CONTENTS 1) Electric motor a.

Introduction
b. History And Development c. Type Of Motor 2) Induction motor a. Introduction b. History c. Operation And Comparison To Synchronous Motor d. Synchronous Speed e. Slip f. Construction g. Speed Control h. Equivalent Circuit i. Starting j. Linear Induction Motor 3) Induction motor Controled Theory a. Stator Design b. Rotor Design c. Equivalent Circuit d. Starting Characteristics e. Running Characteristics f. Design Classification g. Frame Classification h. Temperature Classification i. Power Factor Correction j. Single Phase Motor k. Slip Ring Motor l. Direction Of Rotation

ELECTRIC MOTOR INTRODUCTION

Various electric motors. A 9-volt PP3 transistor battery is in the center foreground for size comparison. An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo; some electric motors can also be used as generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform both tasks. Electric motors and generators are commonly referred to as electric machines. Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current, e.g., a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle, or by alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid or inverter. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of ships, pipeline compressors, and water pumps with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give. The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were

constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a large scale required efficientelectrical generators and electrical distribution networks. Some devices convert electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical power as a primary objective and so are not generally referred to as electric motors. For example, magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers are usually described as actuators and transducers, respectively, instead of motors. Some electric motors are used to produce torque or force.

History and development

Faraday's electromagnetic experiment, 1821 The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of devices called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's wheel. These were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical applications due to their primitive construction.

Jedlik's "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest. The historic motor still works perfectly today. In 1827, Hungarian physicist nyos Jedlik started experimenting with devices he called "electromagnetic self-rotors". Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three main components of practical direct current motors: the stator, rotor andcommutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the magnetic fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at the Westinghouse company. The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by failure to recognize the extreme importance of a relatively small air gap between rotor and stator. Efficient designs have a comparatively small air gap.

TYPE OF MOTOR
1. DC motor a) Permanent magnet motor b) Brushed dc motor c) Brushless dc motor d) Switched reluctance motor e) Coreless or ironless dc motor f) Printed armature or pancake dc motor 2. AC motor

a) Ac motor with sliding rotor b) Synchronous electric motor c) Induction motor d) Doubly fed electric motor e) Singly fed electric motor f) torque motor 3. 4. Universal motor Stepper motor

INTRODUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTOR

Two three-phase induction motors. An induction motor or asynchronous motor is a type of alternating current motor where power is sup plied to the rotor by means ofelectromagnetic induction. An electric motor turns because of magnetic force exerted between a stationary electromagnet called the stator and a rotating electromagnet called the rotor. Different types of electric motors are distinguished by how electric current is supplied to the moving rotor. In a DC motor and a slip-ring AC motor, current is provided to the rotor directly through sliding electrical contacts calledcommutators and slip rings. In an induction motor, by contrast, the current is induced in the rotor without contacts by the magnetic field of the stator, through electromagnetic induction. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating

transformer because thestator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of thetransformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Unlike the normal transformer which changes the current by using time varying flux, induction motors use rotating magnetic fields to transform the voltage. The current in the primary side creates anelectromagnetic field which interacts with the electromagnetic field of the secondary side to produce a resultant torque, thereby transforming the electrical energy into mechanical energy. Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives. Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged construction, absence of brushes (which are required in most DC motors) andthanks to modern power electronicsthe ability to control the speed of the motor.

OR, An induction or asynchronous motor is a type of AC motor where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction. These motors are widely used in industrial drives, particularly polyphase induction motors, because they are robust and have no brushes. Their speed can be controlled with a variable frequency drive. an electric motor in which an alternating current is supplied to the winding of the stator, arranged in such a manner as to produce in effect a rotating magnetic field. This in turn induces electric currents in the winding of the rotor, and interaction between these currents and the magnetic flux exerts a torque on the rotor. Induction motors are useful in situations where sparks caused by moving electric contacts are undesirable.

History
The idea of a rotating magnetic field was developed by Franois Arago in 1824, and first implemented by Walter Baily, Based on this, practical induction motors were independently invented byNikola Tesla in 1883 and Galileo Ferraris in 1885. According to his 1915 autobiography Tesla conceived the rotating magnetic field in 1882 and used it to invent the first induction motor in 1883;Ferraris developed the idea in 1885. In 1888, Ferraris published his research to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin, where he detailed the foundations of motor operation; Tesla, in the same year, was granted U.S. Patent 381,968 for his motor. The induction motor with a cage was invented by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky a year later.

OPERATIOPN AND COMPARISON TO SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A 3-phase power supply provides a rotating magnetic field in an induction motor. In a synchronous AC motor, the rotating magnetic field of the stator imposes a torque on the magnetic field of the rotor, causing it to rotate steadily. It is called synchronous because at steady state, the speed of the rotor matches the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator. By contrast, an induction motor has a current induced in the rotor; to do this, stator windings are arranged so that when energised with a polyphase supply they create a rotating magnetic field that induces current in the rotor conductors. These currents interact with the rotating magnetic field, causing rotational motion of the rotor. For these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field (ns), or the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. If this happens while the motor is operating, the rotor slightly slows down, and consequently a current is induced again. The ratio between the speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (slip speed) and the speed of the stator's rotating field is unitless and it is called slip. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors. An induction motor can be used as induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form the linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion. OR, A 3-phase power supply provides a rotating magnetic field in an induction motor.

In a synchronous AC motor, the rotating magnetic field of the stator imposes a torque on the magnetic field of the rotor, causing it to rotate steadily. It is called synchronous because at steady state, the speed of the rotor matches the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator. By contrast, an induction motor has a current induced in the rotor; to do this, stator windings are arranged so that when energised with a polyphase supply they create arotating magnetic field that induces current in the rotor conductors. These currents interact with the rotating magnetic field, causing rotational motion of the rotor.

For these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field (ns), or the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. If this happens while the motor is operating, the rotor slightly slows down, and consequently a current is induced again. The ratio between the speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (slip speed) and the speed of the stator's rotating field is unitless and it is called slip. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors. An induction motor can be used as induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form the linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion.

Synchronous speed
To understand the behaviour of induction motors, it is helpful to understand their distinction from a synchronous motor. A synchronous motor always runs at a shaft rotation frequency that is an integer fraction of the supply frequency; the synchronous speed of an induction motor is the same. It can be shown that ns in rpm is determined by

where f is the frequency of the AC supply in Hz and p is the number of magnetic pole pairs per phase. Some texts refer to the number of pole pairs per phase; a 6 pole motor would have 3 pole pairs. In this case, P, the number of pole pairs, takes the place of p in the equation. For example, a two-pole motor (one pair of poles) would have a synchronous speed of 3600 revolutions per minute at a power frequency of 60 Hz, but at 25 Hz the speed would be only 1500 r/m. To understand the behaviour of induction motors, it is helpful to understand their distinction from a synchronous motor. A synchronous motor always runs at a shaft rotation frequency that is an integer fraction of the supply frequency; the synchronous speed of an induction motor is the same. It can be shown that ns in rpm is determined by

where f is the frequency of the AC supply in Hz and p is the number of magnetic pole pairs per phase. Some texts refer to the number of pole pairs per phase; a 6 pole motor would have 3 pole pairs. In this case, P, the number of pole pairs, takes the place of p in the equation. For example, a two-pole motor (one pair of poles) would have a synchronous speed of 3600 revolutions per

minute at a power frequency of 60 Hz, but at 25 Hz the speed would be only 1500 r/m. OR, To understand the behaviour of induction motors, it is useful to understand their distinction from a synchronous motor. A synchronous motor always runs at a synchronous speed- a shaft rotation frequency that is an integer fraction of the supply frequency. The synchronous speed of an induction motor is the same fraction of the supply. It can be shown that the synchronous speed of a motor is determined by the following formula:

where is the (synchronous) speed of the rotor (in rpm), f is the frequency of the AC supply (in Hz) and p is the number of magnetic poles per phase. For example, a 6 pole motor operating on 50 Hz power would have a speed of:

Note on the use of p - some texts refer to number of pole pairs per phase instead of number of poles per phase. For example a 6 pole motor, operating on 60 Hz power, would have 3 pole pairs. The equation of synchronous speed then becomes:

with

being the number of pole pairs per phase.

Slip

Typical torque curve as a function of slip. The slip s is a ratio relative to the synchronous speed and is defined as

where nr is the rotor rotation speed in rpm.

Construction
The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. In a very simple motor, there would be a single projecting piece of the stator (a salient pole) for each pole, with windings around it; in fact, to optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, the windings are distributed in many slots located around the stator, but the magnetic field still has the same number of north-south alternations. The number of 'poles' can vary between motor types but the poles are always in pairs (i.e. 2, 4, 6, etc.). Induction motors are most commonly built to run on single-phase or three-phase power, but twophase motors also exist. In theory, two-phase and more than three phase induction motors are possible; many single-phase motors having two windings and requiring a capacitor can actually be viewed as two-phase motors, since the capacitor generates a second power phase 90 degrees from the single-phase supply and feeds it to a separate motor winding. Single-phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field in the motor (the field merely oscillates back and forth), so single-phase induction motors must incorporate some kind of starting mechanism to produce a rotating field. They would, using the simplified analogy of salient poles, have one salient pole per pole number; a four-pole motor would have four salient poles. Three-phase motors have three salient poles per pole number, so a four-pole motor would have twelve salient poles. This allows the motor to produce a rotating field, allowing the motor to start with no extra equipment and run more efficiently than a similar single-phase motor. There are three types of rotor:

Squirrel-cage rotor

The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. It is made up of bars of either solid copper (most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and those solid copper or aluminium

strips can be shorted or connected by a ring or some times not, i.e. the rotor can be closed or semiclosed type. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage induction motors are not straight, but have some skew to reduce noise and harmonics.

Slip ring rotor

A slip ring rotor replaces the bars of the squirrel-cage rotor with windings that are connected to slip rings. When these slip rings are shorted, the rotor behaves similarly to a squirrel-cage rotor; they can also be connected to resistors to produce a high-resistance rotor circuit, which can be beneficial in starting

Solid core rotor

A rotor can be made from a solid mild steel. The induced current causes the rotation. OR,

Typical winding pattern for a 3 phase, 4 pole motor (phases here are labelled U, V, W). Note the interleaving of the pole windings and the resulting quadrupole field.

Squirrel cages were invented by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky. The stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrying supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, the windings are distributed in slots around the stator, with the magnetic field having the same number of north and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or three-phase power, but two-phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have any number of phases. Many single-phase motors having two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors, since a capacitor is used to generate a second power phase 90 degrees from the single-phase supply and feeds it to the second motor winding. Single-phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field in the motor, so they must incorporate some kind of starting mechanism to produce a rotating field. There are three types of rotor: squirrel cage rotors made up of skewed (to reduce noise) bars of copper or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, slip ring rotors with windings connected to slip ringsreplacing the bars of the squirrel cage, and solid core rotors made from mild steel.

Speed control

Typical torque curves for different line frequencies. By varying the line frequency with an inverter, induction motors can be kept on the stable part of the torque curve above the peak over a wide range of rotation speeds. However, the inverters can be expensive, and fixed line frequencies and other start up schemes are often employed instead. The theoretical unloaded speed (with slip approaching zero) of the induction motor is controlled by the number of pole pairs and the frequency of the supply voltage. When driven from a fixed line frequency, loading the motor reduces the rotation speed. When used in this way, induction motors are usually run so that in operation the shaft rotation speed is kept above the peak torque point; then the motor will tend to run at reasonably constant speed. Below this point, the speed tends to be unstable and the motor may stall or run at reduced shaft speed, depending on the nature of the mechanical load. Before the development of semiconductor power electronics, it was difficult to vary the frequency, and induction motors were mainly used in fixed speed applications. However, many older DC motors have now been replaced with induction motors and accompanying inverters in industrial applications.

EQUEVALENT CIRCUIT

The equivalent circuit of an induction motor. The equivalent circuit of an induction motor has the equivalent resistance of the stator on the left, consisting of the copper and core resistance in series, asRs. During operation, the stator induces reactance, represented by the inductor Xs. Xr represents the effect of the rotor passing through the stator's magnetic field. The effective resistance of the rotor, Rr, is composed of the equivalent value of the machine's power and the ohmic resistance of the stator windings and squirrel cage. The induction motor equivalent circuit when idle is approximately Rs + Xs, which is mostly reactive. Induction motors generally have a poor power factor, which can be improved by a compensation network.

The idle current draw is often near the rated current, due to the copper and core losses existing without load. In these conditions, this is usually more than half the power loss at the rated load. If the torque against the motor spindle is increased, the active current in the rotor increases by Rr. Due to the construction of the induction motor, the two resistances induce magnetic flux, in contrast to synchronous machines where it is induced only by the reactive current in the stator windings. The current produces a voltage drop in the cage factor of Rr and a slightly higher one in the stator windings. Hence, the losses increase faster in the rotor than in the stator. Rs and the copper factor of Rr both cause I2R losses, meaning the efficiency improves with increasing load and reduces with temperature. Xs gets smaller with smaller frequency and must be reduced by the delivered drive voltage. Thus, increases engine power losses. In continuous operation, this is an

approximation because a nominal torque generated by the cooling of the rotor and stator is not included in the calculation. Above the rated speed or frequency, induction motors are more effective at higher voltages. Today, Rs and Rr are measured automatically and thus can be used on a motor to automatically configure itself and thus protect it from overload. Holding torques and speeds close to zero can be achieved with vector controls. There can be problems with cooling here, since the fan is usually mounted on the rotor. The equivalent circuit of an induction motor has the equivalent resistance of the stator on the left, consisting of the copper and core resistance in series, as Rs. During operation, the stator induces reactance, represented by the inductor Xs. Xr represents the effect of the rotor passing through the stator's magnetic field. The effective resistance of the rotor, Rr, is composed of the equivalent value of the machine's power and the ohmic resistance of the stator windings and squirrel cage. The induction motor equivalent circuit when idle is approximately Rs + Xs, which is mostly reactive. Induction motors generally have a poor power factor, which can be improved by a compensation network. The idle current draw is often near the rated current, due to the copper and core losses existing without load. In these conditions, this is usually more than half the power loss at the rated load. If the torque against the motor spindle is increased, the active current in the rotor increases by Rr. Due to the construction of the induction motor, the two resistances induce magnetic flux, in contrast to synchronous machines where it is induced only by the reactive current in the stator windings.

The current produces a voltage drop in the cage factor of Rr and a slightly higher one in the stator windings. Hence, the losses increase faster in the rotor than in the stator. Rs and the copper factor of Rr both cause I2R losses, meaning the efficiency improves with increasing load and reduces with temperature. Xs gets smaller with smaller frequency and must be reduced by the delivered drive voltage. Thus, increases engine power losses. In continuous operation, this is an approximation because a nominal torque generated by the cooling of the rotor and stator is not included in the calculation. Above the rated speed or frequency, induction motors are more effective at higher voltages. Today, Rs and Rr are measured automatically and thus can be used on a motor to automatically configure itself and thus protect it from overload. Holding torques and speeds close to zero can be achieved with vector controls. There can be problems with cooling here, since the fan is usually mounted on the rotor.

Starting

Torque curves for 4 types of asynchronous induction motors: A) Single-phase motor B) Polyphase squirrel cage motor C) Polyphase squirrel cage deep bar motor D) Polyphase double squirrel cage motor A single phase induction motor is not self starting; thus, it is necessary to provide a starting circuit and associated start windings to give the initial rotation in a single phase induction motor. The normal running windings within such a motor motor can cause the rotor to turn in either direction, so the starting circuit determines the operating direction.

The four methods of starting an induction motor are direct on-line, reactor, auto-transformer and star-delta. Unlike a wound-rotor motor, the rotor circuit is inaccessible and it is not feasible to introduce extra resistance for starting or speed control. For small single-phase shaded-pole motor of a few watts, starting is done by a shaded pole, with a turn of copper wire around part of the pole. The current induced in this turn lags behind the supply current, creating a delayed magnetic field around the shaded part of the pole face. This imparts sufficient rotational character to start the motor. These motors are typically used in applications such as desk fans and record players, as the starting torque is very low and efficiency is not a problem. Larger single phase motors have a second stator winding fed with out-of-phase current; such currents may be created by feeding the winding through a capacitor or having it have different values of inductance and resistance from the main winding. In some designs, the second winding is disconnected once the motor is up to speed, usually either by a centrifugal switch acting on weights on the motor shaft or a thermistor which heats up and increases its resistance, reducing the current through the second winding to an insignificant level. Other designs keep the second winding on when running, improving torque. Polyphase motors have rotor bars shaped to give different speed/torque characteristics. The current distribution within the rotor bars varies depending on the frequency of the inducted current. At standstill, the rotor current is the same frequency as the stator current, and tends to travel at the outermost parts of the squirrel-cage rotor bars. As the rotor accelerates, the slip frequency declines, and current tends to travel deeper within the squirrel cage bars. Polyphase motors can generate torque from standstill, so no extra mechanism is required to initiate rotation. The different bar shapes can give usefully different speed/torque characteristics as well as some control over the inrush current at startup.

Linear induction motor

A linear induction motor (LIM) is an AC asynchronous linear motor that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but which has been designed to directly produce motion in a straight line. Linear motors frequently run on a 3 phase power supply.

Their uses include magnetic levitation, linear propulsion, and linear actuators. They have al Main article: linear induction motor A linear induction motor (LIM) is an AC asynchronous linear motor that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but which has been designed to directly produce motion in a straight line. Linear motors frequently run on a 3 phase power supply. Their uses include magnetic levitation, linear propulsion, and linear actuators. They have also been used for pumping liquid metals. so been used for pumping liquid metals.

Induction Motor Control Theory.

Induction Motor Design has a major effect on the behaviour and performance of an inductionmotor. Very often the details or class of design of a motor are not well understood or promoted.

i)

Stator design.
The stator is the outer body of the motor which houses the driven windings on an iron core. In a single speed three phase motor design, the standard stator has three windings, while a single phase motor typically has two windings.

The stator core is made up of a stack of round pre-punched laminations pressed into a frame which may be made of aluminium or cast iron. The laminations are basically round with a round hole inside through which the rotor is positioned. The inner surface of the stator is made up of a number of deep slots or grooves right around the stator. It is into these slots that the windings are positioned. The arrangement of the windings or coils within the stator determines the number of poles that the motor has. A standard bar magnet has two poles, generally known as North and South. Likewise, an electromagnet also has a North and a South pole. As the induction motor Stator is essentially like one or more electromagnets depending on the stator windings, it also has poles in multiples of two. i.e. 2 pole, 4 pole, 6 pole etc. The number of poles determines the speed of the induction motor. A two pole motor has a synchronous speed of 3000 RPM at 50Hz and 3600RPM at 60Hz. A four pole motor runs at half this speed, a six pole motor at one third speed and an eight pole motor at one quarter speed. The winding configuration, slot configuration and lamination steel all have an effect on the performance of the motor. The voltage rating of the motor is determined by the number of turns on the stator and the power rating of the motor is determined by the losses which comprise copper loss and iron loss, and the ability of the motor to dissipate the heat generated by these losses. The stator design determines the rated speed of the motor and most of the full load, full speed characteristics.

11) Rotor Design.

The Rotor comprises a cylinder made up of round laminations pressed onto the motor shaft, and a number of short-circuited windings.The rotor windings are made up of rotor bars passed through the rotor, from one end to the other, around the surface of the rotor. The bars protrude beyond the rotor and are connected together by a shorting ring at each end. The bars are usually made of aluminium or

copper, but sometimes made of brass. The position relative to the surface of the rotor, shape, cross sectional area and material of the bars determine the rotor characteristics. Essentially, the rotor windings exhibit inductance and resistance, and these characteristics can effectively be dependant on the frequency of the current flowing in the rotor. A bar with a large cross sectional area will exhibit a low resistance, while a bar of a small cross sectional area will exhibit a high resistance. Likewise a copper bar will have a low resistance compared to a brass bar of equal proportions. Positioning the bar deeper into the rotor, increases the amount of iron around the bar, and consequently increases the inductance exhibited by the rotor. The impedance of the bar is made up of both resistance and inductance, and so two bars of equal dimensions will exhibit a different A.C. impedance depending on their position relative to the surface of the rotor. A thin bar which is inserted radialy into the rotor, with one edge near the surface of the rotor and the other edge towards the shaft, will effectively change in resistance as the frequency of the current changes. This is because the A.C. impedance of the outer portion of the bar is lower than the inner impedance at high frequencies lifting the effective impedance of the bar relative to the impedance of the bar at low frequencies where the impedance of both edges of the bar will be lower and almost equal. The rotor design determines the starting characteristics

111)EQUVALENT CIRCUIT The induction motor can be treated essentially as a transformer for analysis. The induction motor has stator leakage reactance, stator copper loss elements as series components, and iron loss and magnetising inductance as shunt elements. The rotor circuit likewise has rotor leakage reactance, rotor copper (aluminium) loss and shaft power as series elements. The transformer in the centre of the equivalent circuit can be eliminated by adjusting the values of the rotor components in accordance with the effective turns ratio of the transformer. From the equivalent circuit and a basic knowledge of the operation of the induction motor, it can be seen that the magnetising current component and the iron loss of the motor are voltage dependant, and not load dependant. Additionally, the full voltage starting current of a particular motor is voltage and speed dependant, but not load dependant. The magnetising current varies depending on the design of the motor. For small motors, the magnetising current may be as high as 60%, but for large two pole motors, the magnetising current is more typically 20 - 25%. At the design voltage, the iron is typically near saturation, so the iron loss and magnetising current do not vary linearly with voltage with small increases in voltage resulting in a high increase in magnetising current and iron loss.

iv) Starting Characteristics.

In order to perform useful work, the induction motor must be started from rest and both the motor and load accelerated up to full speed. Typically, this is done by relying on the high slip characteristics of the motor and enabling it to provide the acceleration torque. Induction motors at rest, appear just like a short circuited transformer, and if connected to the full supply voltage, draw a very high current known as the "Locked Rotor Current". They also produce torque which is known as the "Locked Rotor Torque". The Locked Rotor Torque (LRT) and the LockedRotor Current (LRC) are a function of the terminal voltage to the motor, and the motor design. As the motor accelerates, both the torque and the current will tend to alter with rotor speed if the voltage is maintained constant. The starting current of a motor, with a fixed voltage, will drop very slowly as the motor accelerates and will only begin to fall significantly when the motor has reached at least 80% full speed. The actual curves for induction motors can vary considerably between designs, but the general trend is for a high current until the motor has almost reached full speed. The LRC of a motor can range from 500% Full Load Current (FLC) to as high as 1400% FLC. Typically, good motors fall in the range of 550% to 750% FLC.

The starting torque of an induction motor starting with a fixed voltage, will drop a little to the minimum torque known as the pull up torque as the motor accelerates, and then rise to a maximum torque known as the breakdown or pull out torque at almost full speed and then drop to zero at synchronous speed. The curve of start torque against rotor speed is dependant on the terminal voltage and the motor/rotor design.

The LRT of an induction motor can vary from as low as 60% Full Load Torque (FLT) to as high as 350% FLT. The pull-up torque can be as low as 40% FLT and the breakdown torque can be as high as 350% FLT. Typical LRTs for medium to large motors are in the order of 120% FLT to 280% FLT. The power factor of the motor at start is typically 0.1 - 0.25, rising to a maximum as the motor accelerates, and then falling again as the motor approaches full speed. A motor which exhibits a high starting current, i.e. 850% will generally produce a low starting torque, whereas a motor which exhibits a low starting current, will usually produce a high starting torque. This is the reverse of what is generally expected. The induction motor operates due to the torque developed by the interaction of the stator field and the rotor field. Both of these fields are due to currents which have resistive or in phase components and reactive or out of phase components. The torque developed is dependant on the interaction of the in phase components and consequently is related to the I2R of the rotor. A low rotor resistance will result in the current being controlled by the inductive component of the circuit, yielding a high out of phase current and a low torque. Figures for the locked rotor current and locked rotor torque are almost always quoted in motor data, and certainly are readily available for induction motors. Some manufactures have been known to include this information on the motor name plate. One additional parameter which would be of tremendous use in data sheets for those who are engineering motor starting applications, is the starting efficiency of the motor. By the starting efficiency of the motor, I refer to the ability of the motor to convert amps into newton meters. This is a concept not generally recognised within the trade, but one which is extremely useful when comparing induction motors. The easiest means of developing a meaningful figure of merit, is to take the locked rotor torque of the motor (as a percentage of the full load torque) and divide it by the locked rotor current of the motor (as a percentage of the full load current). i.e Starting efficiency = Locked Rotor Torque Locked Rotor Current

If the terminal voltage to the motor is reduced while it is starting, the current drawn by the motor will be reduced proportionally. The torque developed by the motor is proportional to the current squared, and so a reduction in starting voltage will result in a reduction in starting current and a greater reduction in starting torque. If the start voltage applied to a motor is halved, the start torque will be a quarter, likewise a start voltage of one third will result in a start torque of one ninth.

v) Runnng Characteristics.
Once the motor is up to speed, it operates at low slip, at a speed determined by the number of stator poles.The frequency of the current flowing in the rotor is very low. Typically, the full load slip for a standard cage induction motor is less than 5%. The actual full load slip of a particular motor is

dependant on the motor design with typical full load speeds of four pole induction motor varying between 1420 and 1480 RPM at 50 Hz. The synchronous speed of a four pole machine at 50 Hz is 1500 RPM and at 60 Hz a four pole machine has a synchronous speed of 1800 RPM. The induction motor draws a magnetising current while it is operating. The magnetising current is independent of the load on the machine, but is dependant on the design of the stator and the stator voltage. The actual magnetising current of an induction motor can vary from as low as 20% FLC for large two pole machines to as high as 60% for small eight pole machines. The tendency is for large machines and high speed machines to exhibit a low magnetising current, while low speed machines and small machines exhibit a high magnetising current. A typical medium sized four pole machine has a magnetising current of about 33% FLC. A low magnetising current indicates a low iron loss, while a high magnetising current indicates an increase in iron loss and a resultant reduction in operating efficiency. The resistive component of the current drawn by the motor while operating, changes with load, being primarily load current with a small current for losses. If the motor is operated at minimum load, i.e. open shaft, the current drawn by the motor is primarily magnetising current and is almost purely inductive. Being an inductive current, the power factor is very low, typically as low as 0.1. As the shaft load on the motor is increased, the resistive component of the current begins to rise. The average current will noticeably begin to rise when the load current approaches the magnetising current in magnitude. As the load current increases, the magnetising current remains the same and so the power factor of the motor will improve. The full load power factor of an induction motor can vary from 0.5 for a small low speed motor up to 0.9 for a large high speed machine. The losses of an induction motor comprise: iron loss, copper loss, windage loss and frictional loss. The iron loss, windage loss and frictional losses are all essentially load independent, but the copper loss is proportional to the square of the stator current. Typically the efficiency of an induction motor is highest at 3/4 load and varies from less than 60% for small low speed motors to greater than 92% for large high speed motors. Operating power factor and efficiencies are generally quoted on the motor data sheets.

vi) Design Classification.

There are a number of design/performance classifications which are somewhat uniformly accepted by different standards organisations. These design classifications apply particularly to the rotor design and hence affect the starting characteristics of the motors. The two major classifications of relevance here are design A, and design B. Design A motors have a shallow bar rotor, and are characterised by a very high starting current and a low starting torque. Typical values are 850% current and 120% torque. Shallow bar motors usually have a low slip, i.e. 1480 RPM. Design B motors have a deeper bar rotor and are characterised by medium start current and medium starting torque. Typical design B values are 650% current and 180% torque. The slip exhibited by design B motors is usually greater than the equivalent design A motors. i.e. 1440 RPM. Design F motors are often known as Fan motors having a high rotor resistance and high slip characteristics. The high rotor resistance enables the fan motor to be used in a variable speed application where the speed is reduced by reducing the voltage. Design F motors are used primarily in fan control applications with the motor mounted in the air flow. These are often rated as AOM orAir Over Motor machines.

vii) Frame Classification.

Induction motors come in two major frame types, these being Totally Enclosed Forced air Cooled (TEFC), and Drip proof. The TEFC motor is totally enclosed in either an aluminium or cast iron frame with cooling fins running longitudinally on the frame. A fan is fitted externally with a cover to blow air along the fins and provide the cooling. These motors are often installed outside in the elements with no additional protection and so are typically designed to IP55 or better. Drip proof motors use internal cooling with the cooling air drawn through the windings. They are normally vented at both ends with an internal fan. This can lead to more efficient cooling, but requires that the environment is clean and dry to prevent insulation degradation from dust, dirt and moisture. Drip proof motors are typically IP22 or IP23.

viii) Temperature Classification.

There are two main temperature classifications applied to induction motors. These being Class B and Class F.The temperature class refers to the maximum allowable temperature rise of the motor windings at a specified maximum coolant temperature. Class B motors are rated to operate with a maximum coolant temperature of 40 degrees C and a maximum winding temperature rise of 80 degrees C. This leads to a maximum winding temperature of 120 degrees C. Class F motors are typically rated to operate with a maximum coolant temperature of 40 degrees C and a maximum temperature rise of 100 degrees C resulting in a potential maximum winding temperature of 140 degrees C. Operating at rated load, but reduced cooling temperatures gives an improved safety margin and increased tolerance for operation under an overload condition. If the coolant temperature is elevated above 40 degrees C then the motor must be derated to avoid premature failure. Note: Some Class F motors are designed for a maximum coolant temperature of 60 degrees C, and so there is no derating necessary up to this temperature. Operating a motor beyond its maximum, will not cause an immediate failure, rather a decrease in the life expectancy of that motor. A common rule of thumb applied to insulation degradation, is that for every ten degree C rise in temperature, the expected life span is halved. Note: the power dissipated in the windings is the copper loss which is proportional to the square of the current, so an increase of 10% in the current drawn, will give an increase of 21% in the copper loss, and therefore an increase of 21% in the temperature rise which is 16.8 degrees C for a Class B motor, and 21 degrees C for a Class F motor. This approximates to the life being reduced to a quarter of that expected if the coolant is at 40 degrees C. Likewise operating the motor in an environment of 50 degrees C at rated load will elevate the insulation temperature by 10 degrees C and halve the life expectancy of the motor.

ix) Power factor correction

Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors across the supply to neutralise the

inductive component of the current. The power factor correction may be applied either as automatic bank correction at the main plant switchboard, or as static correction installed and controlled at each starter in such a fashion that it is only in circuit when the motor is on line. Automatic bank correction consists of a number of banks of power factor correction capacitors, each controlled by a contactor which in turn is controlled by a power factor controller. The power factor controller monitors the supply coming into the switchboard and adds sufficient capacitance to neutralise the inductive current. These controllers are usually set to adjust the power factor to 0.9 0.95 lagging. (inductive) Static correction is controlled by a contactor when the motor is started and when the motor is stopped. In the case of a Direct On Line starter, the capacitors are often controlled by the main DOL contactor which is also controlling the motor. With static correction, it is important that the motor is under corrected rather than over corrected. This is because the capacitance and the inductance of the motor form a resonant circuit. While the motor is connected to the supply, there is no problem. Once the motor is disconnected from the supply, it begins to decelerate. As it decelerates, it generates voltage at the frequency at which it is rotating. If the capacitive reactance equals the inductive reactance, i.e. unity power factor, we have resonance. If the motor is critically corrected (pf = 1) or over corrected, then as the motor slows, the voltage it is generating will pass through the resonant frequency set up between the motor and the capacitors. If this happens, major problems can occur. There will be very high voltages developed across the motor terminals and capacitors causing insulation damage, high resonant currents can flow, and transient torque's generated can cause mechanical equipment failure. The correct method for sizing static correction capacitors, is to determine the magnetising current of the motor being corrected, and connect sufficient capacitance to give 80% current neutralisation. Charts and formula based on motor size alone can be totally erroneous and should be avoided if possible. There are some power authorities who specify a fixed amount of KVAR per kilowatt, independent of the size or speed. This is a dangerous practice. More information on power factor correction

x) Single phase motors.

In order for a motor to develop a rotating torque in one direction, it is important that the magnetic field rotates in one direction only. In the case of the three phase motor, there is no problem and the field follows the phase sequence. If voltage is applied to a single winding, there are still multiples of two poles which alternate between North and South at the supply frequency, but there is no set rotation for the vectors. This field can be correctly considered to be two vectors rotating in opposite directions. To establish a direction of rotation for the vector, a second phase must be added. The second phase is applied to a second winding and is derived from the first phase by using the phase shift of a capacitor in a capacitor start motor, or inductance and resistance in an induction start motor. (sometimes known as a split phase motor.) Small motors use techniques such as a shaded pole to set the direction of rotation of the motor. More information on Single Phase Motors

xi) Slip Ring Motors.

Slip ring motors or wound rotor motors are a variation on the standard cage induction motors. The slip ring motor has a set of windings on the rotor which are not short circuited, but are terminated to a set of slip rings for connection to external resistors and contactors. The slip ring motor enables the starting characteristics of the motor to be totally controlled and modified to suit the load. A particular high resistance can result in the pull out torque occurring at almost zero speed providing a very high locked rotor torque at a low locked rotor current. As the motor accelerates, the value of the resistance can be reduced altering the start torque curve in a manner such that the maximum torque is gradually moved towards synchronous speed. This results in a very high starting torque from zero speed to full speed at a relatively low starting current. This type of starting is ideal for very high inertia loads allowing the machine to get to full speed in the minimum time with minimum current draw. The down side of the slip ring motor is that the sliprings and brush assemblies need regular maintenance which is a cost not applicable to the standard cage motor. If the rotor windings are shorted and a start is attempted, i.e the motor is converted to a standard induction motor, it will exhibit an extremely high locked rotor current, typically as high as 1400% and a very low locked rotor torque, perhaps as low as 60%. In most applications, this is not an option. Another use of the slipring motor is as a means of speed control. By modifying the speed torque curve, by altering the rotor resistors, the speed at which the motor will drive a particular load can be altered. This has been used in winching type applications, but does result in a lot of heat generated in the rotor resistors and consequential drop in overall efficiency. More information on Slip Ring Motors

xii) Direction of Rotation.

The direction that a three phase induction motor rotates is determined by the direction of the rotation of the stator field. The Direction is therefore determined by the rotation of the three phases applied to the motor. To reverse the direction of rotation of an induction motor, interchange two phases connected to the motor. Supply L1 L2 L3 Motor R S T

To reverse, change to: Supply L2 L1 L3 Motor R S T

To reverse the direction of a single phase winding, reverse the connections to one winding only. i.e. reverse the connections to the run winding but not the start winding.

ADVANTAGE OF ELECTRIC INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction motor is a motor in which electric power is induced into the rotor, or the rotating part of the motor, by magnetic fields. This rotor causes the motor to generate power, or what is called energy in physics. An induction motor is usually a one to thre- phase motor, the most popular of which is the three phase motor. The three-phase induction AC motor is classified into wound rotor and a squirrel cage rotor. The induction motor usually consists of copper, aluminum and steel. An induction motor is an asynchronous motor, which means power is supplied to the rotor by the stator or the stationary part first, and then converted into torque because of the magnetic force that the stator produces in the process. The three-phase method, the motor's construction and the way power is supplied all give the electric induction motor several advantages.

Ease of Operation
Because of the three-phase induction method of producing power, induction motors are easy to operate. As a result, these motors are well-suited for large uses, such as in industries. Operation is relatively simple because the induction motor can self start. The motor can self start because there are no electrical connectors to the rotor that supply power, and current is induced by the action the transformer performs on the rotor because of the low resistance of the rotating coils. In huge industrial applications, this can result in reducing the effort needed for maintenance.

Energy Output
Another major advantage of induction motors is that the transformer, one of their integral parts, works only with AC motors. Its energy output can be moderated for both low and high voltage uses, ranging from 12V for household uses to up to 240V for industrial uses. This quality enables it to drastically reduce waste in electric power. The same reduction in waste can also be achieved in a DC motor, but the process is far more complicated.

Durability
Another major advantage an induction motor carries is that it is extremely rugged. This makes it the ideal machine for heavy uses. Its low cost of maintenance and durability complement its toughness, and as a result these motor can run for years on end with relatively no cost or maintenance.

Other Advantages
Yet another advantage of electric induction motors is their ability to be connected directly to the AC source. This may not mean much in household uses, but in industrial uses, this can be an important cost saver. Since the basic electric design has graduated into an electronic one over the years, an induction motor is easy to program for its various uses. The initial cost of installing it

may be a little high, but it will save money in the long term because of the low maintenance cost and durability of the product. Moreover, it is a flexible design which allows innovations and newer technologies to be incorporated easily without incurring extra costs or necessitating changes in basic design.