A report by the

Environmental
Justice
Foundation
in partnership with
WildAid
Conflict, corruption &
human rights abuses in
the shrimp farming
industry
SMASH
&
GRAB
Acknowledgements
This report was researched, written and produced by
the Environmental Justice Foundation (Dr Mike
Shanahan, Coralie Thornton, Steve Trent and
Juliette Williams).
Design Dan Brown (design@dbrown.co.uk)
Cover photo Trent / EJF
Printed on soo% post-consumer waste paper.
We wish to thank all those people who have helped
with the production of this report by providing
information, ideas, literature and visual material,
logistical support during field visits, critical reviews
of earlier drafts, or assisted in other ways.
The Environmental Justice Foundation is a UK-
based environmental and human rights charity.
WildAid is a US-registered public charity with offices
in the USA, Thailand, Russia, Cambodia and
Ecuador. Pdf versions of this report can be found at
www.ejfoundation.org. Comments on the report,
requests for further copies or specific queries about
EJF should be directed to Steve Trent
(strent@ejfoundation.org) or Juliette Williams
(jwilliams@ejfoundation.org).
This document should be cited as:
EJF. zoo,. Smash & Grab: Conflict, Corruption and
Human Rights Abuses in the Shrimp Farming Industry.
Environmental Justice Foundation, London, UK.
ISBN No. s-o,z,-oz-s
EJF would especially like to thank The Body Shop
Foundation and The Rufford Foundation for their
support and encouragement.
s xas n an orat
The Body Shop
Foundation
Whats in a name?
Some people use the terms shrimp and
prawn interchangeably EJF makes no
distinction between the two.
WildAid
450 Pacific Avenue, Suite 201,
San Francisco, CA 94133, USA
Tel 415.834.3174
Fax 415.834.1759
info@wildaid.org
www.wildaid.org
This report is one of a series
documenting EJFs international
investigations into the social,
economic and environmental
impacts resulting from shrimp
production and consumption.
More information about EJF and
WildAids shrimp campaign and pdf
versions of this and other reports in
the series can be found at:
www.ejfoundation.org
5 St Peters St, London N1 8JD, UK
Tel 44 (0) 20 7359 0440
Fax 44 (0) 20 7359 7123
info@ejfoundation.org
www.ejfoundation.org
EJFct
s xas n an orat s
CONTENTS
Executive Summary z
Introduction
Food for the Hungry? o
Land Conflict sz
Intimidation, Violence & Murder s
Profit &Loss s
Law &Disorder z
Conclusions & Recommendations zo
References ,z
The shrimp live better than we do. They have electricity, but we dont. The shrimp
have clean water, but we dont. The shrimp have lots of food, but we are hungry.
FI S HERMAN, NEGROS I S L AND, PHI L I P P I NES
s
ri crurtn. Shrimp
farms in Bangladesh.
Tr ent / EJ F
z s xas n an orat
Shrimp farming has achieved massive growth over recent decades.
The industry has been hailed as part of a Blue Revolution, suppos-
edly capable of producing large volumes of food without impacting
marine stocks and increasing availability of food for the hungry.
Governments and the international donor community have pro-
moted shrimp farming as a means of speeding development and
alleviating poverty in developing countries. However, the expan-
sion of export-oriented shrimp culture has met with strong opposi-
tion from some sectors of society, and serious political,
socio-economic and environmental concerns have been raised.
Shrimp farming has increased land values and led to conflict over
land rights and access to natural resources. Resulting social prob-
lems include increased poverty, landlessness and food insecurity,
displacement of communities, pollution of drinking water, poor
working conditions, and impacts on health and education.
Large tracts of agricultural land have been inundated with saline
water to create shrimp ponds. Shrimp farming physically takes over
farmland and salt water intrusion can change soil composition and
pollute water supplies. Shrimp aquaculture has had direct impacts
on crop productivity and on the health and livelihoods of rural
farming communities.
Destruction of wetlands, including mangrove forests, together with
shrimp fry collection to stock ponds, have been linked to declines in
capture fisheries. Shrimp farms have also blocked traditional users
access to coastal and estuarine resources, leaving rural communities
increasingly marginalised in degraded environments. Loss of man-
groves has also increased risks to coastal communities from tidal
waves and cyclones. Given the large range of such hidden costs
generated by shrimp farming, there are serious concerns over the
sustainability of this industry.
The shrimp farming industry is not labour-intensive and loss of
employment in the agricultural sector (as a result of the inundation
of land) has led to the displacement of hundreds of thousands of
people from lands used traditionally, and sustainably, for genera-
tions. Employment on shrimp farms and processing plants is fre-
quently linked to very poor working conditions and exploitation of
workers.
EXECUTI VE SUMMARY
atovt. Shrimp farming has had
major impacts on coastlines
(particularly mangrove forests) and
coastal communities worldwide.
Shrimp is becoming a more
affordable food-stuff in
industrialised nations. The true
cost of shrimp is that paid by the
rural poor in producer countries.
Tr ent / EJ F
Shanahan / EJ F
Tr ent / EJ F
s xas n an orat ,
atovt. Women protesting
against the shrimp industry in
Bangladesh, where many have been
victims of rape and assault.
Far i s Ahmed
With the complicity of our government, we have given away our peoples
patrimony to a few national and foreign individuals, and we have
deprived thousands of persons of their livelihood. We have turned the
blood of our people into an appetizer
J ORGE VAREL A, CODDEF FAGOL F, HONDURAS
z
Shrimp farming especially affects women. There are reports of
sexual abuse of female workers in shrimp processing plants and, in
certain countries, the link between the industry and sexual abuse is
so strong that reputations of women working in the industry have
been tarnished, affecting their marriage prospects. Women who
have campaigned against the industry have been subjected to
violent intimidation and rape.
Children are also seriously affected. In a number of countries,
children miss school in order to help their parents find food and
water following salinisation of water supplies and reduced availabil-
ity of food resources. Children risk their health working for shrimp
farms, spending long hours in water collecting shrimp fry or work-
ing in unsanitary factory conditions. Child labour in the shrimp
industry has been reported in Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Thai-
land, Cambodia, Indonesia, Peru, Ecuador, and Burma.
Corruption and weak governance have encouraged the expansion
of the industry, often illegally. Grassroots opposition to the expan-
sion of the industry has been met with threats, intimidation, vio-
lence, and false imprisonment. In at least eleven countries, people
protesting the expansion of shrimp aquaculture have been mur-
dered. In Bangladesh alone, over 150 lives are thought to have
been lost. Perpetrators of acts of intimidation or violence have rarely
been brought to justice.
In some situations, human rights abuses are enacted with the appar-
ent complicity of authorities including the military, police and judici-
ary. The social impacts of shrimp aquaculture constitute significant
violations of human rights as recognised by the Universal Declara-
tion of Human Rights and United Nations Covenants on Human
Rights.
The negative social impacts of shrimp aquaculture often outweigh the
industrys economic benefits. Farmed shrimp are produced almost
entirely for export, primarily to consumers in Europe, Japan and the
USA. Governments, financial institutions, development agencies and
consumers promote the continued expansion of this destructive
industry which, under present conditions, is unsustainable.
I
n this report, we describe some of the negative human impacts of shrimp
farming and show how they have led to serious conflicts between stake-
holders following the privatisation of lands that were previously common-
access resources. We present illustrative examples of illegal land seizure, false
imprisonment, forced labour, summary expulsion, enforced resignation, intim-
idation, rape, arson, violence, torture, and murder enacted upon poor and vul-
nerable communities at the alleged behest of shrimp farming concerns, often
with the apparent complicity of corrupt officials. In cases of unfettered abuse
by local police and judiciaries, the implication is one of de facto sanction by
public officials.
In addition to instances of domestic legislation being ignored or poorly
enforced, a number of internationally-accepted human rights standards are fre-
quently breached. In particular, there are numerous contraventions of rights to
life and security, equal protection before the law, and protection against depri-
vation of property, discrimination, torture, cruel or degrading treatment, and
arbitrary arrest or detention. Economic exploitation of children, performing
work that is hazardous or interferes with their education, is a feature of the
industry in some countries. This document catalogues the widespread denial of
these rights to individuals and whole communities who have either protested,
been employed by, or simply lived near, shrimp farms.
These problems are not unique to shrimp farming but have manifested in a
new and intense way because of the global scale of the industry. Although
shrimp farming has brought employment and revenue to some, the industrys
social impacts are sufficiently widespread and grave to warrant immediate
attention from the financial institutions, governments, global seafood indus-
try, retailers, and consumers who, together, continue to promote the industrys
expansion at significant cost to the rights and livelihoods of the rural poor in a
number of developing nations.
atovt. Most farmed shrimp are
produced in tropical and sub-
tropical countries but consumed as
a luxury food in Europe, North
America and Japan.
Shanahan / EJ F
I say to those who eat shrimp and only the rich people from
industrialised countries eat shrimp I say they are eating the blood,
sweat and livelihood of the poor people of the Third World.
SHRI BANKE BEHARY DAS , I NDI A
s
I NTRODUCTI ON
s xas n an orat
The blue death
Aquaculture is the farming of
aquatic plants and animals, an
activity that has grown globally at
an average 9% per year since
1970
2
. Aquaculture was
heralded, in the 1970s, as a Blue
Revolution, capable of relieving
pressure on marine stocks, which
were beginning to exhibit
indications of over-exploitation.
In recent years, shrimp
aquaculture, which is undertaken
largely in Asia and Latin America,
has experienced particularly
spectacular growth. Annual
production in 2000 was
1,083,641 metric tonnes, valued
at over US$6.8 billion
3
. Today,
28% of shrimp consumed are
farmed
3
, compared to about 5% in
the early 1980s
4
.
Most farmed shrimp are
produced in tropical and sub-
tropical countries but are
exported for consumption,
primarily to the USA, Europe and
Japan. The industry has been
actively promoted by
organisations such as the World
Bank, Asian Development Bank,
and the Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United
Nations (FAO) as a means of
creating jobs, bringing foreign
exchange, and alleviating poverty
in developing nations. Indeed,
shrimp exports make major
contributions to the economies of
producer countries. However,
these nations often lack clear
governance to ensure equitable
use of resources. In many cases,
the industrys external costs are
not borne by those who reap the
benefits, but are displaced and
impact some of the poorest and
most vulnerable communities.
Furthermore, the financial
benefits of shrimp production
often fail to trickle down to these
communities.
The costs of ecological and social damage far exceed the
benefits that accrue out of coastal aquaculture activities.
CONCLUS I ONS OF I NDI A S NATI ONAL ENVI RONMENTAL ENGI NEERI NG
RES EARCH I NS TI TUTE COS T- BENEF I T ANALYS I S
,
Degraded mangrove forest and shrimp farm, Vietnam.
Thor nt on / EJ F
s xas n an orat ,
We used to be able to live by growing ragi and rice, and catching fish. Now, the land is taken over or poisoned,
and all the fish are gone. We cant even go to the sea, because the shrimp farms have blocked the way.
SI TAL AKS HMI , SECRETARY OF WOMEN S COMMI TTEE, RAMACHANDRAP URAM VI L L AGE, ANDHRA PRADES H, I NDI A
s
o s xas n an orat
F
or a billion people, mostly in developing countries, fish represents the
major dietary source of animal protein
z
. Although hailed as being a
means to compensate for declining wild fish stocks, a recent paper in
Nature concluded that there was no evidence that aquaculture promoted a
recovery of coastal fisheries
,
. Conversely, as this chapter shows, shrimp farm-
ing contributes directly to a reduction in marine and coastal resources. The
industry not only results in a net loss of protein (as fish is caught to feed
shrimp); but is also associated with declines in the availability of marine and
coastal species traditionally harvested by local communities (as habitats are
lost). Furthermore, agricultural productivity and the availability of potable
water are also impacted (see below). The vast majority of shrimp produced
from local resources are exported, rendering those resources unavailable for
local consumption Thailand, for example, the worlds leading producer of
farmed shrimp, exports up to o% of its output

. Thus, the production of a

luxury foodstuff for consumers in industrialised nations has direct impacts of
the food security of the rural poor in producer countries.
A consequence of such depletion is that traditional fisher-folk have fewer
resources, must devote more time and energy to food collection, and are less
likely to be able to harvest sufficient fish for local sale. Shrimp farming can
therefore promote local poverty as well as food insecurity. In some cases, social
dislocation results as people are forced to move to cities in search of work.
atovt. Muisne, Ecuador when
mangroves are cleared to build
shrimp farms, food security is
threatened as forest resources are
lost and local fish catches decline.
Cl i ve Shi r l ey / Gr eenpeac e
FOOD FOR THE HUNGRY?
Depletion of coastal resources
Mangrove forests are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet.
The forests support a high diversity of marine and terrestrial life through food
web interactions, and act as refuges and nursery grounds for many species of
fish, shellfish and crustacean of value commercially or to subsistence har-
vesters. In Malaysia, it has been estimated that from each hectare of mangrove,
ooo kg each of finfish and shrimp are produced annually
,
. Mangroves are closely
linked to the habitat conditions of coral reefs and seagrass beds, and around
two-thirds of all fish harvested globally depend on the health of these and other
wetlands for various stages in their life cycle
,
. Positive correlations between
mangrove area and near-shore yields of fish or shrimp have been documented
in Australia, the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia
o
, but there is debate over
these studies and further research is clearly required to elucidate the relation-
ship between mangroves and yields.
Sustainable exploitation of such resources is contingent upon the contin-
ued existence and health of mangroves and associated habitats. However,
shrimp farming and other human activities have supplanted considerable areas
of these ecosystems throughout the tropics
,
; up to ,s% of global mangrove
loss has been attributed to shrimp farming
s
. Indeed, in some countries, shrimp
farming has been the principal threat to mangrove ecosystems (see EJFs com-
panion report on environmental impacts of shrimp farming
zo
). The central
problem for local food security has been the conversion of a multiple-user,
open-access resource into a single-user, single-owner one. This has been termed
a tragedy of enclosures

. For example, in Muisne, Ecuador, up to so% of the

population have lost their main source of nutrition due to mangrove destruc-
tion since the arrival of shrimp farming
so
.
q In Thailand, where an estimated o,,ooo ha of mangroves have been con-
verted to shrimp ponds since the mid-ssos, it is estimated that for every
1 kg of shrimp produced, ,g of fisheries are lost due to habitat conversion
alone
,
.
q Within z-, years of large-scale mangrove clearance in Kuala Muda (Kedah,
Malaysia) fishermen reported a drop in income to one-sixth of its prior
level
ss
.
q In Sri Lanka, lagoon fishers average catches declined by oz.,% since the
advent of shrimp farming
sz
.
q Decreased catches of shrimp larvae have been associated with the conver-
sion of mangroves to shrimp ponds in Ecuador
s,
.
q A year after shrimp farms began operating locally, Indian fishermen in
Ramachandrapuram reported that catches had declined to one-tenth of pre-
vious sizes
s
.
q Fishermen in Chokoria, Bangladesh reported so% declines in catches since
mangrove destruction and the creation of dikes for shrimp farming
s,
.
q In s,, it was reported that Burmas mangrove had decreased by z,s,ooo ha
since ss,, leading to a decline in coastal fisheries production of so,ooo
tonnes annually
so
.
q In the Philippines, shrimp farming has been linked to declining stocks, and
fish deaths and deformities due to the use of chemical inputs
s,
.
q In Campeche state, Mexico, annual mangrove declines of zoo ha from sso-
so caused yearly fisheries losses of US$so,ooo
ss
.
Marine resources may be further depleted by the collection of wild shrimp
brood-stock and post-larvae (seed) to supply shrimp farms, production of fish-
meal and fish oil to feed farmed shrimp, pollution of coastal waters, introduc-
tion of non-native species, and the introduction of pathogens as a result of
shrimp farming
zo
. For example, viruses introduced with non-native shrimp
species have been linked to the s, crash of native shrimp crops in China
zs
.
Pollution from shrimp ponds can also affect the availability of resources and
There is no life in the mangroves.
Now, there are no baby fish. With no
reproduction, what little is here is
over.
FI S HERMAN I N CHAMP ERI CO, GUATEMAL A
s
ttiow. Over ,ee non-target species
have been identified in tropical shrimp
fisheries
:,
.
Mi c hael Aw
Wild Shrimp By-catch
By-catch is also a feature of wild
shrimp fisheries and is discussed in
detail in EJFs companion report
24
.
Trawlers catch up to 20 kg of non-
target species for each 1 kg of shrimp.
This by-catch is largely discarded and
dies. Included in the by-catch are rare
species like turtles and seahorses and
species exploited for food by coastal
communities.
atovt. Millions of small-scale fisher-folk, like this
Guatemalan, have had their lives and livelihoods
impacted by shrimp farming activities on their coasts.
Gi bs on / EJ F
s xas n an orat ,
has been implicated in declines of fish in the Philippines
s,
and mass deaths of
crabs in Brazil
zz
, for example.
Shrimp post-larvae used to stock ponds are small and are harvested with
fine nets, which also collect many other species. This unwanted by-catch is dis-
carded and usually dies. The by-catch rates associated with shrimp fry collec-
tion are thought to be the highest of any fishery
z,
. For every fry of the tiger
shrimp, Penaeus monodon, collected in India, an estimated soo fry of fish and
other shrimps are lost
,
. At just three collection centres in West Bengal between
oz million and z.o billion by-catch fry are estimated to be removed from the
ocean in the course of collecting shrimp fry each year
,
.
Farming carnivorous species like shrimp intensively or semi-intensively can
require protein inputs of over double the weight of the farmed species pro-
duced
,
. For shrimp, this feed comes primarily in the form of fishmeal and fish
oil, meaning that additional pressure is placed on marine reserves and a valu-
able source of dietary protein is denied to coastal communities. In Thailand,
nearly one million tonnes of fish are converted into animal feed annually, the
majority being used to feed shrimp farmed for export
z,
.
Reduced access to resources
Shrimp farms often physically block traditional users access to coastal resources
and, in many places, what was once common land is now accessible solely by
commercial interests. Thus, local communities access to fishing sites, and man-
grove forest resources (such as fuel wood, building materials, fruit, and tradi-
tional medicines) can be severely limited
zo
. Additional problems arise when tra-
ditional users of the coastal zone, increasingly marginalised into degraded
environments, feel compelled to trespass in order to fish or otherwise exploit
resources.
atovt. Shellfish on sale in Vietnam. There
and elsewhere, shrimp farms block access to
such resources and are implicated in declines
in resource availability due to pollution and
mangrove deforestation.
Shanahan / EJ F
s s xas n an orat
How sad it is to wake up and not to have enough food for the children and grandchildren.
BRAZI L I AN CRAB COL L ECTOR I N AREA OF MAS S CRAB DEATHS AS S OCI ATED WI TH S HRI MP FARM P OL LUTI ON
z o
itr r. Concheras in Ecuador.
These artisanal collectors of
shellfish have found their
livelihoods threatened by the
arrival of shrimp farming
operations.
Al f r edo Pas t or
Women are the main losers when mangroves are converted into shrimp farms, because they lose access to a
communal source of food and cash income.
PROF ES S OR J OAN MARTI NEZ- AL I ER

Increased coastal susceptibility

A further impact of mangrove loss is increased susceptibility
of coastal communities to extreme environmental events
such as cyclones, tidal waves and floods.
qIn 1991, thousands died in Bangladesh when a tidal wave
swept into an area whose mangroves had been converted
into shrimp ponds
28
. In 1960, the same area had been hit by a
wave of comparable magnitude but intact mangrove forest
dissipated its force and no lives were lost
15
.
qIn 1999, when a super-cyclone hit India, killing at least
10,000 people and making 7.5 million homeless, areas with
intact mangrove forest were largely unaffected
29
.
qIn 2001, a major storm hit Ha Tinh, Vietnam. In areas with
mangroves, the coastal flood defence dikes were safe, whilst
in those without mangroves dikes eroded away
30
. In 1997,
the biggest typhoon for 100 years hit the Mekong delta, with
significantly less damage in mangrove areas
31
.
There were cyclones, but not like there are now the waves were usually stopped by the forest. After the 1960s,
the deforestation increased, and so did the intensity of the cyclones.
MOHAMED I BRAHI M, VI L L AGE EL DER, BANGL ADES H
s
Mohamed Ibrahim stands in front of an area once
filled with mangrove forest but now exposed to
natural disasters.
Far i s Ahmed
atovt itr r. Mangrove forest,
Cambodia.
Wi l l i ams / EJ F
atovt ri onr. Mangrove forest
degraded during shrimp farm
development, Vietnam.
Shanahan / EJ F
s xas n an orat
Analysis of a mangrove system in Thailand revealed that conversion
for aquaculture made sense in terms of short-term private benefits,
but not once external costs were factored in. The substantial social
benefits associated with the original mangrove cover from timber,
charcoal, non-timber forest products, offshore fisheries, and storm
protection fell to almost zero following conversion...The TEV [total
economic value] of intact mangroves exceeded that of shrimp farming
by about 70% (c. US$60,400 compared with US$16,700 per hectare).
Economic analysis published in August 2002
27
Reduced access to potable water
Depletion, salinisation and chemical pollution of drinking water have been fre-
quent results of the incursion of irresponsibly-sited and poorly-managed
shrimp farms. The requirement of certain shrimp species for brackish water
means that, over time, salts penetrate the water table, while water exchange
practices associated with more intensive shrimp farms typically involve pump-
ing water in from surrounding rivers or groundwater supplies (thus depleting
fresh water resources) and then pumping out waste water from the ponds into
canals, rivers and near-shore waters. This process can lead to contamination of
groundwater supplies and rivers by pollutants (including pesticides, antibiotics
and disinfectants) and saltwater
zo
.
Excess salt renders water unfit for consumption. In Sri Lanka, ,% of fisher-
folk in shrimp farming areas no longer have ready access to drinking water
,z
,
and in the Kalpitiya region, potable water can now only be found at depths of
soo-zoo feet
,,
. When people have resorted to drinking rainwater, illnesses have
resulted
,
. Skin rashes from polluted water are another common problem in
such communities
s,,,,
.
In many countries, women are traditional collectors of water. Contamina-
tion and depletion of wells compels them to walk for miles in search of water
zs
.
In parts of Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, women must now walk ,-o km daily
looking for fresh water and, rather than attend school, children in these com-
munities must also help
,o,,,
.
Within a year [of shrimp industry arrival], our wells were full of salt
and we had swarms of mosquitoes in our village.
GOVI NDA MA, NEL LORE DI S TRI CT, ANDHRA PRADES H, I NDI A
, s
You see this water everywhere, we cannot drink it we cannot even
touch it, because its given us skin diseases from the salt and the
chemicals in it. The wells are also poisoned. If we want drinking
water, we have to go to another village to get it.
SI TAL AKS HMI , RAMACHANDRAP URAM VI L L AGE, I NDI A
s
The Link To Disease
In addition to affecting nutritional standards
through reduced availability of coastal
resources, and reduced dietary diversity
resulting from degradation and reduction of
agricultural land, shrimp aquaculture has been
implicated in the promotion of other serious
human diseases.
qIn Bangladesh, cattle dung is traditionally
used as fuel. Poor quality drinking water and a
lack of food in shrimp farming areas has
increased incidences of cattle illnesses, such as
diarrhoea. Together with a rise in mortality, this
has reduced availability of dung fuel, resulting
in less frequent boiling of water, with associated
increases in water-borne disease
39,40
.
qIn India, insect infestation and incidence of
insect-borne disease are reported to have
increased as a result of cattle moving nearer to
human habitations after shrimp farms reduced
their grazing area
35
.
qIn Indonesia, in 1999, the spread of malaria in
south Sumatra was partly attributed to the
presence of many abandoned shrimp ponds,
which became breeding grounds for Anopheles
mosquitoes
41
.
qIn Sri Lanka, villagers have reported
increased prevalence of insect-borne disease in
shrimp farming areas
42
.
qIn Bangladesh, following conversion of
mangroves to shrimp ponds near Sonadia, local
people reported unprecedented attacks by
mosquitoes and other insects
43
.
s o s xas n an orat
ttiow itr r. Muisne, Ecuador. Across the globe,
effluent from shrimp ponds has led to pollution and
salinisation of drinking water and agricultural land.
Tr ent / EJ F
ttiow ri onr. Girl carrying water, Bangladesh,
where salination of wells has reduced availability of
safe drinking water.
Wi l l i ams / EJ F
Reduced agricultural productivity
Salt water intrusion and chemical pollution associated with shrimp aquacul-
ture can result in irreversible changes in the soil composition of the shrimp
ponds and surrounding areas
,
, and can reduce the productivity of agricultural
land or render it infertile
,,
. For this reason, shrimp farming areas of Bangladesh
that previously produced food surpluses must now import rice from other
regions
,,
for example, in Satkhira, rice production declined from o,ooo tonnes
in s,o to just ,oo tonnes ten years later largely because of salt encroachment
from shrimp pond canals crossing rice-fields
o
. In areas of shrimp-rice rotation
in Bangladesh, it has been estimated that up to % of shrimp farmers leasing
land miss the July deadline for drainage; this has led to rice yields in rotation
areas being reduced by up to a third
,
.
Excessive soil salinity is prohibitive to vegetable cultivation and can kill plants
used for cattle fodder. This, combined with salinisation and pollution of ground
and surface water supplies, can contribute to mortality of livestock
,,
, further
reducing food security and opportunities for income generation for many rural
farmers. Reduction in the diversity of agricultural products combined with
reduced access to coastal resources can have serious implications for nutrition
and health of rural communities. Cattle declines are particularly detrimental for
childrens nutrition, in terms of reduced availability of both milk and meat
,,,o
.
Degradation of agricultural land contributes to the further expansion of the
shrimp farming industry. Poor landowners affected by salinisation often have lit-
tle option but to sell their fields at deflated prices to aquaculture operators
,,
or
to turn to shrimp aquaculture themselves. Shrimp aquaculture commonly takes
place in remote rural areas, where local farmers are often poorly-educated.
Faced with land that has become too saline or polluted to be productive, these
farmers sometimes abandon their land, unaware that they have any rights or
recourse to legal action
,,
.
Whether forced by salinisation of their land or encouraged by their gov-
ernments (in some cases through tax breaks and favourable loans) many farm-
ers have ceased production of crops for the domestic market and, instead, farm
shrimp for export. Thus, large areas of previously productive agricultural land
are now being used to farm shrimp. For example, in Thailand, it has been esti-
mated that nearly ,o% of land used for shrimp production may have formerly
been used as rice fields
,
. The result is a local reduction in the availability and
diversity of agricultural produce.
As currently practised, intensive and semi-intensive shrimp farming is often
unsustainable. Data from India, Indonesia and Vietnam, for example, show that
productivity rapidly declines and risks of disease outbreaks increase after ,-so
years of operation in these systems
,,,s,
. In Sumatra, shrimp production
declined from so tonnes / ha to z-, tonnes / ha over just four years
s
. The result
is that shrimp farms are often abandoned. In Thailand, it has been estimated
that over zo% of shrimp farms located in former mangroves are abandoned
after z- years
,o
, and it has been estimated that as many as ,o% of ponds in the
country are disused
,s
. In zoos, it was reported that ,o% of World Bank financed
shrimp ponds in seven Indonesian provinces were abandoned
,z
. Abandoned
farms are difficult and expensive to convert back to agricultural lands because
of high salinity and chemical pollution, and there remains considerable debate
about the feasibility of restoring mangrove forests to their former diversity and
ecological significance

.
There are no winter crops anymore
they used to grow pulses, oil
seeds, and vegetables. The collapse of
cattle-raising has had serious
economic and nutritional
consequences.
KHUS HI KABI R, NI J ERA KORI , BANGL ADES H
s
Case study: Vettapalem
Mandal, India
53
Here, 620 ha of rice fields were converted
to shrimp ponds, with a further 344 ha
lost to saltwater contamination.
Previously, the lands annual production
of 7.5 million kg of rice could feed 10,000
families (2 kg per family per day). Now,
shrimp are produced and exported to
industrialised nations.
Case study: Ca Mau
Province, Vietnam
54
There are over 200,000 ha of shrimp
ponds in Ca Mau, with many constructed
in what was agricultural land. According
to Duong Tien Dung, Director of the
provinces Planning and Investment
Department, in 2001, 125,000 ha of rice
fields were converted and rice production
fell by 460,000 tonnes.
atovt. Rice on sale in Can Tho,
Vietnam. Local production of this staple
crop has fallen considerably following the
conversion of agricultural land to shrimp
ponds producing food almost entirely for
export.
Shanahan / EJ F
As a medical doctor I am concerned about the deteriorating health of
people in the villages near prawn farms. Malnutrition is more prevalent
particularly among women and children because the increased salt in the
soil means people cannot grow vegetables, keep animals for milk or harvest
a good yield of rice or millet.
DR DAI S Y DHARMARAJ , I NDI A

s xas n an orat s s
s z s xas n an orat
atovt. Shrimp farms in Ecuador. As it has
expanded to cover vast coastal areas, shrimp farming
has severely impacted the lives and livelihoods of local
inhabitants worldwide.
Tr ent / EJ F
Case Study: India
People in India have been reportedly evicted from their
lands at gunpoint in order to allow shrimp investors to
construct shrimp ponds
4
. In the 1980s, inhabitants of
Jameelabad village were forced to move to make way
for a rocket range
13
. In the government resettlement
package, land was allocated for common use, such as
livestock grazing. In spite of repeated complaints from
the villagers to the authorities, shrimp farms later
occupied this land
13
.
Near Chinnamganpallem village, Nagendrababu &
Co Private Limited is alleged to have occupied about
250 ha of agricultural land, 20% of which was
government land
13
. The villagers were told that the
government had allocated the land to the company and
that they must leave
13
.
In Pudukuppam, Prawnex Sea Foods International
Ltd is reported to have occupied land including the
villages traditional burial grounds
13
. Company guards
tried to stop people walking along the beach, accusing
them of coming to steal shrimp
13
.
Case Study: Indonesia
Indonesian shrimp farms have been built following land
seizures in which companies, supported by police and
government agencies, provided either inappropriate
compensation or none at all
14,15,16
. Such cases have
been reported from Sumatra, Maluku, Papua, and
Sulawesi
15
.
Some of Indonesias largest shrimp farms are in
southern Sumatra, where many local people have been
summarily evicted in order to allow pond construction.
Before the Wachyuni Mandira company began farming
shrimp there in 1997, its land belonged to local people
and part was a conservation area. 2200 farmers were
evicted with minimal compensation as the provincial
government claimed ownership, stating that the
farmers had no land rights. In 2000, the company,
aided by the police and army, built channels through
locals land
14
.
In August 2001, in Sumatras Lampung Province,
the Pertiwi Bahari company (a.k.a. Bratasena Farming)
was accused of having occupied 347 ha of land without
providing compensation six years earlier. Complaints to
the company, local government and National
Parliament at that time yielded no response
14
.
C
entral to the social impacts of shrimp aquaculture are issues
related to land rights and acquisition. Often, a lack of for-
malised land rights has allowed large-scale displacement of
communities from areas occupied and utilised for generations. In many
cases, displacement occurs without compensation or provision of alter-
native land on which to live
z
.
Shrimp farms are often developed in areas of mangrove forest,
which local communities worldwide exploit for food, fuel, building
materials and medicines. Being in the tidal zone, these mangroves are
often classed as public land that, in shrimp-producing countries, may be
granted as concessions by the state and converted into shrimp ponds,
or converted illegally.
Similarly, farmers have been displaced from their agricultural lands
to make way for aquaculture, either through invasion by gangs con-
trolled by shrimp-farm owners or through cheap acquisition of their
lands by the state or by entrepreneurs. In Indonesia, shrimp farms have
been built following land seizures in which companies, supported by
police and government agencies, provided inappropriate compensa-
tion or none at all
,
.
Land seizures have occurred on a grand scale, affecting hundreds of
thousands of poor inhabitants of coastal communities. In Bangladesh,
an estimated szo,ooo people have been driven from their farmland in
the Satkhira region alone

, either due to declines in food availability or

under direct pressure from shrimp farming interests. In the Indian State
of Andhra Pradesh, s,ooo people were displaced in just three years
,
.
In Ecuador, thousands of marginalised ethnic minority families of
African origin have been displaced from their coastal land in Esmeral-
das Province
o
. Similarly, in Brazil, over ,ooo families have been displaced
from o,oo ha of coastal land
,
. Expulsion of families is a major problem.
These populations are being submitted to an absolute silence. They have fear
of speaking on the problem and suffering retaliation said Maria de Aquino
of the Fortim Fishing Colony in northeastern Brazil
s
.
In Burma, the military has seized land without compensation in
order to construct shrimp farms

. It is reported that the junta confis-

cated all large and productive shrimp farms in Rakhine State between
s, and ss
so
. Nine such farms taken in ss were reportedly hired to
the army in zooz for ,,.o million kyat
ss
(approximately US$oo,ooo). An
island used by at least soo villages for the collection of fuel wood and
fish was confiscated in s, by the military and hired out to the high-
est bidder after villagers were forced to build shrimp ponds there over
a two-year period
ss
.
LAND CONFLI CT
Shrimp farming has resulted in the displacement of whole
communities.
STEFAN BOHORQUEZ, COMI TE ECOLOGI CO DEL LI TORAL , ECUADOR
s
If the mangroves disappear, we shall eat garbage in the outskirts
of the city, we shall become prostitutes.
ECUADORI AN C ONC HE RA ( TRADI TI ONAL S HEL L F I S H COL L ECTOR)
s z
ttiow. Ecuadorian conchera.
Al f r edo Quar t o / Mang r ove Ac t i on Pr oj ec t
Case Study: Malaysia
Samak Aquaculture Company, a US$30 million joint
venture investment by the Kedah state government
and Saudi Arabian investors required locals in Kerpan
to sell their land to the company. When 800 farmers
refused to sell, the government responded by using
the 1960 Land Acquisition Act to force them off the
land, offering compensation of 18-24,000 ringgits (then
US$4,736 to US$6,315) per acre (0.4 ha), an amount
considered to have been insufficient to allow them to
purchase similar land to farm elsewhere, or to
compensate for present or future loss of the land
17,18,19
.
The Consumers Association of Penang (CAP) took the
Samak Companys use of the Land Acquisition Act to
the High Court, which ruled that the acquisition was
against the public interest and therefore not a proper
use of the Act. Shortly afterwards, the government re-
gazetted the land for acquisition and appeals by the
villagers and CAP were dismissed by the High Court. In
January 1995, police arrested 33 peaceful protestors
(10 women, who spent 3 days in jail, and 23 men who
were jailed for a week). Eventually, heavy machinery
moved in to tear up the paddy fields (during harvest
season). Finally, after further legal battles, an out-of-
court settlement was reached in 2002 that increased
the villagers compensation to US$12-13,000 per acre
(0.4 ha)
18
.
We are the victims and we were arrested for
defending our rights Rice farmer dispossessed in
Kedah, Malaysia
18
Case Study: Ecuador
In Ecuador, there are reported to have been thousands
of cases of land seizures, only 2% of which have been
resolved through legal avenues
20
. Cases have involved
use of force and of military personnel
20
. In total, tens of
thousands of hectares of ancestral land have allegedly
been seized
20
.
s xas n an orat s ,
ri onr. On :, April :ee:,
Abdur Rob Howladar and
his .o-year old son were
attacked with machetes by ;
or people who had
previously demanded money
and two-thirds of his small
shrimp farm
:;
. The group
have now occupied his land
and he has received neither
rent nor compensation. His
assailants have been arrested
and released on bail. They
are now pressuring his family
to drop the case.
Wi l l i ams / EJ F
Case Study: Bangladesh
To date, thousands of Bangladeshi subsistence farmers have
suffered from the invasion of their rice lands by aquaculture
owners and by salinisation of their agricultural land
6,21,22
. Many
farmers in Bangladesh are landless people who farm and graze
livestock on khas (government-owned) land. There have been
many reports of this khas land being used for shrimp farms
illegally by influential members of society, sometimes in
possession of false property deeds, and in some cases apparently
with the support of local police or government officials
23
.
Violence and intimidation towards small-scale shrimp farmers in
order to appropriate their lands is also reported to be
widespread
6
.
In 1998, in Satkhira district, a High Court injunction
prohibited the granting of leases for shrimp cultivation, thereby
enabling 1200 families of fisher-folk to legally reside in nine
contested water-bodies (ghers)
24
. On 24 April of that year, the
district administrator, reportedly under pressure from local
government leaders, contravened the injunction and issued
leases. Police and musclemen hired by the lease-holders later
moved into the wetlands so as to remove the landless families
24
.
The violence culminated on 27 July when police personnel
opened fire, killing four including Zaheda Begum a leader of
Kisani Sabha (Peasant Womens Association) and wounding
250
24
.
In October 2000, Bangladeshs Daily Star newspaper
reported that a senior police officer led a campaign of arson,
bombing and violence allegedly to drive out residents of houses
at Kaliganj-Lebukhali to make way for shrimp ponds 60 villagers
were injured and 350 families abandoned land leased from the
government
6,25
. In May 2002, it was reported that miscreants
linked to a political leader captured 16 shrimp farms belonging to
a local cooperative in Coxs Bazaar; the police allegedly arrested
four of the cooperative members and not the interlopers
26
.
Other tactics such as inundating rice plots with saline water to
devalue land, filing false charges against small land-holders, and
intimidation have all been used by shrimp farmers to force the
handover of land
18,22
. Many of those forced to sell or abandon
land are illiterate, and poorly equipped to find alternative
employment.
Opposition to such shrimp farms by landless organisations
has led to violent conflict, and false cases being filed. To date 53
cases, each involving around 30 people, have been filed by those
involved in shrimp aquaculture in southwest Bangladesh against
group members and staff of Nijera Kori, an organisation working
to support the landless
23
.
A
s some previous examples indicate, grassroots opposi-
tion to the shrimp industry has frequently been met
with threats, intimidation and violence. This has been
the reaction to spontaneous non-violent protest in a number of
countries. Furthermore, the presence of armed guards at many
shrimp ponds has increased tension between the competing
interests of the industry and traditional users (e.g. in India
z
,
Honduras
,
and Bangladesh

). The extent of this problem varies

widely between countries but certain hotspots exist (see
below) where activists, journalists, fisher-folk and villagers have
been threatened, arrested on false charges, attacked, and sub-
jected to police aggression. False arrests are a common means
of intimidation, particularly in Bangladesh

.
Against a background of threats and violence, tensions have
escalated to the extent that protesters opposed to shrimp aqua-
culture or fisher-folk competing for access to coastal resources
have been murdered in at least ss countries (see map below).
I NTI MI DATI ON,
VI OLENCE & MURDER
When the shrimp farmers learned that I had made the reports [about
illegal cutting of mangroves], I received telephoned threats, against me
and my family.
EDGAR MORA, PRES I DENT OF MACHAL A SP ECI AL MANAGEMENT ZONE, ECUADOR
s
atovt. Murder for export. People have been killed in violence linked to
the shrimp industry in at least eleven countries: Mexico, Guatemala,
Honduras, Ecuador, Brazil, India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Vietnam,
Indonesia and the Philippines.
s s xas n an orat
The Philippines
In the Philippines, Eliodoro de la Rosa, a ,-year-old fisherman
and leader of a fishers group, campaigned about the dangers
of shrimp pond expansion to Manila Bays productivity and
stressed the need to protest the acts of pond owners he was
murdered on zz January so, allegedly because of his cam-
paigning activities
o
.
Thailand
There are reports from Thailand of shrimp farmers boasting
that the amount needed to silence a protesting rice farmer is
equivalent to sales of only zo kg of shrimp
s,
. Employees of
shrimp farms on Thailands Phuket Island are reported to have
intimidated a number of villagers protesting impacts of shrimp
aquaculture on their livelihoods
so
. For example, Sirirpot
Chichang, who campaigned against illegal shrimp farms, was
crippled when thugs associated with shrimp farms ran his car
off the road
so
.
On ,o January zoos, Jurin Ratchapol, ,s, a leading activist
against shrimp farm development, was shot dead whilst col-
lecting nuts near his village, Paklok
so
. He had previously
received death threats from workers at the Watchara shrimp
farm. Subsequently, s illegal shrimp farms were discovered in
the mangroves around Paklok, despite a ban on shrimp farm-
ing in protected forest areas. Phukets Governor, Pongpayom
Wasaphuti, commented: No one follows this law
so
. Later in zoos,
a Watchara worker was charged with murder and Somsak
Wongsawanont, Watcharas owner and a known associate of
police and the judiciary, was charged with conspiracy to mur-
der
so
. Four months before Ratchapols death, Queen Sirikit had
personally presented him with an award in recognition of his
campaigning efforts. It is questionable whether or not arrests
would have followed so quickly had the victim not had this
high profile encounter.
Intimidation In India
I was surrounded by angry thugs, and they said
they would set fire to me. Krishnammal (above), a 75-
year old Indian woman who protested against shrimp farms
2
In India, human rights abuses linked to the shrimp industry
are alleged to be widespread.
7
Among the most commonly
reported abuses are intimidation and violence, frequently
targeted towards women. At Perunthottam, in 1994, houses
were burnt down and women were beaten up by landowners
and thugs linked to shrimp companies
8
. According to the
villagers, police refused to register a case against the
aggressors; instead they returned the following day and
arrested 28 villagers. In Naiyakakuppam, Magna Foods and
Proteins Ltd is reported to have persuaded a young mother to
sell her house by threatening to bulldoze it if she did not
8
.
After a number of buildings were burnt down by thugs
alleged to be working for the company, attempts to claim
more property were thwarted by villagers with legal
documents proving land ownership
8
.
Mr Chittibabu, an Indian journalist, was imprisoned for 10
months under the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities Act
following his exposure of the inequities of the shrimp
industry
9
, and Indian police have been accused of torturing
human rights workers in their custody on false charges
following protests against shrimp farming
10
. Leaders of
organisations representing fisher-folk have received threats as
a result of their struggle against what has been termed the
prawn-mafia lobby, and in July 1998 one such threatened
leader, Harekrishna Debnath of the National Fisherworkers
Forum, was attacked in his home by armed men
11
.
In 1995, four social workers and an activist were invited to
the Jaleswar Sub-District Police Office to discuss their
opposition to shrimp farming in Orissa. They were arrested
and held illegally for two days, forced to strip to their
underwear and assaulted by police one was denied medical
attention for serious injuries received
12
.
Also in 1995, in Kurru village, Orissa, protests led to riots
in which two farmers were killed by the police
13
. In May 1999,
when villagers in Sorana destroyed 11 illegal shrimp farms at
Chilika Lake police raided their village, threw tear gas and
began shooting, resulting in the deaths of four fisher-folk and
injuries to a further thirteen
14
.
[In Andhra Pradesh, the women] were hassled by
the armed guards patrolling the area day and
night. Dr Jacob Raj, PREPARE, India
2
ttiow. Jurin Ratchapol, who was murdered for his efforts to protect
Thailands mangroves from shrimp farm development.
Wi l dl i f e Fund Thai l and s Coas t al Wet l ands Pol i c y And Cons er vat i on Awar enes s Pr oj ec t
Far i s Ahmed
s xas n an orat s ,
Guatemala
In May zoos, police in Champerico shot dead Maytin Castellanos, a s-year old
participant in fisher-folks protests against the shrimp farming firm Camarones
del Sur S.A. (Camarsa) and its subsidiary Pesca S.A. which they claimed had
deforested mangroves, constructed a fence that blocked access to the coast and
polluted waters
s,
. The next month, Camarsa security guards killed another
young protestor, Fernando Chiyoc Albizures, and injured eight more
ss
. Com-
pany staff were arrested and jailed for a few days before being released without
charge, and Camarsa eventually removed the fence and pledged to replant man-
grove forests
s
.
Honduras
Shrimp farms have blocked local peoples access to the Gulf of Fonseca and
numerous protests have resulted
,
. Community activists have been shot at
,
and
the Goldman Prize-winning anti-shrimp campaigner Jorge Varela has had his
life threatened on numerous occasions
zo
. Associates of shrimp producers have
been linked to the deaths of fishermen, twelve of whom (listed below) were
violently murdered with guns or machetes
zs
. Local environmental activists have
protested each of these killings to relevant authorities but a culture of impunity
persists and killers have not been brought to justice.
August 1990: Amilcar and Gabriel Martnez disappeared near the Granjas
Marinas San Bernardo shrimp farm. Amilcar was found dismembered two
weeks later but Gabriel was never found.
8 October 1992: Gertrdiz Fnez Guevara was killed near the Granjas Mari-
nas San Bernardo shrimp farm. Guards from the farm were publicly blamed
and the company arrived at a settlement with her family.
29 October 1993: Manuel Molina Gmez & Jos Lzaro Aguilera died in El
Pedregal estuary between Promasur and Acuacultura Fonseca shrimp farms.
Each was found with four machete blows.
7 September 1994: Pastor de Jess Carranza died at Playa Negra, Namasige,
in a dispute over protection of coastal wetlands.
22 March 1997: Silvano Meja was killed in a dispute over the defense of the Las
Iguanas Wildlife Reserve. Four more defending the Reserve were wounded by
those wanting to convert part of the reserve into a shrimp farm.
28 May 1997: Moiss Bentez was allegedly attacked by two or three guards
from Acuacultura Fonseca shrimp farm, and died a few hours later.
4 October 1997: Israel Ortiz Avila and Marin Seledonio Peralta were both mur-
dered with an AK-, assault rifle in an illegal shrimp farm in Las Iguanas
Wildlife Reserve.
10 May 1998: Cristobal Almendarez Elena was found shot in the back and it is
thought that the killers were guards from the shrimp company Sea Farm.
4 November 2001: Rolando Castro Mndez was found shot dead in a creek
near to the shrimp farm HONDUFARM.
Brazil
Sebastian Marques de Souza, a ,z-year old father of four, led community oppo-
sition to the expanding shrimp aquaculture industry in Piaui state, where
shrimp farmers were buying, or appropriating, the lands within or surround-
ing mangrove forest zones in order to build shrimp ponds. In April zooz, he
was murdered by two men alleged to be connected to the shrimp industry
z,
.
In December zoos, Joo Dantas Brito, an environmental investigator from
the Brazilian Institute of Natural Resources and Environment, was murdered,
shot in the head and back
z
. His death has been linked to his denunciation of ille-
gal shrimp farms in the state of Rio Grande do Norte
z,
.
Indonesia
The Indonesian army has been accused of hunting down, beating and tortur-
atovt. Finger on the trigger. The
presence of heavily-armed guards
adds to the palpable tension in
shrimp farming areas.
Cl i ve Shi r l ey / Gr eenpeac e
They were shooting at people like targets.
GUATEMAL AN WOMAN AT J UNE zoos P ROTES T I N CHAMP ERI CO
s s
s o s xas n an orat
atovt. Protests against the shrimp industry in
Champerico became violent following the death of a
.,-year old, shot by police.
Pr ens a Li br e, Guat emal a
s xas n an orat s ,
ing small-scale shrimp farmers who had protested about their rights on the
Wachyuni Mandira farm in Sumatra
zo
. Some farmers were reportedly trapped
on a farm for three weeks with their food supply cut off by farm officials
zo
. In
March zooo, during protests about working conditions at a shrimp farm oper-
ated by PT Dipasena Citra Darmaja (in Lampung Province), violence broke
out and one farmer and two policemen were killed
z,
.
Mexico
In June zooo, two deaths resulted from conflicts between Yaqui people and a
group of peasants (ejidatarios) who wanted to build a shrimp farm on Yaqui
land in the state of Sonora
zs
.
Ecuador
In Ecuador, intimidation of coastal communities by shrimp farm guards is
widely reported fishermen, concheras (women collecting shellfish) and chil-
dren have been threatened, shot at and have had dogs set on them
z
. Protests
against illegal shrimp farms have been met with death threats and physical vio-
lence
z
. Lder Gngora, executive director of FUNDECOL, an organisation
that has campaigned against shrimp farming for over ten years, was assaulted
by individuals linked to the industry in October zooz
,o
.
A number of deaths and disappearances have occurred in suspicious cir-
cumstances linked to the shrimp industry. The most recent incident occurred
in a region of Guayas province where poor coastal communities have suffered
land seizures and intimidation since the advent of shrimp farming. On ss August
zooz, Carlos Alberto Rodriguez Escalante a ,-year old father of was shot
dead. His friend Walter Jordan Sanchez was beaten, then jailed with no access
to lawyers for several days, and has since been charged with murder
,s
. Carlos
body was found on a shrimp farm from which he was accused of trying to steal
shrimp, yet locals who heard the fatal gunfire state that the shooting took place
elsewhere
,s
.
Intimidation tactics are not directed solely at grassroots opposition to shrimp
farms. An industry regulator in Ecuador has reported receiving threatening
telephone calls claiming that attempts to enforce laws against illegal shrimp
farms would put careers, families and lives at risk
,
. For protesting the expansion
of the shrimp industry, it was suggested that Gina Chavez, an Ecuadorian
lawyer, be prosecuted for treason
,z
.
itr r. Lder Gngora, executive
director of advocacy group
FUNDECOL, has struggled for over
ten years against the shrimp
industry in Ecuador. In October
:ee:, he was assaulted by figures
linked to the shrimp industry.
Shanahan / EJ F
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, murder, kidnapping, bomb attacks, violent
intimidation and rapes linked to the expansion of the shrimp
industry have became regular occurrences
,so
. Since sso, over
s,o people have been killed in violent clashes related to shrimp
farming
,,
. The true figure is unknown as deaths are not always
reported to or by the police, but it is thought by non-govern-
mental organisation, Nijera Kori, to be close to zoo
,
.
Frequently implicated in murder are Bangladeshs muscle-
men hired enforcers paid by shrimp farmers to protect their
interests and further their ambitions. At demonstrations,
clashes have occurred between landless protestors and police
or musclemen

. Shrimp farm guards have caught and beaten to

death innocent fry collectors and adolescents passing through
the farms, suspecting them of coming to steal shrimp. Mus-
clemen have attacked and killed poor villagers and seized their
land for shrimp farming. Witnesses in legal cases linked to the
industry have been murdered. Deaths have also resulted from
rivalry between groups of shrimp farmers or musclemen.
Innocent third parties have been victimised and killed in order
to create a case in which opponents of shrimp farming can be
accused of murder
,
. Torture is also reported as a form of
intimidation after being kidnapped and accused of stealing
shrimp, Mowla Morhol had his fingers and legs broken by
thugs employed by a shrimp farmer and later died of injuries
sustained during his ordeal
,,
.
On , October zooz, the Nijera Kori sub-centre in (shrimp-
free) Polder zz, Khulna district was attacked in the middle of
the night by thugs reportedly hired by shrimp farmers four
staff required hospitalisation due to the severity of the beat-
ings they received
,,
.
Sexual intimidation and rape
Women and young girls are targets of sexual harassment by
shrimp farm guards in Bangladesh and there is an extremely
high incidence of rape and other forms of sexual intimidation
in shrimp farming areas there. In Katahali in Bagerhat district,
,o women were kidnapped in s, and s,o cases of rape were
reported
,,
. Whilst women in such areas live in a state of per-
petual fear and helplessness, the perpetrators of such sexual
abuse are rarely brought to justice.
7 November 1990
2,7,37
Karunamoi Sardar led protests against the encroachment of
shrimp farms in Bangladeshs Khulna Delta. In 1990, she
peacefully demonstrated against the takeover of fields by a
local industrialist who had arrived with 100 men. As the men
attacked, with guns and home-made bombs, Karunamoi was
at the front of the protest. She took the full impact of a bomb
and died instantly. The remains of her body were spirited
away by the aggressors and have never been laid to rest. A
large number of villagers involved in the protest were
arrested and held in custody for a short time after the
incident. After twelve years of legal wranglings, the chief
suspect, Wazed Ali Biswas, is expected to stand trial shortly.
November 7th has become an international day of protest
against the shrimp industry.
The children were beaten up and in self-defense we tried
to protect our children and ourselves. It cost us 20
injured women.
WOMAN HOS P I TAL I S ED WI TH S TAB WOUNDS RECEI VED WHI L S T
DEF ENDI NG L AND F ROM MUS CL EMEN ORDERED TO TAKE I T BY F ORCE
F OR CONVERS I ON I NTO S HRI MP P ONDS I N zooo, SATKHI RA,
BANGL ADES H
, ,
Our young girls are afraid. They do not dare to go for
washing and bathing near the shrimp farms... the
guards sometimes taunt after them... some of them have
been raped.
BANGL ADES HI WOMAN
, ,
s s s xas n an orat
ttiow. In :ee:, .-year old Sirajul
Islam Liton was killed in a conflict
over the familys shrimp farm in
Bangladesh.
,
Tr ent / EJ F
s xas n an orat s
S
hrimp farming has been widely promoted by development agencies and
International Financial Institutions, such as the World Bank and Asian
Development Bank, as a means of reducing poverty, creating employ-
ment, and generating revenue. Indeed, global data suggest that s.z-s., million
full-time equivalent jobs are created directly by shrimp aquaculture
z
. Further-
more, shrimp crops can be highly profitable earning ,o times the profit of
rice farming in Thailand, for example
,
. However, it appears that the economic
benefits of shrimp farming do not always reach the communities most affected
by the industry.
In Muisne, Ecuador, despite ,o years of shrimp farming, there remains a
lack of potable water, sewer service, and garbage collection, and malnutrition
and disease are widespread

. Profits tend to accrue to investors from outside the

area rather than local workers ,,% of shrimp farm investors in coastal Khulna
and Satkhira (Bangladesh) were from outside the area
,
. It has been estimated
that only ,% of those who have lost their occupations because of the arrival of
the shrimp industry there are engaged as employees on shrimp farms
o
. Unem-
ployment is high and wages have fallen as a consequence
o
.
Elsewhere, major investors are often from foreign countries, and commonly
seek to repatriate cash or other benefits. For example, the Thai firm Charoen
Pokphand owns shrimp operations in Indonesia
,
where, in zoos, the British
Embassys web page was promoting shrimp farming as a business opportunity
with huge potential for UK companies
s
.
Shrimp farming is capital rather than labour intensive, and studies in India
and the Philippines suggest a significant proportion of local employment gen-
erated by shrimp aquaculture is temporary, mainly during initial facility devel-
opment. Subsequently, shrimp farming provides a small number of well-paid
jobs for technical experts from outside the community and low-wage jobs for
the unskilled local workers

. It has been reported that between ss,-s,, the

Honduran shrimp industry employed less than one person per hectare, of
which only ,o% were in permanent employment
so
.
In fact, as discussed in the previous sections, the establishment of farms has
frequently forced people away from their land and livelihoods. In India, it has
been reported that shrimp farms employ only two or three workers per hectare,
compared to the ,, workers per hectare in rice fields
ss
. Statistics from Ecuador
are more stark whilst a single hectare of mangrove forest provides food and
livelihood for ten families, a shrimp farm of sso ha employs just six people dur-
ing preparation and a further five during the season

. In Sri Lankas Puttalam

District, nearly zo,ooo lagoon fishers have moved to urban areas in search of
work following the impact of shrimp farming on their traditional livelihoods
sz
.
Similarly, in Ecuador and Bangladesh, the advent of shrimp farming has led to
unemployment and migration to the cities
,s,
. In addition to job losses, shrimp
farming has promoted a shift from individual entrepreneurship and ownership
to wage employment, a trend resulting in fewer owners and more labourers.
Shrimp farming persists because these impacts are displaced towards the poor
and powerless whereas the benefits tend to accrue to a powerful minority.
PROFI T & LOSS
Shrimp aquaculture has created a massive unemployment situation in
the region [South-west Bangladesh].
AS HRAF - UL - AL AM TUTU, COAS TAL DEVELOP MENT PARTNERS HI P, BANGL ADES H
s
Indebtedness & economic loss
Due to the high potential short-term economic benefits of shrimp farming,
many small-scale farmers have been encouraged to switch from agriculture to
aquaculture. However, many of these farmers lack the knowledge or technical
skill to manage shrimp farms in a sustainable manner, and loss of production
and income associated with shrimp disease outbreaks is a major cause for con-
cern. Poor farming practices, poor management, increasing contamination of
water supplies, lack of sufficient experience or knowledge of appropriate health
management measures, lack of financial and technical assistance for small-scale
developments, and possibly agro-industrial development in nearby areas, have
contributed to the failure of a very high number of shrimp farms
s,s,
.
The very high levels of risk associated with the industry have led to increased
socio-economic disparity within communities, with many small-scale farmers
entering poverty spirals. In s,, it was reported that two-thirds of Thai shrimp
farms, which are mostly owned by small-scale farmers, had suffered disease
outbreaks with financial losses averaging US$ooz per hectare
so
. In parts of
Vietnam, where shrimp farming is also largely conducted by small-scale farm-
ers, there are regions where so% of shrimp farmers are losing money
s,
. The
majority of Vietnamese shrimp farmers borrow money to set up or intensify
their ponds. Should harvests fail, having already invested in pond construction
and perceiving a lack of alternatives, many feel compelled to borrow more
money in order to cover their loan repayments. This has resulted in many tak-
ing informal loans, some with interest rates as high as so-zo% per month
s,,ss,s
.
In India, as in Vietnam, small-scale shrimp farmers also become deeply obli-
gated to feed and supply companies, which advance them materials on credit.
When debt payments cannot be met, many shrimp farmers have no option but
to sell or abandon their land.
s
Poor management practices also contribute to abandonment of land as farm
productivity declines, due to disease and pollution. In Thailand, a production
crash is estimated to have led to ,,ooo ha of shrimp farms being abandoned in
so
zs
. Consequently around o% of shrimp farmers lost their businesses result-
ing in an estimated US$zoo million in annual losses
zz
. In the Koh Kong Province
of Cambodia, shrimp farms were found to be unprofitable on narrow financial
analyses alone, with an average loss of US$s,so,/ha
z,,z
.
atovt. House in Muisne, Ecuador.
Hundreds of millions of dollars worth
of shrimp have been farmed in Muisne
Canton, yet there is little evidence of
benefits for local communities.
Shanahan / EJ F
orros i rt. Small-scale shrimp
farms in Vietnam, where the risky
nature of shrimp farming has
promoted landlessness and debt.
Thor nt on / EJ F
ttiow itr r. Abandoned shrimp
pond, Thailand.
Wi l l i ams / EJ F
Disaster struck one day. My farm was hit by a deadly virus that killed
all the shrimps in three days. I was wiped out with nothing left but
millions of baht of debt owed to shrimp feed suppliers.
THAI EX- S HRI MP FARMER, SATAP OL POL P RAPAS , L EF T US$s o, , ooo I N DEBT
z ,
zo s xas n an orat
s xas n an orat zs
Indonesias Nucleus Estate Smallholders Scheme
26,28
qAdopted through the Decree of the Agriculture Minister No. 334/1986 and
supported by a US$38 million Asian Development Bank loan, directed to five private
companies.
qCompanies convert land (often mangrove forests) into shrimp ponds and establish
loan agreements with smallholders. They in turn buy inputs for farming and one or a
few ponds from the company, selling their harvests back to the company.
qTheoretically, smallholders are expected to pay back their debt to the company
within 7-8 years and become independent owners of a small home and pond.
qHowever, companies set all conditions and prices, and maintain accounts.
Smallholders become trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty and debt.
qCompanies control smallholders social lives: they can leave the shrimp estate
only for a few days per year and only for reasons approved by the company.
Penalties exist for late returns.
qWhen shrimp harvests fail the burden falls on smallholders, exacerbating their
debt.
qSmallholders live in a state of total dependency, subjected to unfair and shady
company practices and conditions of semi-slavery.
qThe scheme also discriminates against women. In large-scale shrimp farms only
adult, educated men can hope to get a job. In case of their death or inability to work,
women must leave the estate, leaving behind all assets that they had been paying for
by credit instalment.
At the shrimp villages that I have visited, these small creatures make only strangers rich, whereas local people have
earned little. In this manner they will sooner or later become tenants on their own plots of land.
VI ETNAMES E J OURNAL I S T, NGUYEN VAN TUAN
z o
Case Study: Indonesia
Indonesias Nucleus Estate Smallholders Scheme has drawn
particular criticism. Smallholders under the scheme
complained about working conditions to their government
and the National Commission for Human Rights but got little
response. In 1998, demonstrations led to riots and the army
surrounded the protestors farm, trapping the smallholders
inside, foodless, for a number of days
26
. Afterwards, 600
farmers were made to sign resignation letters, and 40 were
arrested (16 were sentenced to jail terms of between 6
months and 5 years)
26
.
The police are alleged to have put a price on the head of
Endang Suparmono who led campaigns for higher wages and
information on the status of their loans
27
. On 8 February 1999,
Suparmono was himself arrested on false charges of stealing
shrimp and engaging in violence, the real culprit later being
identified as a shrimp farm employee
27.
The National Commission for Human Rights later upheld
claims that farm contracts were unfair
23
. It was also discovered
that the projects environmental impact assessment was
incomplete and that the company was therefore operating
illegally. Other reports support the farmers claims that they
were treated like slaves under complete control of the
company
58
.
zz s xas n an orat
atovt. Shrimp processing factory,
Ecuador. Such units usually employ women,
who often have to stand for long shifts. In
some countries, workers health and labour
rights have been seriously compromised in
such factories.
Cl i ve Shi r l ey / Gr eenpeac e
Occupational Exposure To
Chemicals
14,33
Shrimp farmers and processors face
occupational exposure to potentially harmful
chemicals, including antibiotics, pesticides,
and disinfectants. Many fail to wear
protective clothing when handling these
chemicals. Contact dermatitis may follow
exposure to some antibiotics and there are
cases of aplastic anaemia caused by
occupational exposure to the antibiotic
chloramphenicol. As well as being capable of
inducing acute toxicity, many pesticides are
linked to chronic effects including cancer and
neurological disorders
34
.
Case Study: Thailand
Some shrimp processing factories in Thailand are reported to largely employ women,
who stand all day and must ask permission to visit the toilet
29
. There are no unions,
overtime is compulsory, all hiring is casual and there are no employment guarantees
29
. It
has been alleged that, in southern Thailand, there are factories where Burmese workers
are housed in locked-in conditions unable to leave the premises 24 hours a day
30
-
where average wages are half the legal minimum and where strike activity has been met
with violence and harassment
29
. Shifts for Burmese workers can be as long as 20 hours
in the high season
31
. The Monland Restoration Council reported that in November 2001,
two Burmese migrant workers (Nai Myo Win, a 37-year old man, and Mi Tin Shwe, a 46-
year old woman) were beaten to death in front of co-workers at the Wat Jed shrimp
processing factory, apparently having been accused of stealing prawns
32
.
Case Study: Ecuador
In Muisne and Cojimes, former concheras (collectors of shellfish) accept temporary
employment during the harvesting and packaging of shrimp. In mid-2000, their wages
stood at US$2 for eight hours with 20 cents for each hour extra. The Ecuadorian NGO,
FUNDECOL, reported concheras working for 18 hours daily, standing up, and exposed
to very low temperatures and disinfectant chemicals, including chlorine
4
.
Case Study: India
Many female workers in Indian shrimp-peeling factories are reportedly held virtually
captive by the owners, sleeping above the processing units where the inhalation of fish
odours and ammonia refrigerants is unavoidable
35
. A health report on these women
found that they had skin problems and backache from standing for prolonged periods,
and urinary tract infections were linked to inadequate toilet facilities
36
. Handling ice-cold
food for long hours has also been linked to arthritis
35
. In 2000, it was reported that, in
many processing units, half of the workers monthly US$30 salary was deducted to pay
for their daily meal of thin gruel
35
. Many of these workers are migrants from the
southern state of Kerala. The Centre for Education and Communication reported in 1997
that such migrant women are often used as sex workers and that on-site abortions were
not uncommon
37
. A report published in 2002 stated that the female workforce in such
factories is not allowed to form unions and is denied compensation for occupational
hazards
38
.
The company made us sign a paper and we dont know what was written
on it. They call us in the morning at 3.30 or 4.00 a.m. and we have to
work until 8.00 or 9.00 p.m. Anonymous letter from worker in an Indian
seafood processing plant to Bharatiya Mahila Federation activists
39
Labour conditions
Women are the preferred employees of shrimp processing factories. For these
workers, conditions are often less than ideal. Among the numerous abuses
reported from these factories are physical violence and sexual assault, confine-
ment, unsanitary conditions, illegal working hours and illegally low wages.
Burmas Shrimp Slaves
The United States Department of Labors
1998 Report on Labor Practices in
Burma
52
described forced labour, often
for commercial ventures including shrimp
farming, to benefit military officers. The
report states that As many as 13,000
Karens [an ethnic minority] were
reportedly forced in 1995 to work without
pay on a large rubber plantation, and in
the construction of a dike for shrimp
farming operations. In the 2000 update
to this report, it was reported that almost
every day, especially during the rainy
season, the Na Sa Ka (border police)
collected men and children and forced
them to work on black tiger shrimp
farms
53
. A 1998 International Labour
Organisation (ILO) report includes
testimonies of minority villagers who had
been forced to work without payment on
shrimp farms, some since they were
children; one witness reported being
beaten with a wooden stick on at least six
occasions when he took a rest whilst
another said he knew of villagers who had
been tortured for refusing to work
54
. In
October 2000, following ILO sanctions,
the Burmese Ministry of Home Affairs
ordered military and administrative units
to cease conscription of forced labour yet,
in May 2001, it was reported that the
practice had not entirely stopped
55
. In
December 2001, it was reported that the
border police in Maungdaw town near
the Bangladesh border would swoop on
Muslim minority youths and force them to
work without pay in military-owned
shrimp farms
56
. In January 2002 it was
reported that villagers from all Rakhine
State must go for voluntary service,
working for the military on shrimp
farms
57
.
s xas n an orat z,
atovt. Child labour in an Indian shrimp peeling factory.
Fr ee The Chi l dr en I ndi a
Whether we have cuts on our hands and feet, we have to carry on de-
heading. If not, they will get employees from other places.
BANGL ADES HI CHI L D L ABOURER
,
Child labour
In a number of countries, including Ecuador, Sri Lanka, India and Bangladesh,
child labour has been reported within the shrimp industry. Reduced coastal and
agricultural productivity has been implicated in the increasing numbers of chil-
dren having to help find food or become wage-earners. Many of these children
work as cheap labour, collecting shrimp fry from the sea for shrimp farms, work-
ing in shrimp processing (such as de-heading) depots, or working on the farms
themselves
o,s,z
. A ss study in Bangladesh for Save the Children (UK) reported
that almost o% of children within the study area who had undertaken income-
generating work classified work within the shrimp industry as their main occu-
pation - more children work in the shrimp industry than in any other
,
. Only
o% of Bangladeshi children working in the shrimp industry attend school for
at least days a week, compared with o% of non-working children
,
.
Shrimp fry collection involves long periods (up to s,-s hours a day) in and
around the water, and many children thus employed suffer from skin and respi-
ratory diseases and other medical complaints
o,,
. In Bangladesh, wages for this
work are as low as US$o., - s.so per day
,
. In India and Bangladesh, children col-
lecting shrimp larvae around the Sundarbans mangrove forests are also at risk of
being attacked by sharks, crocodiles and tigers
,,,,
.
Child labourers in shrimp processing (de-heading) depots in Bangladesh are
most likely to work the un-flexible hours that prevent them from attending
school
,
. They often work for hours without a break in extremely unsanitary
conditions, and are frequently cheated of their pay (US$o.s, per day). Cuts to
hands and feet are common and can become badly infected, abscessed and
swollen
,
. Sexual abuse, including rape, is also reportedly common. For unmar-
ried girls, the very fact they work in the industry can mean their reputations
and marriage prospects are tarnished, regardless of whether or not they engage
in sexual activity
,
.
In the mid-sos the US Department of Labor reported Thai children, some
of whom were beaten, working to pay off parents debts in shrimp peeling sheds
and some returning home missing fingers
o
. The children shelling shrimp
worked for s, hours or longer, mostly squatting on the floor or sitting on a small
bench
,
. In zooz, it was reported that zoo,ooo children ranging from ,-sz years of
age were working sz hour overnight shifts in Indian shrimp processing units,
earning just Rsz-, per kg (US$o.o-o.oo), equating to US$o.zo-o.o per night
s,
.
International Labour Organisation and US Department of Labor documents
report allegations of child labour in the shrimp industry in a number of other
countries including: Burma, Indonesia, Cambodia, and Peru
o,,o,,s
.
They acquired the land illegally, they constructed the ponds illegally, most
of them are illegally owned, and practically all are operating unlawfully.
SHRI BANKE BEHARY DAS, I NDI A
s
LAW & DI SORDER
M
any of the social problems discussed in the preceding pages exist as a
result of widespread corruption, weak governance and failure to
enforce legislation. The shrimp industry has become particularly
powerful in certain countries and has formed tight associations with figures
within governments, police, military and judiciary. Indeed, politicians and other
power-brokers are even directly involved as investors or farm owners. As an
Indian newspaper reported, [i]n their rush to garner profits, the governments have
also become party to violations of national land and environmental laws
z
. Such cor-
ruption was apparent in Tanzania in the early sos when shrimp farms were
planned in the Rufiji Delta. Following an investigation, the Minister of Lands
was dismissed for corruption having attempted to insert himself into the venture
by allocating the land reserved for construction of the prawn [shrimp] farm to a busi-
ness partner
,
. In Vietnam, prime shrimp farming land is reported to have been
allocated to army and police units, and provincial and district committee
offices

. Similarly, influential members of the Honduran military and the rul-

ing Nationalist Party were reported to be large investors in the shrimp indus-
try
,
. Indeed, the Honduran President is reported to be a shareholder of Gran-
jas Marinas San Bernardo, one of the countrys largest shrimp farming
companies
o
. CODDEFFAGOLF, a Honduran non-governmental organisation,
recently claimed that Honduran laws and international treaties were broken by,
amongst others, Natural Resources and Environment Ministers in the granting
of shrimp farm licences allowing the El Faro company to operate in protected
areas
,
. In Burma, it is reported that senior military figures are involved in com-
mercial shrimp cultivation (using forced labour) and that the army has taken
possession of certain shrimp farms, beating any civilians who try to take the
shrimps
s
. In August zooz, a Bangladeshi politician, Alamgir Farid, was linked to
the illegal destruction of mangrove forests for shrimp farm development

.
Influential mafia are
invading [Thailands]
mangroves. Why have the
forests vanished? Because
of the bank notes that
blind senior officials.
THAI SENATOR, HARN
LEENANOND
s o
1000
10000
100000
1000000
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105
Corruption index position
F
a
r
m
e
d

s
h
r
i
m
p

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
,

2
0
0
0

(
M
T
)
Thailand
India
Mexico
Brazil
Malaysia
Taiwan
Sri Lanka
Colombia
Honduras
Indonesia
Bangladesh
China
Ecuador
Vietnam
Philippines
r i ourt s . Positions in Transparency
Internationals Corruption Perceptions
Index
:,
(:ee:) for the ., top producers of
farmed shrimp in :eee
:,
. The higher the
corruption index position, the more
corrupt.
Shrimp farmings potential to make
investors substantial profits over the
short term and the location of shrimp
farms in countries characterised by
corruption and weak governance (as
shown in this illustration) has led to a
highly unsustainable, destructive
industry.
z s xas n an orat
Domestic law enforcement
In shrimp farming countries there is a widespread lack of enforcement of legis-
lation prohibiting illegal expansion of the shrimp industry. In Mexico, the Fed-
eration of Fishing Cooperatives of Southern Sinaloa complained that shrimp
farm construction would stop seven cooperatives from fishing in their granted
areas
ss
. Despite presenting their case to government agencies, including the Del-
egacin Federal de Pesca (Federal Delegation of Fisheries), Centro Regional de Inves-
tigaciones Pesqueras (Regional Center for Fisheries Research) in Mazatln, and
the Instituto Nacional de Ecologa (National Ecology Institute) in Culiacn, they
received no support
ss
. Conversely, the Federation claims that these agencies sup-
ported the private companies building shrimp farms
ss
. In Colombia, it is alleged
that environmental authorities assisted the construction of a shrimp farms
water channel expected to promote salinisation of agricultural lands
sz
.
Partial foreign ownership of shrimp farms in Honduras contravenes Article
so, of the countrys constitution, but this law is widely flouted. Other legislation,
protecting fishing rights or access to fishing grounds, and laws prohibiting pond
construction within ,o metres of the high tide mark, are also ignored
s,
. In so,
the Honduran Governments one-year moratorium on shrimp farm expansion
was not enforced, with oo new farms established
s,
. Protests resulted in the gov-
ernment extending the moratorium, pledging enforcement, and requiring envi-
ronmental impact studies. Yet, in the six months after the new decree, shrimp
farming continued to expand and no impact studies were conducted. In Novem-
ber zooz, Honduras sole official representative at the Meeting of the Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands was an employee of the countrys largest shrimp farm
one accused of repeatedly breaching the Ramsar Convention
s
.
In so, Indias Supreme Court issued a landmark ruling against the industry,
requiring that industrial shrimp aquaculture operations acting within the coastal
regulation zone cease all operations, and that local farmers and workers
adversely affected by the industry be compensated. The Supreme Court also
ruled that no new shrimp aquaculture operations be permitted in this zone, or
within sooo metres of Pulicat Lake or Orissas Chilika Lake (an internationally
important wetland)
s,,so,s,,ss
. However, whilst on paper this was an important legal
victory, the ruling had little effect on shrimp industry practices
s,,s
. Meanwhile,
around Chilika Lake, mafias remained undeterred and constructed shrimp
farms, allegedly with the support of local politicians, in violation of this order
s,
.
Shrimp farmers acting illegally in Ecuador do so under little pressure from a
weak enforcement system and an apparently disinterested judiciary. Five mem-
bers of the environmental group FUNDECOL, and at least seven members of
traditional mangrove user associations, were detained in Esmeraldas having
attempted to meet the Port Captain to protest illegal expansion of shrimp ponds
into areas the complainants had reforested with mangroves eight months ear-
lier
zo
. In this part of Ecuador, more than ,o% of mangrove loss has occurred
since a s Presidential Decree banned such deforestation. The majority of
shrimp farms in Muisne Canton are illegal and hundreds of reports have been
filed, but fines are minimal and punishments are rare
zs
. That many Ecuadorian
shrimp farm owners or shareholders are active in local and national authorities,
are ministers or senators, or are members of the military or judiciary, should be
borne in mind when considering this degree of impunity.
In a number of shrimp-farming nations, perpetrators of acts of intimidation,
violence or murder against protesters or fisher-folk have rarely been brought to
justice. Conversely, many of those protesting abuses linked to the shrimp indus-
try have been summarily arrested
s,
. In Bangladesh, murder, rape and beatings
administered by thugs associated with shrimp farms are reportedly common, but
ignored by the police and judiciary. Local law enforcement agents are reportedly
reluctant to admonish business people whose economic successes may put them
in a favourable position with government officials. Many opponents of shrimp
farming in Bangladesh have been imprisoned on false charges by the very law
enforcers they expect to protect them. Fighting these cases is a lengthy and
expensive process, with each case expected to take around four to five years to
resolve. Many of the defendants have little money and are poorly educated, and
the cases are widely seen as an instrument of oppression
z,
.
atovt. The shrimp industry is
portrayed as a greedy, dollar-
hungry monster in this Ecuadorian
protest mural, which reads This
community was born of the
mangroves. This community will
defend their life.
Gr eenpeac e / Dani el Bel t r a
Illegal shrimp farms have
only been given minimal
fines, if that. Since
shrimp farming is so
lucrative, the fines do not
stop the illegal cutting.
YOL ANDA KAKABADS E EX-
ENVI RONMENT MI NI S TER,
ECUADOR
z z
s xas n an orat z,
zo s xas n an orat
S
hrimp farming has had direct and significant negative impacts on coastal
communities. Although the export-driven industry brings much-needed
foreign capital to under-developed producer nations, this revenue com-
monly fails to filter down to those most affected by the industry. Indeed, despite
being promoted by international financial institutions as a means to alleviate
poverty, shrimp aquaculture has frequently had the opposite effect. Whilst a
small number of entrepreneurs and investors have become rich, for many,
shrimp farming has led to a seriously degraded quality of life. In scores of cases,
the industry has reduced employment, increased landlessness, decreased food
security, affected health and education, and has been characterised by acts of
intimidation, violence and murder.
Shrimp farming has failed to live up to its Blue Revolution promise of offer-
ing food for the hungry. Rather, the industry is almost entirely export-driven.
Intensive shrimp farming not only results in a net loss of protein (due to fish-
based inputs which are inefficiently-converted into shrimp protein) but is also
associated with declines in the availability of marine and coastal species tra-
ditionally harvested by local communities for subsistence consumption or
domestic trade.
Attempts to resolve or protest the socio-economic and environmental
impacts of shrimp aquaculture frequently result in conflicts between the com-
peting interests of commercial shrimp farm operators and the local commu-
nities they exist alongside or employ. The widespread lack of organisational
and economic equality between the two groups means that whilst the latter
often have no recourse to the law, the former often have little to fear from it.
In the majority of reported cases, when tensions have flared or abuses have
occurred, it is the rural poor, often with subsistence livelihoods, who suffer at
the hands of commercial interests acting with apparent impunity.
The development of shrimp farming has been supported by large quantities
of donor aid and loans from bilateral and multinational agencies. The way in
which such funds have been used deserves greater scrutiny given the fact that
shrimp farming has flourished in a number of countries that are characterised
by corruption and poor human rights records. The social implications of
shrimp aquaculture are just one component of a multi-dimensional problem
that also includes serious environmental degradation and health concerns for
consumers. There exists an urgent need for these issues to be addressed by the
financial institutions, governments, retailers and consumers who, together, con-
tinue to encourage the expansion of this frequently destructive industry.
CONCLUSI ONS &
RECOMMENDATI ONS
Where shrimp aquaculture has expanded many local people have
seen their ways of life destroyed, their economic system undermined,
their access to essential resources cut off. They have had no voice in
what has been done to them. This is an invisible type of human rights
violation that is unacceptable in a democratic system.
DAVI D BARNHI ZER, NATURAL RES OURCES DEF ENS E COUNCI L
s
Shrimp farmers in Thailand left behind an ecological desert. These
farms are hardly useful for other economic activities. Outside investors
are enriched, local people are pauperized. Development runs above
their heads - very little trickles down to them.
I RS S E CS AVI S , UNI TED NATI ONS AQUACULTURE S P ECI AL I S T
z
General Recommendations
Shrimp farming in a number of countries is characterised by serious social impacts, which have
tended to affect some of the poorest and most vulnerable communities. In light of the information
presented in this report, all relevant parties should:
s. Acknowledge the existence of negative impacts including human rights abuses
associated with the shrimp industry.
z. Recognise that, as currently practised, many intensive and semi-intensive shrimp
farms are unsustainable; initial profits are unlikely to last, and conversion back to
agricultural land or restoration of wetlands is likely to be a prohibitively expensive and
lengthy process.
,. Acknowledge that shrimp farming can have negative impacts on food security, par-
ticularly in relation to the security of coastal and marine fish stocks, protection of
agricultural land and other natural resources, especially mangrove forests.
. Actively seek greatly improved communication and collaborative mechanisms nation-
ally and internationally aimed at ameliorating the adverse impacts of shrimp farm-
ing.
,. Reiterate and abide commitments to implement the FAOCode of Conduct for Respon-
sible Fisheries, (Article ) urging responsible aquaculture development.
o. Ensure that any future development of aquaculture is economically viable, socially
equitable and ecologically sustainable.
,. Promote integrated coastal management planning, including meaningful participa-
tion of all coastal user groups. Ensure that artisanal fisheries and dependent coastal
communities are not affected adversely by aquaculture development or operations.
s. Ensure protection of mangroves, wetlands and other ecologically sensitive coastal
areas, and encourage the rehabilitation of degraded aquaculture sites.
. Require the use of less intensive and/or traditional shrimp aquaculture where these
are better suited to local conditions.
so. Ensure that multilateral development banks, bilateral aid agencies, and other rele-
vant national and international organisations or institutions do not fund or other-
wise promote aquaculture development that is inconsistent with criteria to reduce
environmental and social impacts.
ss. Support appropriate trade-related initiatives to reduce and remove negative social and
environmental impacts. Specifically these should include fully independent and trans-
parent environmental certification, product labelling and Fairtrade schemes that max-
imise benefits accruing to local communities and protect social and human rights.
atovt. Grassroots protest in
front of Ecuadors National
Congress with heavy police
presence. The sign reads The
mangroves are not for sale.
Cl i ve Shi r l ey / Gr eenpeac e
s xas n an orat z,
zs s xas n an orat
atovt. Previously a luxury,
shrimp is becoming a more
affordable food-stuff in
industrialised nations. The true
cost of shrimp is that paid by the
rural poor in producer countries.
Tr ent / EJ F
Shrimp importing countries
Developed nations, which import the vast majority of farmed shrimp are capable of exerting con-
siderable influence over the manner in which this food is produced. The governments of shrimp
importing countries should:
s. Develop trade-related instruments to promote concrete, global change in the
manner in which shrimp are produced and traded.
z. Support third-party efforts to develop and monitor independent shrimp cer-
tification and labelling based on rigorous social and environmental criteria.
,. Redirect development aid to ensure the effective monitoring and report-
ing of shrimp production techniques in major producing countries.
. Avoid channelling overseas development aid into projects that promote
unregulated, unsustainable or inequitable expansion of shrimp farming.
Shrimp farming countries
Shrimp farming is frequently characterised by pronounced inequities between those who
benefit from the industry and those whose livelihoods and rights are impacted. To redress such
problems the governments of shrimp farming countries should:
s. Reiterate commitments to implement the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fish-
eries (Article urging responsible aquaculture development) by encouraging better prac-
tice and adoption of robust and effective national legislation, policies and codes of con-
duct for sustainable aquaculture.
z. Ensure the use of environmental and social impact assessments prior to aquaculture
development, and the regular and continuous monitoring of developments.
,. Formulate and enforce legislation and policies relating to the protection of mangroves,
wetlands and other ecologically sensitive areas of importance to coastal communities
(including obligations under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands).
. Increase stakeholder consultation with regard to the shrimp industry; in particular,
affected communities need to be given more opportunity for participation in manage-
ment decisions.
,. Formulate (or clarify) and enforce property and land use rights (incorporating tradi-
tional user rights).
o. Establish an independent complaints procedure to resolve land rights conflicts.
,. Promote transparency in decision-making by releasing to the public plans for the devel-
opment or expansion of shrimp farms.
s. Support independent monitoring and verification of practices in both shrimp farms and
processing plants.
. Recognise the full economic value of mangrove and wetland goods and services during
land-use decisions.
so. Prohibit and penalise pollution (due to excessive discharge of wastes) and salinisation of
freshwater supplies (including groundwater important for drinking or agriculture).
Ensure effective monitoring and enforcement of these prohibitions.
ss. Reduce the use of shrimp feed that compromises local food security.
sz. Explore mechanisms (such as economic incentives or disincentives) to encourage better
practice. Governments should withdraw subsidies and tax breaks used to encourage
unsustainable industry expansion, and require environmental planning and perform-
ance bonds as preconditions to the approval of loans, credits and access to resources.
s,. Register and require approval of all processing plants and develop legislation to improve
labour conditions in line with International Labour Organisation (ILO) standards.
s. Promote greater trickle-down of revenues gained from shrimp exports, so that com-
munities located in shrimp farming areas receive far greater benefits.
The shrimp aquaculture industry
Whilst the shrimp farming industry has made significant economic gains, many of the
external costs associated with its activities have been borne by others, including many poor
and vulnerable coastal communities. The global shrimp aquaculture industry including
national and regional associations should:
s. Fully and publicly acknowledge its obligation and responsibility to use best
practice, specifically ensuring environmental sustainability, economic viability
and social equity.
z. Respect all national and international laws aimed at protecting the environ-
ment and human rights.
,. Encourage, support and abide by independently developed and monitored cer-
tification schemes aimed at ensuring social equity and environmental sustain-
ability.
. Give unrestricted access for third-party monitoring of all aspects of produc-
tion and enhance transparency by allowing public access to resulting assess-
ment and support initiatives to register and approve all producers, processors
and exporters adhering to credible, third-party certification schemes.
,. Engage, as a priority, improved technical specifications for production to reduce
and remove negative environmental and human health impacts, including:
a) Improved pond design, water exchange and pollution control;
b) Reduction and eventual elimination of prophylactic antibiotic and pesticide
use. Pesticides listed by the World Health Organisation in class Ia, Ib and II
should be immediately removed from use;
c) Promote conversion to organic systems of shrimp production;
d) Encourage diversification within shrimp production areas, engaging poly-
culture and rotation with agriculture.
o. Provide direct financial assistance for the reforestation of mangrove forests and
for habitat protection. Shrimp farms sited in illegally-cleared mangrove areas
should provide immediate funds for reforestation and compensate local com-
munities for losses.
,. Ensure that existing farms are assessed to ensure full compliance with national
land use policies, strategies and legislation.
s. Ensure that future developments are only undertaken following full consulta-
tion and support of local communites and within the context of national land
use and management plans. Specific commitments to fully respect coastal com-
munities traditional access to natural resources are required.
. Undertake specific commitments to safeguard the basic human rights of
employees and improve labour conditions and pay and strive to source employ-
ees from the local community.
so. Assess the potential for using a percentage of profits generated by the industry
to fund local community initiatives focused on education and health provision.
Shrimp importers, retailers and consumers
Ultimately, it is consumption of shrimp in industrialised countries that drives the pro-
duction of farmed shrimp. Consumer pressure can result in rapid positive changes to pro-
duction methods. Shrimp importers, retailers and consumers should:
s. Acknowledge the existence of widespread negative impacts, including serious
human rights abuses and environmental problems associated with the shrimp
industry.
z. Lend active support to the swift development and implementation of inde-
pendent certification of shrimp products based on robust social and environ-
mental criteria.
ttiow. The mother of Sirajul
Islam Liton, a student killed in
Bangladesh, February :ee:.
Tr ent / EJ F
s xas n an orat z
atovt. Savitri, marking the spot
where her husband was shot in
India
,
.
Far i s Ahmed
,. Refuse to buy, sell, distribute or eat shrimp products without certain knowledge that
they have been produced without causing environmental destruction, social hardship
or human rights abuses. Buy only products with recognised, credible environmen-
tal, Fairtrade and organic labels.
. Support independent monitoring and investigation of shrimp production methods
and their environmental, economic and social impact on communities.
,. Call upon international aid and development agencies and multi-lateral institutions
to fund the effective monitoring and reporting of shrimp production techniques in
major producing countries.
The international donor community
The rapid and poorly-regulated expansion of the shrimp farming industry has been supported
financially by the international donor community, including bilateral agencies, the World Bank,
International Finance Corporation, Asian Development Bank, Inter-American Development
Bank and United Nations agencies. Having encouraged the industrys development, the onus is
now on donors to apply financial leverage in the search for equitable solutions. The donor com-
munity should therefore:
s. Provide increased financial assistance directly tied to improved governance and regu-
lation of the shrimp industry and natural resource management. Encourage improved
environmental, social and land-use legislation and appropriate mechanisms for imple-
mentation and enforcement. Impose financial penalties for failure to reach agreed stan-
dards while promoting incentives for achieving them.
z. Employ substantially improved standards (relating to human rights and social equity,
economic viability and environmental sustainability and security) in the design, dis-
tribution and monitoring of lending and aid packages.These conditionalities should be
communicated to all stakeholders.
,. Provide financial assistance for mangrove forest conservation, restoration and replant-
ing and for the protection of coastal livelihoods.
. Provide financial support and technical assistance for the rehabilitation of abandoned
shrimp ponds. This must be undertaken with the full participation of local commu-
nities and must prioritise their needs.
,. Support the development of independent, third-party certification, labelling and Fair-
trade schemes.
o. Support further research into the value of wetlands and undertake cost-benefit analy-
sis of shrimp aquaculture in relation to alternative land uses
,. Support awareness and education programmes aimed at increasing public under-
standing of the social and cultural value of wetlands.
s. Encourage best practice through the free exchange
of technical information.
. Redirect aid and development funds currently tar-
geted to shrimp aquaculture towards maximising
local poverty alleviation and long-term environmen-
tal and social benefits at local levels.
so. Facilitate an independent review of lending and aid
to the shrimp sector. Priority within the review
should be given to a cost-benefit analysis that takes
full account of environmental, social and economic
factors and the impacts on local communities.
ss. Prioritise the full participation of all stakeholders in
any development and subsequent monitoring of
shrimp farming.
ttiow. Illegal shrimp farms in
Khanh Hoa, Vietnam.
Shanahan / EJ F
, o s xas n an orat
s xas n an orat , s
The United Nations High Commission for Human Rights and the
International Labour Organisation
Serious human rights abuses have epitomised the shrimp farming industry in a number of coun-
tries. The UNHCHR and ILO should therefore:
s. Conduct detailed investigations of the shrimp industrys impacts on human rights,
especially regarding land rights issues, child labour and the use of forced labour and
report on their findings.
Research institutions
We encourage governments to support and institutions to undertake research and disseminate
information regarding:
s. The economic, social and cultural value of mangrove and wetland goods and services.
z. The ecological impacts of shrimp farming, including damage to mangroves and wet-
land habitats satellite and GIS images should be used to monitor change over time
and made publicly available.
,. Full cost-benefit analysis of the social, environmental and economic impacts of shrimp
aquaculture and alternative land-uses.
. The potential for large-scale habitat restoration of abandoned shrimp-ponds.
,. Alternative feeds that reduce the need for those based on fish products (such as those
from oilseeds, microbial proteins etc.).
It is a brutal process by which the protein is extracted from the poor people and
the land which is owned by the poor people and this extraction is to feed the
bloated stomachs of the rich. This is certainly a violation of the right to life.
DR J ACOB RAJ , P REPARE, I NDI A

atovt. Shellfish collector and

family, Las Manchas, Ecuador.
Coastal communities, and women
and children in particular,
worldwide have been forced to
endure a catalogue of privations
and abuses following the arrival of
shrimp farming to their areas.
Benefits of this export-driven
industry often fail to trickle down
to these poor, vulnerable
communities.
Shanahan / EJ F
, z s xas n an orat
Contents / Executive Summary
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2 Martinez-Alier, J. zoos. Ecological Conflicts and Valuation mangroves vs shrimp in the late sos.
Environment & Planning C Government & Policy s: ,s,-,zs.
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Pradesh And Tamil Nadu. NEERI. Nagpur, India.
Food for the Hungry?
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28 Barraclough, S. & Finger-Stich, A. so. Some Ecological and Social Implications of Commercial Shrimp
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29 Oras Tynkkynen. zooo. Orissa cyclone: a natural phenomenon or a sign of things to come? Friends of the
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30 Personal communication, Nguyen Hung Ha, Viet Nam Red Cross Society [zo February zooz].
31 Personal communication; Dr Nguyen Van Be, Can Tho University [o March zooz].
32 SFFL. zooz. Country Strategy in Shrimp Farming Issues in Sri Lanka. Small Fishers Federation of Sri
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33 Fernando, C. zoos. Prawn farms despoil the land and water. Late Friday News s, (Mangrove Action
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34 P. Raja Siregar. zoos. Indonesia: mounting tensions over industrial shrimp farming. World Rainforest
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37 Ashraf-ul-Alam Tutu. zoos. Industrial Shrimp Cultivation and Related Issues in Respect of South-West
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38 Cohen, G. s,. Aquaculture floods Indian villages. Multinational Monitor volume so. [www.multi-
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39 Personal communication, Manik Saha [ss
th
May zooz, Khulna, Bangladesh].
40 Wistrand, A. zooz. Bangladesh chapter, in press. In Blues of a Revolution.
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42 Personal communication, Nikola Catermoul (by email August zooz).
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(Bangladesh) o August zooz.
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50 Personal communication, Jim Enright [, July zooz. Figures from a paper in press by Paul Miller.
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Land Conflict
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of Shrimp Cultivation for Export. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
6 Barnhizer, D. zoos. The Trade, Environment and Human Rights: The Paradigm Case of Industrial
Aquaculture & the Exploitation of Traditional Communities. In: D. Barnhizer (ed.) Effective strategies
for protecting human rights: prevention and intervention, trade and education. Ashgate, Dartmouth.
7 Anon. zooz. Prejuzos financeiros a longo prazo. OPOVO o jornal do Cear (ss August zooz)
[www.noolhar.com/opovo/ceara/so,.html].
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har.com/opovo/ceara/s,o,,o.html].
9 HRW. s,. Human Rights Watch. [www.hrw.org/reports/s,/bangladesh/Banglade-o,.htm].
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Narinjara News. (, December zoos).
11 Narinjara News. zoos. Confiscated island leased for shrimp farm by the Junta. Narinjara News (sz
December zoos).
12 Martinez-Alier, J. zoos. Ecological Conflicts and Valuation mangroves vs shrimp in the late sos.
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20 Personal communication, lawyer Efrain Robelly (October zooz).
21 www.dailystarnews.com/zoosos/so/nsossoo.htm#BODYo
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7 Barnhizer, D. zoos. The Trade, Environment and Human Rights: The Paradigm Case of Industrial
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28 Cruz-Torres, M. L. zooo. Violence Again Breaks Out Over Shrimp Farming In Mexico. ISA Net
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29 Testimonies gathered by EJF in Guayaquil, Bahia de Caraquez and Muisne (October zooz).
30 Personal communication, Lider Gongora, FUNDECOL (October zooz).
31 Personal communication, lawyer Efrain Robelly (October zooz).
32 Martinez-Alier, J. zoos. Ecological Conflicts and Valuation mangroves vs shrimp in the late sos.
Environment & Planning C Government & Policy s: ,s,-,zs.
33 Wistrand, A. zoo,. Shrimp Farming in Bangladesh. In: Blues of a Revolution: the Damaging Impacts of
Shrimp Farming. ISANET, USA.
34 Personal communication, Nijera Kori (May zooz).
35 Nijera Kori. zooz. Violence erupts against Nijera Kori and Polder zz residents. October zooz. Late
Friday News Edition so. [www.earthisland.org/map/ltfrn.htm].
36 Manik Chandra Saha. zooo. Peoples Movement Against Shrimp Farming in Bangladesh. Rabi Printing
press, Khulna, Bangladesh.
Profit & Loss
1 Ashraf-ul-Alam Tutu. zoos. Industrial Shrimp Cultivation and Related Issues in Respect of South-West
Coastal Region of Bangladesh. Coastal Development Partnership, Khulna, Bangladesh.
2 Clay, J. zooz. The Shrimp Aquaculture Market Chain. WWF, Washington D.C., USA.
3 Primavera, J. s,. Socioeconomic impacts of shrimp culture. Aquaculture Research zs: ss,-sz,.
4 FUNDECOL. Not dated. No Mas Cameroneras. Fundacion de Defensa Ecologia, Ecuador.
[www.fundecol.org/Camaroneras/Nomas.htm].
5 Barraclough, S. & Finger-Stich, A. so. Some Ecological and Social Implications of Commercial Shrimp
Farming in Asia. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development / World Wildlife Fund,
Switzerland.
6 Wistrand, A. zoo,. Shrimp Farming in Bangladesh. In: Blues of a Revolution: the Damaging Impacts of
Shrimp Farming. ISANET, USA.
7 Siregar, R. s. Indonesia to intensify shrimp farming. Link (Autumn s)
[www.twnside.org.sg/title/sos.htm]
8 British Embassy in Indonesia. zoos. Fisheries Industry Sector. November zoos. [www.Britain-in-
indonesia.or.id/commero.htm].
9 Quarto, A. The Rise and Fall of the Blue Revolution. [www.earthisland.org/map/blrvl.htm; ISA
Net, s].
10 Curie D. s,. Ordenamiento y Uso Racional del Recurso Disponible Para el Cultivo de Camarn marino en
Centro Amrica. GOPA-Consultans. Alemania. Honduras (cited by Varela, J. undated. Shrimp
Aquaculture in Honduras: A Case in Point. Mangrove Action Project
[www.earthisland.org/map/mngec.htm#Honduras])
11 Bonora, M. s. National Report: Shrimp Aquaculture in India.
[www.earthsummitwatch.org/shrimp/index.html].
12 Wickramasinghe, A. s. Local fisherfolk protect the mangroves in Sri Lanka. World Rainforest
Movement Bulletin zo: February s. [www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/zo/SriLanka.html].
13 Ashraf-ul-Alam Tutu. zoos. Industrial Shrimp Cultivation and Related Issues in Respect of South-West
Coastal Region of Bangladesh. Coastal Development Partnership, Khulna, Bangladesh.
14 GESAMP. s,. Towards Safe and Effective Use of Chemicals in Coastal Aquaculture. Reports and
Studies, GESAMP. No o,. Rome, FAO s,. opp.
15 FAO. s,. Support for Special Plan for Prawn and Shrimp Farming. Field Document. Technical
Cooperation Programme, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Bangkok,
Thailand [.www.fao.org/docrep/field/,,,s.htm].
16 Faris Ahmed. s,. In Defence of Land and Livelihood. CUSO, Inter Pares, Sierra Club of Canada,
Consumers Association of Penang. ISBN o-oooo.
17 Personal communication; Dr Nguyen Van Be, Can Tho University [o March zooz].
18 Personal communication Chau Thi Tuyet Hanh, Hue University [February zooz].
19 EJF. zoo,. Risky Business: Shrimp Farming in Vietnam Impacts and Improvements. Environmental
Justice Foundation, London, UK.
20 Vietnam News Service. Shrimp Village Ponders the Cost of Aquaculture. Vietnam News Service.
Monday July zznd, zooz.
21 Patmasiriwat, D., Bennis, M & Pednekar, S. International Trade, Environmental Issues and the
Impact on Sustainability of Shrimp Culture in Thailand. Presented at the ACIAR Proceedings
Towards Sustainable Shrimp Culture in Thailand and the Region. Held at Hat Yai, Songkla,
Thailand.. ssth October sst November, so (released September zoos).
22 Lavallee, M. so. TED Case Studies: Thailand Shrimp Farming; Case Number zzo,. The
American University, Washington DC. [www.american.edu/TED/THAISHRIMP.htm]
23 Bann, C. s,. An Economic Analysis of Alternative Mangrove Mangement Strategies in Koh
Kong Province, Cambodia. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada.
24 EJF. zoo, [Forthcoming]. Environmental Impacts of Shrimp Farming. Environmental Justice
Foundation, London, UK.
25 Agencies via Xinhua. zooz. Insect eaters. Shanghai Star. ,o May zooz
[www.chinadaily.com.cn/star/zooz/o,,o/fezo-s.html]
26 P. Raja Siregar. zoos. Indonesia: mounting tensions over industrial shrimp farming. World Rainforest
Movement Bulletin ,s: (October zoos) [www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/,s/Indonesia.html]
27 Human Rights Watch. s. Rights group demands release of Indonesian shrimp farmer. Press
Release os February s. [www.hrw.org/press/s/feb/endangzos.htm]
28 Konphalindo. zoos. The Blue Revolution: Another Environmental Disaster in Indonesia.
Konphalindo, Jakarta, Indonesia.
29 Goss, J. zooo. Shrimp farm or shrimp harm? Samudra zo: August zooo.
[www.twnside.org.sg/title/zss,.htm]
30 Personal communication, Jasper Goss [by email - August zooz]
31 Amnesty International. zooz. Myanmar: lack of security in counter-insurgency areas. July zooz.
32 KAO WAO NEWS GROUP. zoos. Workers beaten to death. Monland Restoration Council
November s,-zz, zoos [www.mrcusa.org/kaowaoz.htm].
33 Graslund, S. zooz. The use of chemicals in Southeast Asian shrimp farming, trends and potential
risk for environmental and human health. Licentiate in Philosophy Thesis, Stockholm University,
Sweden.
34 EJF. zoo,. Whats Your Poison? Health Threats Posed by Pesticides in Developing Countries. Environmen-
tal Justice Foundation, London, UK.
35 Stir of abuse of Indian seafood workers. The Online Asia Times. zs July zooo.
36 Dr A. K. Jayasree. Women and Health. [www.thrani.com]
37 Anon. zooo. The cleaning act. Business Line Internet Edition. zs August zooo
[www.blonnet.com/businessline/zooo/os/zs/stories/sozso,mf.htm]
38 Ashok Jain & D.P.Chakraborty. zooz. Sister Alice broke off from her order to help women shrimp
peelers. Subaltern Innovators Network. Information Series. January zooz.
[www.it.bton.ac.uk/research/euindia/knowledgebase/workingpaper/pages/subalterz.htm#SISTER]
39 National Campaign for Labour Rights. zooo. There is a way out The Story of Suja Abraham.
National Campaign for Labour Rights, New Delhi, India.
40 Sierra Club of Canada. ss. Human Rights and Shrimp
[www.sierraclub.ca/national/shrimp/human.htm].
41 Personal communication, Stefan Borhorquez, Comite Ecologico del Litoral, Ecuador
42 SFFL. zooz. Country Strategy in Shrimp Farming Issues in Sri Lanka. Small Fishers Federation of Sri
Lanka.
43 Delap, E. & Lugg, R. s. Not Small Fry: Childrens Work in Bangladeshs Shrimp Industry. Prepared
for Save the Children Fund (UK) Bangladesh Programme.
44 Wildlife protection Society of India, High Court Writ zoos.
45 Personal communication, Belinda Wright, WPSI.
46 US Department of Labor. s. By The Sweat and Toil of Children. The Use of Child Labor in
American Imports. A report to Congress. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, US Department of
Labor.
47 US Department of Labor. s,. By The Sweat and Toil of Children II. The Use of Child Labor in
US Agricultural Imports & Forced and Bonded Child Labour. A report to the Committee on
Appropriations, US Congress. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, US Department of Labor.
48 Mandal, K. zooz. Where child labour breeds. Business Line (The Hindu) , August zooz.
49 CCD. zooz. An Open Letter[video documentary]. Centre for Communication and Development,
India.
50 US Department of Labor. ss. By The Sweat and Toil of Children V. Efforts to Eliminate Child Labor. A
Report to Congress. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, US Department of Labor.
51 US Department of Labor. zooz. The Department of Labors :ee. Findings on the Worst Forms of Child
Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, US Department of Labor.
52 US Department of Labor.. ss. Report on Labor Practices in Burma. US Department of Labor.
[www.dol.gov/ILAB/media/reports/ofr/burmass/main.htm]
53 US Department of Labor.. zooo. Update on Forced Labor and Forced Relocations. US Department of
Labor. [www.dol.gov/ILAB/media/reports/ofr/burmazooo/forced.htm]
54 ILO. ss. Forced labour in Myanmar (Burma). Report of the Commission of Inquiry appointed under
article :o of the Constitution of the International Labour Organization to examine the observance by Myanmar
of the Forced Labour Convention, .,,e (No. z). International Labour Organisation, Geneva, z July ss
56 Mon Forum. zoos. Forced Labour by Burmese Army in Lower Part of Burma. I. ILO actions and
the Burmese army.
[z.brinkster.com/themonforum/MONFORUM/pagsreport.htm#reports%zoclass= Issue n ,/zoos
May ,s/zoos].
56 Prothom Alo (Bangladesh): Social problems arising from the stay of Rohingyas in South Eastern
Bangladesh. BurmaNet News. sz December zoos
[http://theburmanetnews.editthispage.com/stories/storyReader$s,o,].
57 Narinjara News. zooz. UNHCR official finds forced labor extensively practised in Rakhaing State.
Narinjara News (zs January zooz).
58 WRM. s. Indonesia: Opponents to Shrimp Farming Under Arrest. World Rainforest Movement
Bulletin zs: March zoos.
Law & Disorder
1 Faris Ahmed. s,. In Defence of Land and Livelihood. CUSO, Inter Pares, Sierra Club of Canada,
Consumers Association of Penang. ISBN o-oooo.
2 Anon. s,. Aquafarming: the money factor, The Hindu, s, June s,.
3 Gibbon, P. s,. Prawns and Piranhas: the political economy of a Tanzanian private sector
marketing chain. Journal of Peasant Studies z: s-so.
4 Phan Nguyen Hong. so. Mangrove destruction for shrimp rearing in Minh Hai, Viet Nam: its
damage to natural resources and the environment. SEAFDEC Asian Aquaculture ss: o-ss.
5 Tabibul Islam. so. Small fry: disaster a la carte as shrimp farms grow. New Internationalist zo: July
so.
6 Varela, J. zooz. Protesta contra expansion de la acuacultura del camaron en Honduras: la historia de
Modesto Ochoa. CODDEFFAGOLF, Honduras.
[http://members.tripod.com/~morazan/cgolf/modesto.htm]
7 Varela, J. zooz. Irrespeto De Finca Camaronera A Desiciones Del Ejecutivo Y Legislativo. Open letter to
Constitutional President and National Congress President of Honduras (z August zooz).
8 ILO. ss. Forced labour in Myanmar (Burma). Report of the Commission of Inquiry appointed under
article :o of the Constitution of the International Labour Organization to examine the observance by Myanmar
of the Forced Labour Convention, .,,e (No. z). International Labour Organisation, Geneva, z July ss
9 Morshed Ali Khan & D. Greenwood. zooz. Shrimp lords destroy coastal mangroves. The Daily Star
(Bangladesh) o August zooz
10 Gearing, J. zoos. Murder in the Mangroves. Asiaweek (zo July zoos).
[http://www.asiaweek.com/asiaweek/magazine/nations/o,s,sz,so,zs,oo.html]
11 Cruz-Torres, M. zooo. Pink Gold Rush: Shrimp Aquaculture, Sustainable Development, and the
Environment in Northwestern Mexico. Journal of Political Ecology ,: o,-o.
12 WRM. zoos. Colombia: local communities affected by shrimp companies. World Rainforest
Movement Bulletin ,s (October zoos) [www.wrm.org/bulletin/,s/Colombia.html].
13 Varela, J. zoos. The human rights consequences of inequitable trade and development expansion:
the abuse of law and community rights in the Gulf of Fonseca Honduras. In: D. Barnhizer (ed.)
Effective strategies for protecting human rights: prevention and intervention, trade and education. Ashgate,
Dartmouth
14 CODDEFFAGOLF. zooz. International Shame. Press Release, z, November zooz, Valencia, Spain.
15 Bonora, M. s. National Report: Shrimp Aquaculture in India.
[www.earthsummitwatch.org/shrimp/index.html].
16 Quarto, A. & Cissna, K. Summer Shrimp Wars Pit People Against Prawns. Mangrove Action
Project. [www.earthisland.org/eijournal/fall,/eia_fall,map.html].
17 Amnesty International. zooo. Persecuted for challenging injustice: Human Rights Defenders in
India. Amnesty International.
18 Ministry of Environment and Forests. Notification. New Delhi, o February s,.
[http://so.soo.so.s,,/divisions/iass/notif/aqua.htm]
19 Mahapatra, R. zoos. Net Bill, Gross Disaster. Down to Earth s: s, February zoos.
[www.cseindia.org/html/dte/dtezoosozs,/dte_sreps.htm].
20 FUNDECOL. s,. Absurd: defenders of the mangrove taken to jail. Press Release (, June s,)
[http://csf.colorado.edu/mail/elan/jun,/ooz.html]
21 Personal communication, FUNDECOL members, Muisne, Ecuador (October zooz)
22 Barnhizer, D. zoos. The Trade, Environment and Human Rights: The Paradigm Case of Industrial
Aquaculture & the Exploitation of Traditional Communities. In: D. Barnhizer (ed.) Effective strategies
for protecting human rights: prevention and intervention, trade and education. Ashgate, Dartmouth
23 Personal communication, Khushi Kabir (Nijera Kori, Dhaka, Bangladesh) [ May zooz].
24 Transparency International. zooz. Corruption Perceptions Index :ee:. Transparency International,
Berlin, Germany.
25 World Bank, NACA, WWF & FAO. zooz. Shrimp Farming and the Environment. A Consortium
Program to Analyse and Share Experiences on the Better Management of Shrimp Aquaculture in
Coastal Areas. Synthesis Report. Work In Progress for Public Discussion. Published by the Consor-
tium.
Conclusions & Recommendations
1 Barnhizer, D. zoos. The Trade, Environment and Human Rights: The Paradigm Case of Industrial
Aquaculture & the Exploitation of Traditional Communities. In: D. Barnhizer (ed.) Effective strategies
for protecting human rights: prevention and intervention, trade and education. Ashgate, Dartmouth.
2 Cohen, G. s,. Aquaculture floods Indian villages. Multinational Monitor volume so. [www.multina-
tionalmonitor.org/hyper/mmo,,.o,.html
3 Faris Ahmed. s,. In Defence of Land and Livelihood. CUSO, Inter Pares, Sierra Club of Canada,
Consumers Association of Penang. ISBN o-oooo.
4 Parkins, K. zooo. Tropical Shrimp Farms [www.heureka.clara.net/gaia/shrimps.htm].
5 St Peters St, London N1 8JD, UK
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