this field, bringing a total to three active R&D academic centers. Stanford's and Berkeley's MEMS research is currently one of the most advanced in the world.

J. Bryzek / Sensors and Actuators A 56 (I 996) !-9

6. Conclusions

The MEMS market has entered the phase of accelerated growth. The past success of silicon pressure and acceleration sensors in displacing other technologies got the attention of the market. The global trend for better energy efficiency, lower pollution, faster response time, and many other factors, mandates implementation of a large volume of sensors, many not yet developed to the point of commercialization. The resulting massive global R&D effort focused on MEMS technology has already caught the attention of the large SEMI organization, which has started to probe the needs of the MEMS industry. The outcome is the development of new equipment by specialized vendors that traditionally was available only as a custom in-house built option. Examples include the emergence o f exotic instrumentation, such as silicon fusion bonders and deep reactive ion etchers. What makes it more exciting, many of the MEMS processes are considered by the mainstream IC industry as potential candidates for three-dimensional integrated circuits. Based on the forecasted growth, the next decade could be called the decade of MEMS, pulling this market segment from a sideline of the semiconductor industry into the spotlight. The high level of current development activity in Silicon Valley and in other world centers, superimposed on the unique existing IC and MEMS infrastructure, will bring a broad range of innovative products to the market. Due to a fast idea-to-production cycle time, it can be expected that Silicon Valley will be dominating the commercialization process of many advanced MEMS. All these developments will provide significant benefits to the sensor market. They will result in the development of new micromachining processes, new MEMS dedicated materials and design tools which could al,d will be used by the sensor industry for the next generation of products. The price/performance ratio for many new sensors will be improved, enabling the creation of new markets. The largest potential for new sensor applications is in: The automotive market, where about 25 new pressuresensor applications await implementation. The consumer market, where a rapid growth of Internet applications will create a demand for new sensors such as virtual reality controllers. The medical market, where a new generation o f microchemical and bio-sensors and microstructures will likely redefine the existing industries. The social impact of the exploding MEMS technology can be viewed from two angles. On the positive side, it will create a lot of new jobs. On the problematic side, MEMS teci,iology along with other high technologies, contributes significantly to more efficient products and manufacturing systems, a higher level of automation and thus higher productivity. Increase of productivity reduces the number of people required in other market segments using MEMS technology. The author expects that within the next several decades, sev-

eral-fold reduction of employment in the manufacturing sector of world society could occur. To manage properly a transition of society to such a new social order will require a well-orchestrated action by all developed nations. Instead of bringing social havoc, reduced manufacturing employment may bring happiness via the increase of free leisure time.

Acknowledgements The at:thor would like to thank one of the most widely recognized contributors to the MEMS field, Professor Dr Simon Middelhoek from Delft University of Technology, for his pioneering work in many aspects of MEMS technology, and initiating both state-of-the-art research in this field, as well as educational programs that created an unforgettable contribution to the field. Please enjoy MEMS during your retirement.

References
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