On the Brink

The primary threat to most species/ habitats is human activity (land development, over-exploitation, introduction of alien species and pollution). Over the last 400 years, the extinction of 484 animal species and 654 plant species has been recorded. This rate is 70 times faster than expected. Conservation management should be applied on site (in situ) (protecting ecosystems and maintaining fragile habitats) and off site (ex situ) (vulnerable populations in the wild being supported by the work of zoos and seedbanks). The role of zoos History of zoos began in the 1750s, with the first zoo in Europe. London zoo was founded in 1826 (6 years before Darwin set sail). Zoos were very popular as there was no TV or cameras. However, almost nothing was known of the exotic animals biology or behaviour, and little heed was paid to their needs in captivity. They were normally kept alone in bare cages designed for maximum visibility to the public. Today, zoos attract over 600 million visitors each year. They aim to have a significant impact in conservation, research and education. Some endangered species exist only in zoos and are extinct in the wild. Most zoos try to have their animals living in naturalistic environments. UK zoos are regulated by the UK Zoo Licensing Act, which aims to promote minimum standards of welfare, meaningful education, effective conservation, valuable research and essential public safety. The introduction of the European Zoos Direction by the EU places a greater emphasis on conservation, education, research and welfare. The Born Free Foundation believes wildlife belongs in the wild. It is dedicated to the conservation of rare species in their natural habitats, and the phasing out of traditional zoos. The Born Free Foundation report expresses concern about the welfare of animals in zoos, having observed many animals exhibiting stereotypic behaviours (pacing/chewing). Found that up to one in five collections that qualify as zoos under the current legislation dont have a zoo license. Also found that 95% of species in zoos are not endangered and are not part of European captive breeding programmes, they would rather see animals being bred in protected habitats in the wild. Captive breeding programmes Until recently, animal collections were unplanned and opportunistic. Zoos simply bought their animals from explorers/traders. Today an important role of zoos is the successful breeding of the animals in their care. The aims of a captive breeding programme include: Increasing the number of individuals of the species if numbers are very low Maintaining genetic diversity within the captive population

Reintroducing animals into the wild if possible

There are European Endangered Species Programmes for over 200 species, with more than 400 institutions in Europe participating. Each species has an appointed co-ordinator/studbook-holder who advises on which animals should or should not breed and on the movement of animals between partner zoos, in order to maximise genetic diversity within the captive populations. How genetic variation is lost Genetic Drift: In a small population, some of the alleles may not get passed on to offspring purely by chance. This change in the allele frequencies over time is known as genetic drift, and leads to a reduction in genetic variation. Inbreeding Depression: In a small population (in the wild or captivity), the likelihood of closely related individuals mating increases. This interbreeding causes the frequency of homozygous genotypes to rise, with the loss of heterozygotes. Inbreeding results in individuals inheriting recessive alleles from both parents, and the accumulation of the homozygous recessive genotypes in the offspring. Many recessive alleles have harmful effects so inbreeding depression results. The offspring are less fit (less able to survive and reproduce). They may be smaller and not live as long, and females may produce fewer eggs. Conserving Genetic Diversity Conservation on site to maintain the size of the wild population is the best way to prevent genetic drift and inbreeding depression. However, off-site conservation can also play a role. Keeping studbooks: The studbook for an individual species shows the history and location of all the captive animals of that species in the places which are cooperating in an overall breeding plan (such as London zoo). Studbooks provide the raw data upon which all the breeding plans are based- the scientists understanding of genetics shapes the breeding plans themselves. Conservation scientists must ensure that genes from all the founder members of the population (original group of individuals, usually wild caught, on which the current population is based), or at least all remaining breeding adults, are retained and are equally represented in the subsequent generations (assuming the founders are unrelated). This requires that individuals who breed poorly in captivity must be encouraged to breed; whilst those that are particularly good breeders must be limited in their breeding success. This approach is a very different principle from that followed by zoos of 50 years ago, when they simply raised their captive populations from the best breeders. This seemed like common sense, but it reduced genetic variation and began a process which made it less likely that there could be a successful introduction to the wild. Studbook records are being supported by techniques of cytogenetics (looking at the structure of chromosomes) and of molecular biology (studying the nature of the

genes themselves). These additional techniques are important because studbook data may be incomplete. In addition, these new techniques can reveal whether some individuals are more closely related than is desirable for breeding purposes. Reintroducing animals into the wild One role that zoos have in species conservation is captive breeding for reintroduction. This involves breeding animals in captivity that are then returned to their native habitats (which can only work if the habitat is still intact). Reintroduction is a complicated process, particularly when species need to learn new skills before they have the skills to survive in the wild. However, there are cases in which zoos have successfully reintroduced captive bred animals into the wild (such as the Mauritius Kestrel). The Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) Plants are threatened worldwide by habitat destruction, climate change and overharvesting. Protecting and managing habitats conserves plants in situ, but they remain at risk from man-made and natural disasters, so there is also a role for ex situ conservation, using a variety of methods including seed banks and botanical gardens. The aim of the Millennium Seed Bank Project is to conserve seed samples from threatened species of plants (with 10000 species already banked). Seeds are collected around the world, with some of them kept in their countries of origin, whilst others are sent to Millennium Seed Bank in the UK. Most plants produce large numbers of seeds, so collecting small samples is unlikely to damage a wild population. The seeds are also small, easy to store, and can survive in a desiccated state for many years. The technology of seed preservation improves at research is carried out. Seeds survive longer if kept dry and cool. For every 1% reduction in seed moisture content, life span doubles, and for every 5C reduction in temperature, life span doubles. Once the seeds identification has been verified and they have been cleaned and dried, they are stored at -20C. About a month after they have been placed in cold storage, a sample is taken out and germinated on agar plates, to ensure the seed survive in the storage conditions. Germination is then tested about every 10 years to check they are still alive. If germinations falls below 75%, seeds will be grown to collect a new seed sample which is then placed back into storage. The Millennium Seed Bank Project aims to collect seed samples from 10% of the worlds seed plants by 2010. They are focusing their efforts on plants living in dry lands, as these are some of the most threatened, and potentially useful. The seed collections are also used for research, habitat restoration and species reintroduction.