SerialNo.:026 WBSNo.

150

WatershedTopicRelatedExtracts,
(a collection assembled by EGSLP)

January2009

ProducedorReproducedby:

ForTheBenefitofRuralDevelopmentPractitioners

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NOTETOREADERS
ThewordWatershedcanmeanmanythingstomanypeople.Thatmanythingsorpartsofit,canprobably informthedevelopmentpractitionerwhenapproachtodevelopmentisdelineatedbythewatershedconcept. It is with this idea in mind that EGSLP is striving to reduce Poverty through Environmental Sustainable LivelihoodopportunitiesandWellBeingforPoorRuralMen,Women,BoysandGirlsinSelectedwatersheds InthepresentdocumentEGSLPproposestothereaderextractsfromdocumentsrelatedtotheWatershedso that those concerned with EGSLP, are informed from the same documents environment. Hopefully this will contribute to a shared vision between EGSLP Stakeholders, and thus make EGSLP implementation better informedandefficient. EGSLPdoesnotpretendthattheseriesofextractsiscomplete;northatisitwellbalancedevenifEGSLPtried to.Weleavetothejudgmentofindividualreaderstodecideontheusageofthisdocument,butadamantly encourageruraldevelopmentpractitionerstoreadthroughitisatleastonce.Wehavehighlightedsomeofthe textsforthoseinarush,whenreading. EGSLPhasassembledtheextractsfromtheperspectiveof: 1. SustainableAgriculture,togetherwithEnvironmentandRuralDevelopment Page2 2. MethodsofInquiryforRuralSystemsAppraisal Page8 3. LandDegradationandSustainability Page15 4. ManagementforSustainableFarmingSystems Page20 5. RuralDevelopment Page23 6. ProjectPlanning,MonitoringandEvaluation Page25

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FromPublicationsonSustainableAgriculture,togetherwithEnvironment andRuralDevelopment
TheAgroecosystem Oneresponsetothechallengeofcomplexityistoapplysystemsanalysiswithintheconceptoftheagro ecosystem, which includes ecological and socioeconomic components (field, farm, household, village, watershed, regional production area, national and international levels) and related livelihoods, such as agroforestryandcoastalfisheries Withintheagroecosystem,fourmanagementobjectivesareimportant 1. Agriculturalsustainabilitytheabilitytomaintainproductivity,whetheroffield,farm,ornation,in thefaceofchangingdemands 2. Productivityoutputofproductperunitofresourceinput 3. Stabilityconstancyofproductivityinthefaceofnormalfluctuationsandenvironmentalcycles 4. Equityevennessofaccesstoanddistributionoftheproductivityoftheagriculturalsystemamong itshumanbeneficiaries(U4/2) ParticipatoryResourceManagement Resource conservation programmes such as watershed management, or soil and water conservation projects, offer important opportunities to incorporate community participation. Rural people usually understandtheirlocalenvironmentandtheinteractionsbetweencomponentsinagroecologicalsystems far better than outsiders. Participation therefore allows people's resource management skills and experience to be used to their full potential. Participation is also important in resource management becausechangesinthelocalenvironmentwillaffecteveryoneinthecommunity.Fosteringbroadbased participationisthereforeimportantforsustainableresourcemanagement,asitbringstogetherallthose affected,andenablesthemtocontributetotheinceptionanddesignofconservationprogrammes.Thisis animportantsteptowardsmoreamoreequitableprocessofdevelopment. CommunityWatershedManagement Community watershed development programmes involve a more complex and comprehensive programmeofruralresourceconservationwork.Ratherthanfocusingonaspecificresource,localpeople cometogethertodecideonastrategytosustainthequalityofallcommunalresources(i.e.commonland, surfaceandgroundwater,andforests)throughoutthelocalregion.Naturalresourcemanagementinthis contextistackledsystematically,consideringalllinkagesanddownstreameffects.Suchprogrammesmay entail major soil conservation work, extensive tree planting, and careful water management systems. What is more, while the watershed 'boundary' may be restricted to one part of a single valley, it could extendtoincludeseveralconnectedcatchmentsfeedingintoagreatersystem. Thus, community watershed management programmes may, in fact, cover a number of villages, necessitatingwidercooperationbetweencommunities.Thescaleofactivitywilltoagreatextenthavean impactonthedegreeofparticipationpossiblewithintheseprogrammes.Itwillalsohaveaneffectonthe number and size of the institutions set up to manage the activities. Generally speaking, the larger the watershedarea,thelessthelikelihoodoffullparticipationaslargerinstitutionswilltendtoemergeand these will comprise those claiming to represent the people. This relationship is by no means inevitable. AdditionaldiscussionofthistopiccanbefoundinNewHorizons:TheEconomic,SocialanEnvironmental ImpactsofParticipatoryWatershedDevelopment. SUSTAINABLEAGRICULTURESYSTEMS Torepeat;enhancingthesustainabilityofagricultureinvolvesbothregeneratingtheagriculturalsystem itselfandrevitalisingruralcommunities.Theprioritiesforsustainabilitywillvaryfromregiontoregion,but willinvolveaddressingtherelevantlocalenvironmental,economicandequityconcerns.

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SAREDapproachescanthereforeincorporateanarrayofinitiatives,reflectingboththediversityoflocal needsandthevarietyofresources,knowledgeandskillsfoundaroundtheworld.Ratherthanadoptinga standardisedmodel,asinindustrialagriculture,SAREDapproachesareflexible,andconstructedaround the particular features of individual watersheds, communities and landscapes. These methods also empower the individuals within rural communities, by reenforcing their role as active decision makers withintheiragroecosystems. Oneofthekeyelementsofasustainableruraleconomyisdiversificationbothonfarmandintherural economy overall. Onfarm diversification involves the incorporation of multiple elements into the production system, such as mixed cropping practices, treecrop combinations, livestockcrop combinations,orotherstrategiessuchasaquacultureandsilvopastoralsystems. SoilConservationandWaterManagementSystems Theprincipaltechniquesdescribedforsoilconservationandwatermanagementinclude: Conservationtillage Contourfarming Theuseofmulchesandcovercrops Theuseofsilttrapsandgullyfields Waterconservationmeasuresandharvesting Landdrainageforsalineandwaterloggedsoils Raisedbeds Fishproductioninirrigationwater Forsuchprogrammestobesuccessfulandsustainedfarmersmustbeseenaspartofthesolutionrather than the problem; local knowledge and skills must be at the core of these programmes and local organisations reinforced through a process of participatory planning that is both interactive and empowering. Inresponsetothesetechnical,socialandeconomicfailures,recentyearshaveseenthegrowthof participatorywatersheddevelopmentprogrammes.Thesedifferfromconventionalapproachesinthat: Localcommunitiesarefullyinvolved Theroleofexternalsupportorganisationsareasfacilitatorsofanalysisandacatalystforaction Farmertofarmerextensionisakeyprocessforinformationexchangeandscalingup Technologiesselectedandcropsencourageddependontheindividualneedsoffarmers Emphasisisonthesustainabilityandequityofimprovements. Theseinitiativestendtoaddressaneedwithinalargerregionforcoordinatedstrategiesbetween communitiestoconservetheircommonresources;i.e.thesoilandwaterinparticularmicrocatchments. Thismayincludereforestation,agreementsabouttheuseanddistributionofirrigationwater,andon farmsoilandwaterconservationmeasures FindingsRelatedtoJointWatershedDevelopment Technologies Redirectincentives:Linkingfinancialandfoodinducementstopreselectedconservationmeasuresmust cease. Incentives are effective only in certain situations when they are decided in consultation with communities Innovation: The capacity of individuals and institutions to innovate and experiment must be actively encouraged. Biologicalmeasures:Amuchgreateremphasisisneededonadaptingandapplyingbiologicalmeasuresfor soil and water conservation, such as green manures, cover crops, mulching, composting and reduced tillage.

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Participatorytechnologydevelopmentandadaptiveresearchshouldbecomeanintegralpartofwatershed management programmes. Onwatershed research would be an appropriate approach (using onfarm researchasamodel). ProcessandMethods Farmerto farmer extension and experimentation should be an integral part of watershed management programmesiftheyaretobesustainableandaretoencouragescalingup. Flexibility: External institutions must be flexible and responsive, and ready to learn with farmers. Every farmhasitsownsignature.Athoroughlydesignedandpreplannedprojectisnotagoodproject. Confidencebuilding: The pace of programmes and projects must be slow in order to build motivation, confidenceandrapportamongstallthegroupsinvolved. Decentralisation: The villagebased management of programme funds and planning are important pre requisitesforsustainablewatershedmanagement. ImpactsandIndicators Adaptationversusadoption:Impactindicatorsshouldfocusonadaptationoftechnologiesandpractices byfarmers,ratherthanonadoptionoftechnologies. Equity.Muchgreatereffortsareneededtoaddressequityissuesifthepoorestandmostmarginalisedin anysocietyarenottobemissed. Selfevaluationenrichesthelearningprocessininstitutions.Itleadstogreaterhonestyaboutwhatdoes anddoesnotwork,particularlyiflocalpeoplesmeasuresofwhatconstitutessuccessareused.Whatis neededisawidespreadtransitiontowardslearningorganizations,usingimpactanalysisastheimpetus forimprovement. InterInstitutionalArrangements Widespread training and competence building is needed to encourage and sustain a participatory approachtojointwatershedmanagement,especiallyinbureaucraciesanduniversities. Jointapproachesincreasethecontactsandlinkagesbetweenfarmersandexternalinstitutions,improving thelikelihoodofpoliciesandpracticesemergingthatsatisfyallstakeholders. Clear roles: There is a need to clarify the roles of the different institutions, such as governments and NGOs,involvedindevelopingjointwatershedmanagement. Intervillage federations: Sustainable watershed development requires the development of strong inter villageinstitutionsorfederations. Policies Policyreform:Mostnationalandinternationalagriculturalandruralpoliciesdonotprovideafavourable climatefortheimplementationoftheapproachestowatersheddevelopmentdescribedhere. Appropriate support: If authorities are to hand responsibility for complex, costly and conflictridden problemsbacktolocalpeople,thismustbeaccompaniedbyadequatefinancialandinstitutionalsupport. Equityandlivelihoods.Thepolicyfocusshouldnotbesolelyonnaturalresourcemanagement,butshould alsoencompasslivelihoodsecurity,equityandinstitutionaldevelopment. ChallengesfortheFuture. Soil and water conservation practices based on imposed technological interventions have not delivered the environmental or economic benefits they promised. The practice of designing and implementing interventionswithoutinvolvinglocalpeoplecanonlysucceedwithcoercion.Suchenforcedresponsesmay

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appear technically appropriate but are commonly rejected by local people when external pressure is removed.

Community watershed management approaches are not, however, without disadvantages. One drawbackisthedangerofmarginalorweakergroupswithinthesecommunitiesbeingexcludedfromthe decisionmakingandmanagementprocess.Theinterestsofthesegroupsmaybeoverlookedincollective agreements,andtheymaysufferasaresult.Also,differentcommunities,orevengroupswithinthesame communities, may have different resource management concerns and requirements. This may require carefulnegotiationandbargaining.Ifnosettlementcanbereached,itcouldbenecessaryforanexternal (i.e.regionalgovernmentorNGO)institutiontoresolvethedispute. Finally, it is the responsibility of state, provincial and national governments to ensure that watershed management arrangements do not come into conflict with wider regional objectives. Especially in the context of river systems, governments should ensure that downstream areas are not overadversely affectedbycommunities'actionsinupstreamcatchments. ParticipatoryWatershedDevelopment: Itisinresponsetothetechnical,socialandeconomicfailuresof many past efforts in soil and water conservation, Participatory watershed development differs from the conventionalapproachinthat: o Local communities are fully involved in the analysis of their own soil and water conservation problems.Decisionsaremadewiththeiractiveparticipation. o Theroleoftheexternalsupportorganisationisasafacilitatorofanalysisandacatalystforaction, buildingonthelocalknowledge,needsandopportunitiesofthecommunities. o Farmertofarmerextensionisakeyprocess. o Project staff does not take a blueprint approach. Technologies selected and crops encouraged depend on the individualneeds of farmers. The overriding feature must thereforebe flexibility rightthroughfromtheplanninganddesignstagetotheexecutionstage..Theemphasisisonthe sustainabilityandequityofimprovements,ratherthanonshorttermbenefits.

DefininganAppropriateScale(Thewatershedscale) Whilepoliticalandadministrativedecentralisationisessentialforsustainableplanning,theyareonlypart of the process. Decentralisation is also about making planning more relevant to local agroecosystems, and thus more in line with the needs of rural people. Planning must therefore occur at a scale where community/resourceinteractionscanbelookedatholisticallyandsystematically.Thismeansshiftingthe focusofplanningfromarbitrarypoliticalboundariestonaturallydefinedgeographicalregions. Onesuchgeographicallydistinctareacommonlyused,asalocusofplanningisthewatershed.Watershed managementimpliesthemanagementofruralresourceswithintheparametersofacatchmentsystem. Dependingonthesizeofthewatershedboundaries,planningatthisscalemayincludeavalley,amicro catchment,astreamsystem,oranentirewatershed.Mostlikely,itwillentailsomecombinationofthese, withoverlappingscalesofplanningactivity. The most crucial level of watershed management is at the community and microcatchment levels. Communities need to be aware of the impact of their actions on neighbouring people. For instance, deforestationtomeetfuelwoodneedsinonecommunitymaycauseincreasedsoilerosiononhillsides, leading to siltation of local waterways and negative impacts on downstream users (i.e. by clogging up irrigationcanalsorincreasingthesedimentcontentinwatersupplies).Similarlyexcessnitrogeninputsto thesoilfromagricultureorlivestockcanleadtonitratepollutioningroundwater,threateningthequality oflocaldrinkingwaterandharmingaquaticlifeinregionallakes.Bydevelopingaplanningprocessthat looks at these interactions systematically, communities can work together to decide on a strategy to sustain the quality of communal regional resources, including land, surface and groundwater, and forests). Watershed planning therefore involves a comprehensive programme of rural resource conservation work, in which natural resource management is tackled systematically, considering all linkages.

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Integral to this is the involvement of local people in the design and implementation of resource management programmes. The scale of the watershed system will have a considerable impact on the degreeofparticipationpossiblewithintheseplanningstructures.Itwillalsohaveaneffectonthenumber andsizeoftheinstitutionsrequiredtomanagetheprogrammes. Generally speaking it will be the case that, the larger the watershed area, the less the degree of participation (as larger institutions will tend to emerge, run via representatives speaking on behalf of largergroupsofpeople).Howeverthisisnotinevitable.Thewatershedbasedplanningapproachrequires strengtheninglocalinstitutionalcapacity,soastocreateaplanningagencycapableofunderstandingand dealingwiththecomplexitiesofthewatershedecosystemanddeterminingtheneedsformanagement, labourandotherinputs. ManagingWatersheds Focus on people. Watershed management is often defined biophysically: planting trees, building check dams,stabilisinggullies,controllingtorrents,managingrunoff.However,watershedproblemsarearesult of human disturbances in efforts to earn their livelihood. Therefore, people must be the focal point of watershedmanagementprogrammesandinnovationsshouldbeplannedwiththeirneedsinmind. Accountabilityofprojectworkers.Projectworkersaregenerallyaccountabletotheirsupervisorsforcrop failuresorcheckdambursts,butnottofarmers,whohavecontributedsignificantamountsoftime,faith andresources. Stakeholders perspective. The key to success is to involve farmers as stakeholders. Their involvement should not be limited only to problem identification, but should also include implementation and evaluation. Quantifiable indicators are often physical and generally do not relate to the watershed as a whole. Forestersareevaluatedforthenumberoftreesplanted,agronomistsforincreasesinyield,engineersfor thenumberofcheckdamsbuilt.Alltheseareeasymeasures,visibleandappreciatedbybothdonorsand supervisors. However, the number of trees that survive is more important than the total number of saplingsplanted.Storagefacilitiesmustaccompanyyieldincreases.Improvedvarietiesbringinnewpests sopesticidesmustbemadeavailablelocally. Need for social expertise. Technicians often dominate programme staffs. It is crucial that a staff anthropologistorsociologistbeinvolvedintheplanningprocesstoaccessunderrepresentedgroupsand encouragetheirparticipationandensurethedistributionofprojectactivitiesandbenefits. Holistic approach. Some donors finance only limited activities, such as irrigation or agro forestry, but watershed programmes need a holistic approach. For example, farmers in West Nepal wanted drinking watersuppliesintheirvillageandrenovationofleakingschoolroofs.Theyrefusedtoparticipateinproject activities unless these issues were included. The funding agency must be flexible to accommodate unforeseencircumstances. Indigenous knowledge. Local people are often not consulted for their expertise. While the goal of watershed management programmes is longterm, projects are generally shortterm. The first phase of the project must produce tangible results. Fastgrowing tree species replace slow growing locally availableandadaptedtrees.Highyieldingvarietiesreplacelowyieldingbutstablelocaloneswithgreater market and storage values. Indigenous systems may not work in every situation, but the integration of localandexternaltechnologiescanresultinappropriatesolutions. Project evaluation. Evaluation methods currently used by many governmental, bilateral and non governmentalorganisationsmustbereconsidered.Directorsareoftenevaluatedonthebasisofmoney spentand/orthenumberofnewprojectsstarted.Bigscaleprojectsmaylookeconomicallyattractive, butsmallscaleprojects,ifimplementedcarefully,maybemoreequitable.

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CocoordinatingNationalPolicy In order to establish the principles that will guide policy over the long term it is vital that governments have a clear concept of what sustainability means for their country that can also offer suggestions for specificcoursesofaction. Within such strategies, governments need to state which activities will receive support and which will incur penalties or costs. This means setting out policies for sustainable development, applicable at national,regionalandlocallevels.Bydoingthis,governmentsaresendingoutsignalstopublicemployees, privatebusiness,localcommunitiesandothers,thattheyarecommittedtotheprinciplesofsustainability While national policies are central to the success of SARED, many of the challenges facing rural communities find their root in local or regional issues. For this reason, it is important that a coherent national framework and strong leadership is complemented by devolution of power and a political environment that supports local initiatives. Analysis of decisionmaking activities also needs to be nested by scale. This clarifies the connection between action and impact at all levels from field, to farm, to village, to watershed, to state, to nation. In turn, this allows the vertical integration of policy analysisandactionatalllevels.

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FromPublicationsonMethodsofInquiryforRuralSystemsAppraisal

Agroecosystemsmaybetakenasusefulunitsofstudyfortheanalysisofagricultureandtheassessmentof its sustainability. Before we can discuss the methodologies for agroecosystems appraisal we need to revisewhatanagroecosystemisandwhatitcontains o Itselementsandcomponents o Itishowitbehaves,theinteractionsandproperties o Itisthestructuralarrangementsandcontext,thewatershedorregion Agroecosystemsdefined Asystemmaybedefinedasacollectionofinterrelatedcomponents(subsystems)whichsharecommon purposesorfunctions,andhaveacommonboundary. Partsorcomponentsofasystemincludethefollowing: o context/environment o boundarieslimits o components o elements Interactionbetweencomponents o inputs/resources o products/impact Interactions'havebeenhighlightedbecauseitistheinvestigationofthesethatdistinguishthoseformsof enquirythathavea'systems'oragroecosystemsfocusfromotherscientificwork. Anecosystemisacollection(temporaland/orspatial)ofphysicalandbiologicalcomponentsthatactas system. Anagroecosystemisanecosystemmanagedbyhumankindforanagriculturalpurpose(s)orfunction(s). Hence,whenweconsidertheagroecosystem,asdistinctfromtheecosystem,weexplicitlyemphasiseits human components and, consequently, the social, cultural and economic aspects of agroecosystem management. Here, the interactions between the components are of primary importance and these includecollectiveactionandconflictbetweeninterestgroups.DavidWaltnerToewspaperhelpsuswitha morecompletedefinitionofagroecosystems.Agroecosystemsareregionallydefinedentities,managed forthepurposeofproducingfood,fibreandotheragriculturalproducts,comprisingdomesticated(U1/1) Hence,wemayconsideranagroecosystemtobeafieldwhereaparticularcroprotationispractised,ora farm,orawatershedthatcontainsseveralfarmsandcommunities.(U1/3) Fromtheinteractionbetweenthecomponentsoftheagroecosystem,betheyindividualplantsortrees, animals,people,farms,orwatersheds;thereemergesaglobalproperty.Thenatureoftheglobalproperty inalllikelihoodisnotpredictablefromwhatweknowofthecomponents.Theemergentpropertyhasa feedbackimpactuponthebehaviorofthecomponents. This tell us about the way we should appraise an agro ecosystem' sustainability that It is impossible to appraisethesustainabilityofanagroecosystembylookingatitscomponentpartsinisolation.Wehaveto lookatthewholesystemand,moreimportantly,theinteractionsbetweentheparts,howtheimpactsof thedifferentcomponentpartsaffecttheglobalstructure,andhowtheemergentpropertiesfeedbackand affectthebehaviorofthecomponentparts.

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Aswemoveuptheagroecosystems'hierarchy,forexample,fromcroptofarmtowatershed,andlookat changes over time (a week, a year, a decade), the complexity increases. To implement changes in agriculturalandnaturalresourcesmanagementtowardsacertaingoalisanenormouschallenge.When the goal is multifaceted and its attainment signifies making difficult tradeoffs, as is the case with sustainableagriculture,thechallengetakesonHerculeanproportions Toachievethechangesnecessarytoimprovethesustainabilityofagriculture,theconceptsofwhatisand what is not more sustainable have to be explored by the different actors (stakeholders) in the process. Consensusastowhicharetheimportantissuesofsustainabilityneedstobereached.Thisdoesnotimply thatagreementhastobefoundovertheresolutionofeachissue,onlythattheimportantissuesshouldbe identified,categorizedandrankedintermsoftheirrelevancetodifferentgeographicdimensions,thetime scaleoverwhichtheyoperateandtherelationshipofoneissuetoanother.Collaborativeexperimentation intotheissuescanthenbecarriedouttofindsolutions. Two of the main social groups involved as agents of change in agriculture and natural resource use are farmers and enquirers, both social and technical. A requirement for coherent attempts at change is a mutualunderstandingoftheperspectivesheldbybothsectors.Mechanismsbywhichthiscanbebrought about do not abound. However, within the rural development initiatives of less developed countries various systems of rural inquiry have been proved to be successful in the characterization of agro ecosystems, research priority setting, and the participatory development of appropriate technology. Theseexperiencesmightusefullybetakenadvantageof,inanumberofways,byfarmersandresearchers elsewhereworkingonissuesofagriculturalsustainability.Theobjectivewouldbetofacilitatetheflowsof information and knowledge through existing networks and new ones that mightbeestablished, so that crosssectoralattemptscanbemadetoevaluatechangesintechnologies. The attainment ofa sustainable use ofnatural resources for agriculture and other activities will require negotiationbetweentheownersofnaturalresources,theusersandotherinterestedparties.Inquisitive dialogue, which is the key component of appraisal, has the potential to inform the arbitration process amongst stakeholders that is required for decisions to be taken about agricultural change and natural resourceuse.Pivotaltotheengagementorinteractionbetweeninsidersandoutsidersiscommunication. Dialogueisrequiredifasynergybetweentheknowledgeofinsidersandthatofoutsidersistobesought. (U1/8) Perhaps more than any other issue, linkage emerges as central to the question of how institutions and organizationscanstructurethemselvestobestfacilitatesustainableagriculture.Thisispartlybecauseof thenatureoftheproblem,thatistosay,thesystemicnatureofthewaythat,agroecosystemsfunction, and the way that the sustainability of one farmers field is linked not only to the functioning of the watershed, but also to government price policy. Therefore in order to respond to the challenge of supporting the individual farmer in adopting, adapting and continuing with more sustainable practices, and to create market conditions and service provisions in line with sustainability objectives, institutions andorganizationsmustbepreparedtooperateonseveraldifferentlevels. Whenwelookedatthedifferenttypesofinstitutionsandorganizationsthatoperateinthisfield,wesaw thatinrealitythisoftenmeansthatoneinstitutioncannotberesponsibleforeverything,sorelationships betweeninstitutionslinkageisanimportantfactorinsuccessfullycarryingoutthiskindofwork.Aswe haveseen,oftenthiswillmeanlookingathowinstitutionsandorganizationsrelatetolocalpeople,and evaluatingandadaptingmethodsofinquiry.Italsomeanslookingathowinstitutionsandorganizations learn from other sources, and how they disseminate information. Finally, it means examining how institutionsandorganizationsparticularlylargeonesworkinternally,andhowtheyaremanaged. ClassificationofAgroecosystems.Eachregionhasauniquesetofagroecosystemsthatresultfromlocal variations in climate, soil, economic relations, social structure, and history. Thus, a survey of the agro ecosystemsofaregionisboundtoyieldcommercialandsubsistenceagricultures,usinghighorlowlevels of technology depending on the availability of land, capital, and labor. In tropical environments it is possibletorecognizesevenmaintypesofagriculturalsystems

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1. Shiftingcultivationsystems 2. Semipermanentrainfedcultivationsystems 3. Permanentrainfedcultivationsystems 4. Arableirrigationsystems 5. Perennialcropsystems 6. Grazingsystems 7. Systemswithregulatedleyfarming(alternatingarablecroppingandsownpasture) LandscapeEcologicalConceptsandAgroecosystems.Landscapeecologyprinciplesareincreasinglybeing applied to many agricultural planning issues because of the relevance of this regional approach to the planning process in landscape design and to improve the ecology and variety of the landscape, the dispersalofspeciesthroughthatlandscape,andthecoordinationofnaturalconservationandagricultural management. The following concepts of landscape ecology have much relevance to the design and managementofagroecosystems: HierarchyinLandscapes.Landscapesoperateatdifferentlevelsinvolvingcomplexesofdifferentelements. On the one hand, one can study a whole catchment or watershed or, on the other hand, within that landscape one can examine structures such as an agricultural field, woodland and its surrounding land coversandtheirrelationships. Gradients. Landscapes involve gradual changes and ecotones. It is recognized that many ecological elements do not show sharp boundaries between each other; rather, they grade gradually in time and space. Biodiversity.With the increased pressureon semi natural habitats,there hasbeenmuch concern about biodiversity.Itisabasicconceptinthemanagementoflandscapesandinplanning. Metapopulation.Thisrepresentstheconceptoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensubpopulationsinmoreor lessisolatedpatcheswithinalandscape Resourcescommonlyfoundinanagroecosystemareintofourcategories: NaturalResources.Naturalresourcesarethegivenelementsofland,water,climate,andnatural vegetationthatareexploitedbythefarmerforagriculturalproduction. HumanResources.Thehumanresourcesconsistofthepeoplewholiveandworkwithinthefarmanduse itsresourcesforagriculturalproduction,basedontheirtraditionaloreconomicincentives. CapitalResources.Capitalresourcesarethegoodsandservicescreated,purchased,orborrowedbythe peopleassociatedwiththefarmtofacilitatetheirexploitationofnaturalresourcesforagricultural production. ProductionResources.Productionresourcesincludetheagriculturaloutputofthefarmsuchascropsand livestock.Thesebecomecapitalresourceswhensold,andresidues(crops,manure)arenutrientinputs reinvestedinthesystem. EcologicalProcessesintheAgroecosystem. Energetic Processes: Energy enters an agro ecosystem as sunlight and undergoes numerous physical transformations.Biologicalenergyistransferredintoplantsbyphotosynthesis(primaryproduction)and fromoneorganismtoanotherthroughthefoodweb(consumption).Althoughsunlightistheonlymajor sourceofenergyinputinmostnaturalecosystems,humanandanimallabor,mechanizedenergyinputs (suchasplowingwithatractor),andtheenergycontentofintroducedchemicals(manures,fertilizers,and pesticides)arealsosignificant.Humanenergyshapesthestructureoftheagroecosystem,Biogeochemical Processes:Themajorbiogeochemicalinputsintoanagroecosystemarethenutrientsreleasedfromthe soil,fixationofatmosphericnitrogenbylegumes,nonsymbioticnitrogenfixing(particularlyimportantin rice growing), nutrients in rainfall and runof water, fertilizer, and nutrients in purchased human food, stockfeed,oranimalmanure.

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Theimportantoutputsincludenutrientsincropsandlivestockconsumedonorexportedfromthefarm. Other outputs or losses are associated with leaching beyond the root zone, denitrification and volatilization of nitrogen, losses of nitrogen and sulfur to the atmosphere when vegetation is burned, nutrientslostinsoilerosioncausedbyrunofforwind,andnutrientsinhumanorlivestockexcretathatare lost from the farm. There is also biogeochemical storage, including the fertilizer stored and manure accumulated, together with the nutrients in the soil root zone, the standing crop, vegetation, and livestock.Inthecourseofproductionandconsumption,mineralnutrientsmovecyclicallythroughanagro ecosystem.Optimizationofbiogeochemicalprocessesrequiresthedevelopmentofoptimalsoilstructure andfertility,whichdependson: Regularinputoforganicresidues, Asufficientlevelofmicrobialactivitytotriggerdecayoforganicmaterials Conditionsthatensurecontinualactivityofearthwormsandothersoilstabilizingagents Aprotectivecoveringofvegetation Hydrological Processes: Water is a fundamental part of all agricultural systems. In addition to its physiologicalrole,wateraffectsinputsofnutrientstooandlossesfromthesystemthroughleachingand erosion.Waterentersanagroecosystemasprecipitation,runon,andirrigationwater;itislostthrough evaporation,transpiration,runoff,anddrainagebeyondtheeffectiverootzoneofplants. Successional Processes: Succession, the process by which organisms occupy a site and gradually change environmentalconditionssothatotherspeciescanreplacetheoriginalinhabitants,isradicallychanged with modern agriculture. Agricultural fields usually represent secondary successional stages where an existing community is disrupted by deforestation and plowing, and by maintaining a simple, manmade communityatthesite. BioticRegulationProcesses:Controllingsuccession(plantinvasionandcompetition)andprotectingagainst insect pests and diseases are major problems in maintaining production continuity in agro ecosystems! Farmershaveusedseveralapproachesuniversally.Thesearenoaction,preventiveaction(useofresistant crop varieties, manipulation of planting dates, row spacing, modifying access of pests to plants), or successiveaction(chemicalpesticides,biologicalcontrol,culturaltechniques).Ecologicalstrategiesofpest management generally employ a combination of all three approaches, aiming at making the field less attractive to pests, making the environment unsuitable to pests but favorable to natural enemies, interfering with the movement of pests from croptocrop or attracting pests away from crops. Scientists that perceive the agro ecosystem as a result of the co evolution between social and natural processes state that the above ecological processes run parallel and are interdependent with a socioeconomic flow, as the development and or adoption of farming systems and technologies are the result of interactions between farmers and their knowledge and their biophysical and socioeconomic environments. It is the understanding of this co evolution and pattern of parallel flows and interdependencies that provides the basis for study and the design of sustainable agro ecosystems. (R1.1/315) LowExternalInputSustainableAgriculture(LEISA)approachpresupposesaworkshopenvironmentthat allowsformultidisciplinarilyandreducesprofessionalbiases.Theanalysisismadeaccordingtopatterns discerned in time. Space flows and decisions to be able finally to qualify the properties of the land use system(atvariouslevels.includingcrop,farm,watershedandvillage),productivity,sustainability,stability andequitability,whichareindicatorsofitsperformance.Itisnecessarytostressthedifferencebetween ecological farming at farm level and ecological farming at landscape level, this being understood as the wholeofsocialformsoffarminginabiogeographyunit.OnmanycurrentfarmsinEuropethatclaimto practiceecologicalfarming,emphasisislaidonthesubstitutionofconventionalinputswithorganicones. Reflected.e.g.inthedefinitiontheUSDAusesfororganicfarming. Organic farming is a production system which avoids or broadly excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and additives in the concentrates. As far as possible, the organic farming systems are based on crop rotations, agricultural sub products, manure, legumes plants,greenmanures,organicwastes,mineralrocksandbiologicalpestcontrol,inordertomaintain

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theproductivityofbothsoilandcrop,tosupplynutrientstotheplantsandtocontrolinsects,weeds anddiseases(USDA.1980) This interpretation of ecological farming, however, is not sustainable on a landscape level, where the aggregatedandsynergiceffectsofeconomicandagriculturalindividualpracticesbecomevisible.Atthe sametime,thisinterpretationofecologicalagriculturepermitscapitalistproductionstructurestoenterin ecologicalfarming,whereastheseparadoxically,areattheheartofthecurrentenvironmentalcrisisashas been argued by Gonzalez de Molina and Sevilla Guzman (1993).) One farm may produce ecological horticulturalproductsusinganimalmanurepurchasedinthearea,butifallfarmersweretobasetheirsoil fertility on purchased manure, in many cases there would be not enough of it locally if there is no communicationbetween,thefarmers,sothatadependenceonnutrientsfromoutsidetheareawouldbe created.Forthisreason,theagroecologicaldesignofafarmshouldaimatdevelopingaselfregulating capacity with respect to pest control and flows of nutrients and energy, while at the same time acknowledgingtheneedforanadequatecoordinationofcomplementaryactivitiesofcolleaguefarmers. (R2.1/xxx) Attheoutsettheidentificationofsystemsandtheirboundariesissubjectiveandtentative.Thebiological andchemicophysicalboundariesareoftenfairlyclear.Thericefieldisboundedbyadyke,thevalleyby the extent of the watershed. But the cultural and socioeconomic boundaries are more extensive. For example, defining a farm household solely in terms of the farm itself, the land that is cultivated or otherwiseexploited,isfrequentlyinadequate.Amemberofthefarmhouseholdmaybederivingincome fromfaraway;thesaleofproducemaydependondistantmarkets,andthefarmer'sgoalsandvaluesmay beinfluencedbypoliticalorreligiousmovementsofacomplexorigin. Transects are particularly useful in defining system boundaries and in identifying problem area. In the analysisofNortheastThailandagroecosystemstherecognitionoftheminiwatershedagroecosystem,its subdivisions pinpointed the role of the upper paddy as generators of instability in rice production (R7.7/66)Addiagram Over the past decade, the inadequacy of soil and water conservation (SWC) initiatives has stimulated a searchforalternativesthathavecenteredonparticipatorywatersheddevelopmentcommoninthepast. However,theprocessofseekingappropriateandeffectiveformsoffarmerparticipationiscomplexand timeconsuming,requiringmuchskilfulfacilitationanddevolutionofpower.Theserequirementspresent aseriesoforganizationalchallenges,sinceplanning,funding,implementation,andevaluationofactivities needtobemodified.Thepolicyenvironmentinwhichsuchchangestakeplacealsoinfluencestheviability of approaches that are more farmercentered. Will the effort that is needed to make this work be worthwhile, and lead to more sustainable, environmentally sound, and socially inclusive forms of agriculture? Assessing the merits of participatory approaches to soil and water conservation is difficult. Thecomplexityofbiophysicalprocesses,thedifficultyofassessingexternalities,andthefuzzinessofthe notion of participation make monitoring and evaluation an arduous task. The range of factors that influencethesuccessofaparticipatoryprocessmakescausallinkstenuousatbest.Thechoiceofpotential indicatorspresentsaveritableminefield.How,then,toknowwhatworks?(R9.3/211) Forexample,intheVictorGraeffwatershedinRioGrandedoSui,Brazil,theclearingofforestsandclean tillingofagriculturalfieldsreducedinfiltrationratessixtimestoonly0.2mmperhouranderosionrates stood at 5.8 tons per acre (Busscher et.aJ., 1996). The loss of resource base is generally being taken seriouslybygovernments,asprovenbythemanyexternalinterventionstheworldoverthathasfocused ontheconservationofsoilandwater.(R9.3/212) Fundamental Shifts: But progress has been made in redefining soil and water conservation. There is increasingrecognitionthat,forexample: o engineeringbased soil conservation deals with symptoms and not with causes of land degradation; o imposedSWCprogramsrarelyhavealastingimpact;

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o Soil conservation is not usually perceived by rural people as their most pressing problem, but decreasingproductivityoftenis.

Thealternativeapproachestoparticipatorywatersheddevelopment,or"totalcatchmentmanagement" (Martin,1991),thataretakingrootsarecharacterizedbythreesignificantdifferences: 1.Adoptingthe(micro)watershedastheunitofanalysisandintervention; 2.Placinglocalmenandwomenatthecentreoftheinterventions; 3.Focusingonsoilandwaterconservationastheinteractionofsocialandbiophysicalsystems. Consciouslycreatingopportunitiesforfarmerstohaveasayinthedesign,implementation,maintenance, andevaluationofcatchmentplanningisperhapsthemostsignificanttransformationinSWC.Butallthree features are closely related. Adopting a watershed perspective creates the imperative to work with, groups of farmers and/or communities in a coordinated manner. And working with farmers requires a solidunderstandingofsocialprocessesinwhichtheiragriculturalactivitiesareinserted(Cornwall,et.a/., 1993).Itmeanspayingattentiontobothlocalandexternalinstitutionsandsocialstructuresthatdesign implementandmanagetheinterventions.This,inturn,callsforanintersectoralapproachtocatchment managementandpolicychanges(R9/allpagesexcellentreadingonwatershedmanagement) ConventionalApproachestoEvaluationofSoilandWaterConservation ConventionalevaluationapproachestoSWCviewtheirobjectlargelyasabiophysicalprocess.Astheyare not imbued with the principles of participatory watershed development, they ignore sociopolitical and institutional processes. Impact studies have tended to focus on erosionproductivity links but these are notoriouslydifficulttoestablish.ThreecommonconventionalevaluationapproachesappliedtotheSWC sectorinclude: 1. 'With/withoutcomparison',whichcomparesproductionorproductivityofareaswithSWC measures,tothatofareaswithoutmeasures; 2. Measurementoftheeconomicbenefitsofdownstreameffectsinwithandwithoutcases 3. Multicriteriaanalysis,whichallowsvariablesorcriteriatobeexpressedintheirownunit, ratherthanforcedintoacommonquantitativeunit,resultinginatypeofpairwise comparisonofthedifferentcriteria. Thesethreeapproachesrequirelargeamountsofquantitativedataandconsiderableeconomicexpertise. As this will inevitably exclude noneconomists, these approaches are therefore of limited value in most situations of selfevaluation. The object of valuation is generally determined by outsiders (often economists) and must generally be quantifiable. Only a narrow spectrum" of causal relationships are assessed,oftenbasedontenuousassumptions.Qualitativecriteria,suchasincreasedlocalmanagement capacityorfarmers'increasedindependencefrommonopolymarkets,playnoroleinsuchassessments. These approaches focus on the biophysical aspects of SWC, and do not usually include the social structuresandinstitutionsthatsustainmeasures. Conventionalevaluationsareinadequateforassessingparticipatorywatershedprogramsbecauseof: 1. Objectivesunhelpfulforlocallearning,insteadfocusingonaccountabilityneedsofexternal actors(eg.funders); 2. Inappropriatetimingastheyarenotcarriedoutregularly,thusmissingopportunitiestoadjust activities; 3. Inadequateindicatorswhichfocusonshorttermbiophysicalmeasuresandsomeoperational aspectsexcludingtheprocessofcommunityparticipation. 4. Wrongimplementers,withevaluationcarriedoutbydonorsordonorinitiatedexternalexperts thuslimitingtheextentoflocallearning 5. Exclusivemethodologiesbasedonwrittenformsandquestionnaires,notconducivetothe inclusionoffarmersinthecrucialanalysisstage. 6. Limitedfeedbackofevaluationfindingsandrelateddecisions,thushinderingthespreadof essentiallessons. Few SWC projects emphasize farmercentered processes as essential for project success. Nor do they emphasizethisinevaluations.Inconventionalprojectimplementationandevaluationalike,theproductis

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the focus and is divorced from the process. Assessing participatory watershed development requires paying attention to the process itself, and that is best carried out with those who are involved. The experiences from Latin America presented here are rooted in this principle: the necessity for social processesoftransformationbetheyindividualorcollective,inresourcemanagement.SWCisembraced as an integral element of sustainable agriculture and rural development strategy, rather than as a separate,technicalelementinapolicyorresourcemanagementstrategy.(R9Continued) ParticipatoryEvaluationofWatershedDevelopment Selfevaluation and participatory monitoring (PME, 'Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation', and PIM, Participatory Impact Monitoring) are alternative approaches to conventional evaluation. Their point of departure is improving the internal learning process and the planning and implementation of interventions.Evaluationinthiscontextmeansemphasizingitsvalueasatoolfororganizationallearning, rather than the control and accountability it is usually associated with. Monitoring becomes an opportunitytoreflectandadjust.Researchesinawiderangeofcountrieshavefoundthatlearningwas generally weak. Selfmonitoring experiences take a fundamentally different approach to conventional approaches to monitoring. If the object of evaluation changes, as in the shift from erosion control to participatorywatersheddevelopment,evaluationapproachesneedtobeadjustedaccordingly.Translating this to the SWC sector means redesigning the monitoring process to take into account both the socio political and biophysical systems in which measures are nested. It means involving stakeholders in the monitoringandevaluationdesignandanalysis,andseekingawiderrangeofindicatorsofsuccessbeyond those of productivity and externalities. It calls for ensuring that findings are passed to those who have been involved and can benefit from them. However, participatory monitoring and evaluation of participatoryprocessesfacesmanypracticalandconceptualchallenges,partlyduetothecomplexityand diverseinterpretationsoftheterm'participation'.(R9Continued)

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FromPublicationsonLandDegradationandSustainability

FAO(1977)Guidelinesforwatershedmanagement.ConservationGuideI,RomeU4/10
It is impracticable to estimate mean soil loss by erosion over large areas with any accuracy by any feasible programme of experimental work. In the United States, an empirical model (RUSLE) gives reasonable longterm prediction for very small, uniform areas. Processbased models should be appropriateworldwideandbemoreeasilybeadaptedbothtothewatershedscaleandtothestudyof single storms. Their development, as exemplified by WEPP has proved frustratingly difficult. In the meantime,theoriginalUSLEstillprovidesausefulchecklistoftheenvironmentalfactorswhichinfluence theincidenceofsoilerosionbywater.(U5/17) All property institutions represent different ways ofhandling the 'externality'problem. An externality is the outcome experienced by others of the actions of someone else. For example, one person may cut down trees on a steep watershed and cause landslides and gullying onagriculturallandbelow,inflictingcostsonthosewhoworkthatland.

Governmentpolicy andpastoral landuse in southwest Iran. Journal of AridEnvironments,Vol4,pages 253267)tracestheeffortsoftheShahofIran'sgovernmenttomanageandcontrolthepasturesofthe Qashqu'aipastoralists.Landreform,privatisationoflargetractsofcommonpastureforirrigationprojects, huntingpreservesfortheShah'srelatives,watershedprotectionandotherschemesallencroachedupon theirpastoralCPRs.Theauthoritiesdisruptedtheprinciplesofreciprocityandlocaldisputesettlementby fixingtheidentityandnumberofhouseholdsusingeachsectionofthepastures.Theyalsodestroyedthe flexibility of the previous arrangements which allowed a variety of migratory patterns in response to variableecological,economic,politicalandsocialconditions.(U15/12)
Thetopographiccatchment/watershed,withthepeopleitcontains,hasgenerallybeenstatedtobethe logically optimum unit for programme planning, and for demonstrating the effects of technical recommendations.(U18/16) Boserup gives explicit attention to environmental degradation, but in such a way as to suggest that in somecasessoilerosionactuallyinducesdesirableagriculturalinnovations.Inhermostrecentbook(1981: 50) she gives examples where the destruction of top soils in the reaches of a watershed, through population'pressureleadingtodestabilisingagriculturalpractices,hadinducedintensiveagricultureinthe valleyfloorswhichhadbeenfertilisedbytheremovaloftopsoilsfurtherupvalley.Shequotesexamplesof environmentaldeteriorationinChinaforexamplewhichstartedtobeacutebetweenAD,15001750and which induced long distance transport of nightsoil, labour intensive digging of river silts, widespread terracing, and recycling of residues and wastes. The ability of modern technology to cope with the problemofsoilerosionissummarisedthus:'Growingpopulationsmayinparthavedestroyedmoreland thantheyimproved,butitmakeslittlesensetoprojectpasttrendsintothefuture,sinceweknowmore and more about methods of land preservation and are able by means of modern methods, to reclaim muchland;whichourancestorshavemadesterile.'(Boserup.1981:22)(R1.2/12) In 1984 the population of Nepal was in excess of 16 million people.Two thirds of these live in the hilly regions where the carrying capacity is low and the consequent pressure on land has inevitably led to mismanagement of natural resources. Man induced erosion caused by over grazing and deforestation, coupled with mass wasting due to the natural instability of the unconsolidated rock material and steep slopes, has advanced the degradation of watershed conditions. The fragile state of Nepal's ecological. state is well recognised and only through the coordinated efforts of government projects anddepartments,usingcomprehensiveresourceinformation,cantheproblemsbeaddressed.(R2.6/87) Slope is the only levelthree object, merging climate, soil, and management information with a topographic description.The slope is the level ar which erosion is computed, and is a complete site description roughly equivalent to that produced by RUSLE 1.04. Levelfour objects include slope comparisons and combinations. These are a watershed (a, combined set of slopes, each weighted in proportiontotheareaitrepresents),terraces(aseriesofhydraulicallyseparateslopesononelandform), andaspreadsheetofslope(R5.2/272)

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The world's average yield of sediment and solutes by rivers is equivalent to a lowering of the earth's surfaceby3cmevery1000yearsor42tJ(km2yr).Thedenudationratesare27,35,45,63,96,and600 t/km2/yr)forAfrica,Europe,Australia,SouthAmerica,NorthAmerica,andAsia,respectively(Gregoryand Walling,1973).Globalmapsoferosionrateshavebeenpreparedbyusingthisapproach(Fournier,1960; Strakhov,1967;Walling,1984).Thistypeofglobal,orregional,rateoferosioniscomputedbyusingthe techniquesofmeasurementsofwaterrunoffandsedimenttransportinstream,rivers,andlargedrainage basins.Thebasicprincipleinvolvesmonitoringsedimenttransportratespastapointintheriverchannel atthewatershedoutlet.(R5.3/185) DickinsonWT,WallGJ&RudraRP(1990)forModelBuildingforPredictingandManagingSoilErosionand Transport. In Soil Erosion on Agricultural Land ends Boardman J, Foster IDL & Dearing JA, Wiley, pages 421423 OtherCausesofSalinization:Soilscanbemadesalineintwootherwaysthatarenotdirectlyconnected withirrigation.First,incoastalorestuarineareas,seawatermayencroachintothesubsoilwhenexcessive usewellshasloweredthe(fresh)watertable.OmanandYemenaresufferingfromthiskindofproblem and, according to Mark Speece of the University of Arizona and Justin Wilkinson of the University of Chicago:"Theaquiferbecomespollutedwithsaltwater,soilsbecomesalinized,thelandlosesitscapacity foragriculturalproduction,andthedesertmovesin.AlongtheBarinahcoastinOman...datepalmgroves aredyingbecauseofsalinizedwater,eventhoughthedatepalmisarelativelysalttoleranttree"(Speece andWilkinson1982).Thesecondtypeofproblemoccurswherethedeforestationofwatershedsleadsto saline seepage. Replacing trees in upland areas with crops like wheat (which have a lower evapotranspirationrate)reducestheamountofwatertransferredfromthegroundintotheatmosphere, andcauseswatertobuildupinthesoil.Someofthiswaterwillrunoffunderground,butindoingsoit dissolvessalts (suchassodium.chloride)outofthesoilandbecomessaline.Lowlandareasnowreceive more water than previously,and withoutadequate drainage they canbecome increasingly waterlogged andsalinized.Theriversintowhichthesalinewatereventuallyflowsalsobecomesaltier,andcroplands irrigatedbywaterfromtheseriversarethereforeatriskofsalinization.Salineseepageisamajorproblem inAustralia,increasingthesalinityofrivers(R6.2/93) The reasons why these claims may have widespread substance are that transnational companies often havesuperiortechnicalknowledgebothoftheareainvolvedandoftheloggingindustry.Theirnegotiators have very large personal stakes in the matter it' pays them to be well informed and negotiate in the strongestpossiblemannertomaximizeprofits,toretainmaximumcontroltodothisandmaintainitinthe future. They face government bureaucrats who do not have direct personal gain (or loss) as an extra motivation,whosesystemofadministrationmaybe'imperfectlyopen'(Leslie1980)inthatinconsistencies in government policies and incomplete information face the government negotiator. Incomplete information upon the actual volume of timber of various types, upon the probable costs to local inhabitantsandtoothersinthesamewatershedsthroughreducedproductionasaresultoffloodingand siltation,andtheinabilitytocoordinatethenegotiator'sposition(R9.3/174) Thereareothercircumstancesinwhichaccumulationpossibilitiesmaybethreatenedbysoilerosionand theseconcernhydroelectricandirrigationschemeswheresmallfarmersintheaffectedwatershedsmay acceleratesiltationofreservoirsandthedesignofturbinesandeventhedamstructureitself.Ifthisisthe case, then it is the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie who will use the electrical power, and other farmers (in the case of a canal irrigation project). Many examples are cited by Grainger in Java (where slashandburncultivatorsthreatentheirrigationcanalsintheSoloRivercatchment),inthePhilippines(in theAgnocatchment),inIndiaandPakistanwherealargenumberofdamsforpowerandirrigationhave suffered seriously from savage floods, siltation and reduced lives of reservoirs (CES 1982), and in Brazil particularlyfortheTucurnihydroelectricschemetoprovideelectricityforproposedaluminumsmelting operationsatTrombetas).Herethepoliticalcalculusismorecomplexthaninthecaseofatransnational companybecausethereisnoquestionoftransferringcapitalelsewherethedamisbyitsnaturefixedin locationandalargefixedinvestmenthastobemade.(R9.3/145) ThelongertermpotentialofPRAcanalreadybeindicatedbypracticalapplications.Anillustrativelistcan include:Participatorywatershedplanningandmanagement(includingrapidcatchmentanalysis(Pretty, 1990),Degradedforestassessment,protection,nurseriesandplanting,Identificationofcreditneeds, sourcesandinterventions,Healthandnutritionassessments,Planningthelocationofwatersupplies,

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Assessmentsofbiogaspotentialsandactions,Selectingpoorpeopleforaprogram,anddeselectingthe lesspoor,Rehabilitationofsmallscalegravityflowirrigation,Preparingvillageresourcemanagement plans(NES/undated),Participatorytrialsofcropvarieties,Identifyingnonagriculturalincomeearning opportunities,Investigatingmarketsandsmallholdermarketingpotentials,Assessinganddealingwith emergencysituations,Empoweringwomen,Orientationforstudents,NGOworkers,governmentstaff, anduniversityandtraininginstitutestafftowardsacultureofopenlearning,andParticipatoryevaluation ofprogrammesandplanningthenextphase.(R11.2/225) ExtractfromaparticipatoryimpactstudyandselfevaluationofthecatchmentapproachoftheMinistryof AgricultureofKenya(1996).RecentstudiesfromKenyaandelsewhereindicatethatwhereparticipatory approachesareadoptedbygovernmentsandnongovernmentorganizationsincatchmentorwatershed management for soil and water, conservation, then significant economic, environmental, and social benefitscanbeachieved(cf.,Hinchcliffetal.1995;Bunch1990;Campbell(Campbell1994);Hudsonand Cheatle 1993; Lobo and KochendoerferLucius 1992; Pretty 1995); In Kenya, evidence is growing that these kinds of impacts result from the Catchment Approach. For example, a recent comparison of two catchmentsinTransNzoia,oneplannedwiththeCatchmentApproachandPRAandtheotherwiththe T&V Approach, found very significant differences (Ekbom 1992) (Table 1). Crop yields and returns per persondayhavegrownmorerapidlyonthefarmsinthecommunity(R11.3) So it is with soil. The value of soil depends on the supply and demand for a little more or less soil in specificlocations,atspecifictimes.Akilogramofsoilforapottedhouseplantmaycostseveraldollars. BillionsoftonesofsoilmaywashoutoftheAmazonbasintotheseaandnotmakeanydifference,except tofish.Asthisexampleindicates,erosionmayincertaincircumstancesbebeneficial.Peoplewhodonot liketheAswandamprotestthatitstopstheflowof'rich,sedimentladen,floodwaters'ontoagricultural land. In addition to the fact that the 'rich alluvial plains' that feed most of the world were created by geologicalerosion,agoodpartoftheagriculturallandinmountainousareasofAsiahasbeencreatedby sedimenttrapsandsedimentdepositionthroughirrigation,sometimesabettedbydeliberatedestruction ofgroundcoverinthewatershedtoacceleratenaturalratesoferosion.Asagoodsceptichasobserved: Soil erosion is a natural process which merely reflects the removal of water and soil from upland sites wherebothare,atbest,indifferentlyusedandtheirredeploymentonlowlandsiteswherebothcanbe utilizedmoreefficiently.(authorunknown,citedinSoemitro,AnwarandPawobo1983)(R13.2/85) Wateryield.Conventionalwisdomisthattheyieldofwaterfromawatershedwillincreasewithclearing orthinningofforests,aconversionfromdeeptoshallowrootedspecies,orachangeinvegetationcover from species with high to those with low interception capacities. Local soils and climatic conditions will also have an effect. Experiments have shown that a given (10%) reduction in the following kinds of vegetation cover could produce the following increases in annual water yield (in mm.): conifer and eucalyptforest40(range2065);deciduoushardwood25(range6(0);andshrub10(range120)(quoted in FAO, 1987). These results illustrate the potential effects on downstream water supply from such actions as afforestation. It should, however, be noted that most of them have been drawn up in temperateconditions,hencetheneedforduescientificcautionintheirwiderapplication.(R13.2/18) Onsiteandoffsitebenefitsfromwatershedconservation Onsiteeffects: o Avoided losses in crop yields from soil, erosion, loss of soil depth and fertility, or loss of land throughgulleyerosion; o alternatively,savingsinfertilizertomaintainyieldsonerodedsoil; o Valueofwoodproductsfromtreeplanting(timber,poles,fuelwood,forage,fruit,etc.); o Value of enhanced livestock products from rescued or improved pasture, or from fodder from trees(meat,milk,wool,dung) o Increased crop yields from 'ecological' benefits of a managed mixed regime (increased soil organicmatter,moresoilmoistureretention,shading,etc) Ofsite: o Irrigationbenefits;valueofcropspreservedthroughreductionofsedimentationinreservoirsand channels;

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alternatively,reducedcostofmaintainingandcleaningreservoirs,channelsandworks;outputs savedfrompreservingexistingwaterregime; o Hydroelectricpowerbenefits;'byavoidingreservoirsiltation,extendingthelifeofahydropower scheme, especially its ability to generate dryseason power; or avoiding cost of raising level of dam,withallthatimpliesforextrainundation; o oravoidingcostofalternativegeneratingcapacity;plussavingsinrepairsandcleaningofturbines andintakeworks; o Flooddamageavoided;alternatively,savingsincostoffloodpreventionworks,orreducedcostof roadsandbridgemaintenance; o Gains to fisheries; less silting and turbidity in reservoirs and rivers and morelevel1 yearround flows. o Avoideddamagetoproductivityofcoastalwatersandmangrovesystems; o Navigation benefits from more predictable river channels; or reduced dredging costs, both in riversystemandininshorecoastalwaters; o Benefits to domestic water quantity and quality; avoidance of need to resite intake works throughriversiltingandchangesinchannels; o Tourismandrecreationbenefitspreservedandenhanced. (R13.2/76) o Theactualandtheideal,hereaselsewhere,willrarelycorrespondexactly.Butanidealsoughtbysome PRA practitioners is a process in which people, and especially the weaker and poorer, are enabled to collate, present and analyze information, making explicit and adding to what they already know. This happens,forexample,throughparticipatorymappingofawatershedwherethemapisusedbyvillagers to plot current conditions and plan actions, and is retained by them for monitoring action taken and changes;orthroughmappingandsurveyingdegradedforest,decidinghowtoprotectitandwhattoplant, andthenmanagingtheresource;orthroughmatrixscoringforvarietiesofacropwhichenablesthemto specify the characteristics of a "wish" variety they would like. The aim is to enable people to present, share,analyzeandaugmenttheirknowledgeasthestartofaprocess.Theultimateoutputisenhanced knowledgeandcompetence,anabilitytomakedemands,andtosustainaction.Insteadofimposingand extracting,PRAisthendesignedtoempower.(U14.1/266) Policyreformfornaturalresourceconservation:Irrigationandpesticides:Riverimpoundmentshavehad varied and serious impacts. Reservoirs have displaced whole communities, flooded valuable crop and forest lands, threatened critical ecosystems, and wiped out ariadromous fish populations. Below the dams,thedownstreamflowofsedimentsisinterrupted,affectingerosionratesofdeltasandriverbanks. Although storage may reduce seasonal variations in river flows, disturbance of upper watersheds and irrigationdiversionscanalsoincreasefloodingandreduce,lowflows,whichconcentratespollutantsand allowsseawatertomovefurtherupstream.Changesinoxygen,nutrient,mineral,,andsediment'content ofimpoundedriversallaffectfishpopulations,eveninoffshorefisherieswithdeltaicspawninggrounds. Many of these environmental effects are complex and exceedingly, difficult to predict in advance, and theyhavegenerallynotbeenadequatelyincorporatedintoprojectplanningorthecalculationofexpected economicbenefitsandcosts.Theenvironmentalimpactsandperformanceproblemsofirrigationsystems are connected. For example, more efficient use of water would reduce excessive seepage into aquifers and risks of waterlogging. More efficient use would also reduce the apparent need for additional largescale, increasingly costly expansions, and the environmental effects of further river impoundments anddiversions.(R14.3) Every year more than 11 million hectares of forests are cleared for other uses, and in most developing countriesdeforestationisaccelerating.Inlastcentury,theforestedareaindevelopingcountrieshasfallen by half, with severe environmental consequences. In the tropics, forest clearance leaves only degraded soils that are unsuitable for sustained agricultural production. In watersheds, deforestation increases erosion, flooding, and sedimentation. In semiarid areas,it robs the soil of essential organic matterand shelterfromwindandwatererosion.Moreover,inthetropics,lossofforestareasthreatensthesurvival ofuncountedspeciesofanimalsandplants.(R17.2)

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One of the most widely recognised environmental problems in the humid tropics is the loss of forest resources, with consequent watershed degradation, soil erosion and nutrient depletion. Strategies intendedtoconserveforestshaveincludedregulationoflogging,reforestation,banningforestsettlement, and prohibiting shifting cultivation. However, continuedsettlement in the uplands by small farmers has madeitnecessarytoseekenvironmentalsustainabilitywithinacontextofagriculturallanduse.Asaresult research and development projects in the uplands are now trying to work with farmers to improve croppingsystemsandresourcemanagement.(R17.7) Astudyofthereasonforthesuccessorfailureofsoilconservationprojects:oneisthescaleoftheproject Therecordsuggeststhatprojectswhichhaveasignificantcomponentoftechnicalassistance,tendtobe more effective when small. The reason is that one or two international experts find it easy to work themselves into the local institution, whereas projects which have a large international staff tend to remainmoreindependent,moreseparate,andlessapproachableintheeyesofthelocalofficers.There areexamplesoftechnicalassistanceprogrammeswhicharesoheavilystaffedwithexpatriatesthatthey dominatethelocalagenciesandinhibittheirgrowthanddevelopment.In1973theWorldBankannounced new directions for agricultural lending specifically to target the poor which automatically led to a shift towards agricultural lending.However themain instruments selected to help execute thenew strategy, area development and integrated rural development projects, have a poor performance record. The Bank'stwelfthauditreportsthatthiswaslargelybecauseofoveroptimisticassumptionsaboutavailable technologiesforrainfedsmallholderagriculture.Theredoesseemtobestatisticalevidencethatoverthe six years 19801985 the success rate of Bank projects has declined as the average size of projects has increased. The present move away from multipledonor, multiplepurpose, multiplesector projects reducestheaveragesizeofprojects. Anotherissueaffectingthescaleofsoilconservationprojectsiswhethertheyshouldbeapproachedona catchment (watershed) basis, or should the emphasis be placed on the individual farm and farmer, or shouldprojectsbeplannedtocoincidewiththeadministrativeboundaries?Thisquestionwasaddressed atthePuertoRicoWorkshoponConservationFarmingonSteepLands,1988,whereallthreeviewswere supportedbydifferentparticipants.Afewyearsagotheconceptofwatershedplanningwasverypopular, andsomecountries,forexampleLesotho,decidedthattheirwholesoilconservationprogrammeshould be implemented through the catchment approach. Today support is more restrained, but as Sanders pointed out: "In conclusion, it should perhaps. be said that if emphasis is placed on biological and agronomic measures, rather than physical practices, to achieve soil and water conservation, these approachesneednot.bemutuallyexclusive.Theaimmayultimatelybetotreatawholecatchment,but thismaybestbedonebyworkingprogressivelyfromtheindividualfarmunits"(Sanders1988).(R17.8) ASubSaharacase:Appropriateunitsforconservationplanning.Thetechnicalrangeandspatialscaleof conservationinterventionsinagivenlandscapemustbedeterminedwithcare.Thetechnocraticlanduse planning which governments favoured in the 1960 and 1970s was rightly rejected in favour of a conservation approach which stressed the on farm concerns, indigenous skills and local resources of individualfarmers.Butthismayleaveseriousgapsinofffarmresourceconservationwhichthreatenthe gainsmadeinfieldsoilprotectionandcropproduction.Anyreturntocatchmentplanningorconventional watershedmanagementshouldbeviewedwithcaution.Thestartingpointshouldremaininterventions, normally on crop land which directly affect rural people's income. Nevertheless, it will often be appropriatetoselectotherinitiativesincommunalpropertymanagementtocomplementonfarmwork, andtoidentifyotherunitsofinterventionsuchasvillagegrazingareasoradministrativeterritories.This requirementreinforcestheneedforcareful,extendedlocalplanninginconsultationwithresourceusers. It emphasises the importance of understanding local resource management institutions. In the Sahel, thesestructuresforvillagelandusemanagementmustoftenberevitalisedorcreatedanew.Elsewherein subSaharanAfrica,indigenousinstitutionsmaycontinuetoofferaworkableplatformfornewinitiatives. (R18.5)

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FromPublicationsonManagementforSustainableFarmingSystems
Agro ecosystems are less complex than natural systems in both structure and function, especially in monocultures. Their structure is usually simpler both above and below ground, with fewer species present. Despite this agro ecosystems are still very complex and in some ways more so than natural ecosystems.Additionalsourcesofcomplexity? o Consider a watershed which would naturally be forested. When converted to agriculture it is unlikely that all the forest will be felled and much of the diversity within the forest may be preservedintheunfelledremnants.Also,itisunlikelythatallthefarmlandwillbeplantedtothe samecrop.Eachfieldmayhaveasinglecrop,butarangeofcropswillbeplantedoverthewhole watershed.Annualcropsandperennialplantingssuchasorchardswouldaddadditionalspatial andtemporaldiversity.Fieldboundariesandhedgerowsareanothersourceofdiversity. o People are an integral part of the agro ecosystem. Without them it could not persist. Human managementdecisionsareafactornotfoundinnaturalsystems.Socialrelationsandinstitutions havetobeconsideredinanalysisofagroecosystems. o Economic factors are another force at work in agro ecosystems, which does not affect natural ecosystems. Changes in prices of commodities directly affect what is produced and forces changesinagroecosystems.Economicviabilityisanessentialcomponentofsustainability. Thecomplexityofagroecosystemshastoberememberedwhenplanningchangesandnewdevelopments infarmingsystems.(U3/3) Soil productivity reflects the ability of the soil to tolerate intensive use without physical, chemical or biologicaldegradation.Itisderivedfromacombinationofseveralotherindicators.Theseare; o Nutrientholdingcapacityandcontamination,basedonphysicalandchemicalcharacteristics o Erosionratesdependonthemanagementoftheagroecosystemandtheamountandintensityof rainfall. Erosion rates reflect a wide range of management practices (e.g. the cropping system, conservation measures employed, use of cover crops). The topmost layers of the soil normally contributethemosttoproductivity,havingbetterstructure,nutrientholdingcapacityandmost biological activity. They are the first to be lost by erosion. In principle, the rate of soil loss by erosion should not exceed the rate of formation, but with current practices it very often does. Soilerosionmayalsohavenegativeeffectwherethesoillostisredepositedassedimentfurther downthewatershed. o Themicrobialcomponentofthesoilisessentialforthemaintenanceofsoilfertility,drivingthe recyclingofnutrientsandactingasanutrientpool,especiallyfornitrogen. SoilconservationtechniquesthatweresuccessfullyintroducedtotheVictorGraeffwatershed o (a)Soilconservationtechniquesusedwere notillage improvedinfiltration terraceswithgrasscoveredwalls covercropstoprovidemulch,protectthesoilfromwinterrains, andincreaseorganicmatterinthesoilleadingtoimprovedstructure o (b)Amongthenontechnicalfactorsthatcontributedtothesuccessoftheprogramwere itwasbasedonanecologicalunit,awatershed there was support and involvement of the wider community, not just farmers, and everyonebenefited(egfromcleanerwaterandimprovedroads) therewascooperationbetweenneighbourswhichfacilitatedefficientimplementation oferosioncontrolmeasures(egterracescrossingboundaries) institutionalbackingwasprovidedfromthebankswhichprovidedfundsforinvestment andpoliticalsupportwasgivenbythelocalgovernment o (c) There has been diversification from row cropping into a more balanced production system thatincludescattle,poultry,pigs,forestryandfisheriesenterpriseswhichshouldaddstabilityto thesystem.

P a g e |21
o (d) The main, conclusion is that erosion control measures (and farming systems) have to be evaluatedandadaptedtolocalconditions.Probably,therearenosolutionsthatcanbeapplied acrosswholeregionsorcountries.(U5/A5.6)

Butthereisalimittowhatindividualfarmerscando.Theyareaffectedbytheirneighboursactionsat leasttosomeextent.Coordinationofactionsoveralargerareaisoftenneeded.Thewatershed(anarea drained by a river and its tributaries) is a natural physical unit for management and an integrated watershedmanagementplanmaybethebestwaytotackleproblemsofirrigation.Ifitistoworkwell,this requires involvement and cooperation within and between communities and must consider the both ecologicalandsocioeconomicenvironment.ItoftenneedssupportfromCentralGovernmenttoestablish thelegalbasisforsuchactions.TheMurrayDarlingBasinInitiativeinAustraliaisonerecentexampleof thisapproach.However,adetailedlookatintegratedcatchmentmanagementisbeyondthescopeofthis text.(U7/A7.5) Consideragroecosystemsatthescaleofwatershedsordistricts.Howhasthecreationoftheagricultural landscapeaffectednaturalecosystems?Youmayfindithelpfultothinkaboutyourowncountryorregion and use this as an example to demonstrate more general trends. In general, three processes affecting naturalecosystemstakeplacewhenanareaisconvertedtofarmland. o The potentially most productive areas for agriculture are converted first. This may affect some speciesmorethanothersandupsettheoverallbalanceoftheecosystem.Forexample,treesand plantsgrowingonalluvialplainsnexttoriversmaybenearlyeliminated,alongwiththecreatures thatdependonthem.Theeffectcanbequitesubtle,ananimalorbirdmayuseanareaforonlya shorttimeeachyear(e.g.forbreeding)butbeunabletosurvivewithoutit. o The conversion to agricultural production often leaves patches of the original vegetation untouched.Thisfragmentationofhabitatcanleadtoproblemsofsurvivalforsomespecies. o The final result may be that the remnants of the original ecosystem become degraded, either throughusebypeoplenearby(e.g.forcommonpastureorforhunting)orbecausetheyarenot largeenoughtosupportviablepopulationsofplantsoranimals.(U9/13) GLASOD soil scientists point out that stopping or reversing moderate soil degradation requires action beyond the scale of a farm. Watershed management, installation of catchment basins, and other soil conservationmeasuresaretypicallyadoptedonaregionallevelbygovernments.(R5.2/11) Fromanintensivemonitoringprogramof28watershedsinOklahomaandTexas,itisclearthatreduced and no till management of both sorghum and wheat reduced N and P loss in runoff compared to conventionaltillageThelossofbioavailableparticulateP,asdeterminedbyNaOHextraction(Sharpleyet al.,1991a), was also lower from conservation compared to conventional practices, although tillage managementhadnoconsistenteffectonsolubleNandPloss.However,notillmanagementofsorghum and,toalesserdegree,wheatreducednutrientlossesinrunofftolevelssimilartothosefromunfertilized nativegrass(R6.5/92). Many variations of water harvesting are possible. Waterharvesting systems can be classified as follows (Reijntjes1986b): o 1Systemswithanexternalcatchmentareaforcollectingrunoffwaterorfloodwaterfromsmall watersheds (i)Agriculturaluse,withoutanyspecialarrangements,ofnaturaldepressionswhererun offwaterorfloodwaterisconcentratedtemporarilyandwaterinfiltrationisrelatively high(traditionalin,forexample,WestandEastAfrica). (ii)Simpletechniquesforwaterspreadingandinfiltrationbymeansoflow,permeable bunds (ridges) of stones, bundled sticks, crop residues or fences of living plants along contourlines(traditionalin,forexample,Mali). (iii) Water pockets or pits: holes for seeding, collecting runoff and managing organic matter(zaiinBurkinaFaso,covasinCape (iv) Halfcircular or Vshaped ridges used mainly for tree planting and rangeland improvement(new).

P a g e |22
(v)Watercollection:gradedbundsorfurrowsdivertrunofffromcropland,villageland and wasteland to tanks located at a lower level; the water is used for supplementary irrigation in dry periods or as full irrigation (traditional in India; new in, for example; WestAfrica). (vi)Runofffarming:runoffwaterfromtreated(e.g.bysprayingchemicalsorclearing gravel stones to increase runoff) or untreated catchment areas is diverted to lower lyingcropland(traditionalin,forexample,IsraelandTunisia, vii)Runonfarming:runoffwaterandsiltfromsmallwatershedsiscapturedbydamsin seasonal stream beds or diverted to cropland. In front of these dams, the silt forms terraces which are used forfarming. The infiltrated water makes cropping possible (traditionalin,forexample,IsraelandTunisia,jessour, 2Systemsforstorageandagriculturaluseoffloodwater(floodwaterfarming):makinguseofthe runoffconcentratedbynaturalwatershedsinseasonalorpermanentstreams.Thefloodwater isdivertedfromitsnaturalchannelbydamsorbarragesandledtothecroplandwherethewater iskeptimpoundedbyearthendamsaroundthefields.Theinfiltratedwaterisusedforfarming (traditionalin,forexample,theNileDeltabeforetheAswanDam;northIndia,aharsandkhadits; southPakistan,sailabasandkurkabas). 3Systemswitha'withinfield'catchmentareacalled'insitu'waterharvestingor 'microcatchments': (i) Negarim: runoff from a small plot (micro or withincatchment) is captured at one side,whereitinfiltratesthesoilanddirectlycontributestotheavailablemoistureinthe rooted profile of an individual productive tree or shrub (traditional in, for example, Morocco;newin,forexample,Israel); (ii)Contourridgesorbunds:thesamesystemas3 (iii),butinsteadofsmallplots,stripsareused.Cropscanbeseededinfrontofthebunds where water infiltration is concentrated (relatively new in, for example, India and Africa);

(R7.3/182)

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FromPublicationsonRuralDevelopment
Run by and paid for by rural communities, village extensionists in Gujarat, India, offer services such as watershedplanningwhichareinhighdemand.Theserviceorganization,inthiscaseanNGO,actsasalow profilefacilitator,providinginitialtrainingandcapacitybuildingsupport,seedfundingformicroprojects andlinkswithwidernetworksoftechnicalandresearchexpertise.1tisenvisagedthatsomeoftheseroles willultimatelybetakenonbyafederatedbodyofvillageorganizations.(R1.4/198) The World Conservation Strategy (WCS) was prepared by IUCN with finance provided by UNEP and the WorldWildlifeFund.Itwaspublishedin1980inthenameofthesethree.Organizations.(IUCN1980).It hadbeenpresentedtoFAOandUNESCO,andpublicationhadbeendelayedtoincludetheiramendments (McCormick1986a).ItwasendorsedbytheEcosystemConservationGroup(IUCN1980).Inthewordsof the Chairman of the WWF, Sir Peter Scott, the WCS was intended to show 'how conservation can contributetothedevelopmentobjectivesofgovernments,industryandcommerce,organizedlaborand the professions, as well as being the first time that development was suggested 'as a major means of achievingconservation,TheWCSidentifiesthreeobjectivesforconservation; o First, the maintenance of 'essential ecological processes' (Section 2). These are governed, supported or strongly moderated by ecosystems and are essential for food production, health, andotheraspectsofhumansurvivalandsustainabledevelopment'(par2.1).Theyarecalled,in the nonecological shorthand adopted, 'lifesupport systems', and include agricultural land and soil, forests, and coastal and freshwater ecosystems. Threats include soil erosion, pesticide resistanceininsectpests,deforestationandassociatedsedimentation,andaquaticandlittoral pollution. The second objective is the preservation of genetic diversity, both the genetic material in differentvarietiesoflocallyadaptedcropplantsorlivestockandinwildspecies(Section3).This geneticdiversityisbothan'insurance'(forexampleagainstcropdiseases),andaninvestmentfor thefuture(eg.cropbreedingorpharmaceuticals)(part3.2). TheWCS'sthirdobjectiveis'thesustainabledevelopmentofspeciesandecosystems'(Section4), particularly fisheries, wild species which are cropped, forests and timber resources and grazing land.

Theseobjectivesarethenbrokendownintoalistofpriorityrequirements(Sections57).Thesearedrawn uponthebasisofcriteriaofsignificance(howimportantisit?),urgency(howfastisitgettingworse?), andirreversibility(Section5).ThesearelistedinTable3.1. Thefirsttwoobjectives,toconserveecologicalprocessesandgeneticdiversity,havearelativelymodest fiveprioritieseach.Thefirstofthesebasicallydemandstherationalplanningandallocationoflanduses: givingcropspriorityonthebestland(butnotonmarginalland),andsettingasideandcontrollingareas such as watersheds and littoral zones for appropriate management only. The conservation of genetic diversity demands sitebased protection of ecosystems and the timely creation of banks of genetic material.PerhapsundertheinfluenceoftheMABProgramme,anumberofthefamiliarneedsofnature conservation for protection of the habitats of rare and unique species and typical ecosystems in appropriatelyorganizedsystemsofreservesappearhere.(R12.2/30) WorldBank'sforestrypolicy.Inits1978ForestryPolicyPapertheemphasisshiftedfromindustrialforestry and timber utilization toward social and rural development issues and environmental forestry. This followed from the recognition of the problem of timber undervaluation, a common policy distortion in many developing countries, as the source of deforestation and inappropriate land conversion. The problemofencroachmentinforests,associatedwithpovertyanddegradation,wasalsoidentifiedinthe 1978policypaperalthoughthiswasnotemphasized.Thismajorchangeinsectoralprioritiesledtoefforts at"newstyle"forestryprojectsthatincorporatedwatershedmanagementandenvironmentalactivities. The 1991 World Bank forest sector policy paper (World Bank 1991b) shifted the focus further and identified the relationship between deforestation and poverty and population pressure as the primary resourcemanagementconcern.(R12.6/89)

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Externalities are recognizedas exceptionsto the efficiency propositions of economic theory. Recall that thebodyofthistheoryisbasedonindividualagentsmaximizingtheirownutilityorprofits,withoutregard totheimpacttheiractionsmayhaveontheutilityofothers.Indeed,itisassumedthatindividualactions only affect the satisfaction of others in a neutral way through the price mechanism. If person A buys a pineapple, this does not stop person B buying a pineapple at the going market price, although if many peopledecidetobuypineapplesatthesametime,thepricemayrisetothedisadvantageofallconsumers inthemarketforpineapples. Thisfeatureoftheworkingofthemarketeconomy,wherebyinteractionsbetweenindividualstakeplace entirely within the price mechanism, can be referred to as the internal nature of market exchanges. However,thereexistsacategoryofeventsinamarketeconomywherebytheactionsofoneindividualor enterprisedirectlyaffecttheutilityofothers,withoutreferencetoexchangeorprices.IfpersonAcreates abonfireinhergarden,herneighborsincurthedisutilityofchokingonthesmokeasitdriftsacrosstheir territory. Likewise, when the removal of forest cover at a watershed causes more frequent flash floods down river, the livelihoods of farmers in the valley bottom are adversely affected without reference to marketpricesorcosts.(R13.3/135)

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FromPublicationsonProjectPlanningMonitoringandEvaluation

FAO(1977)Guidelinesforwatershedmanagement.ConservationGuideI,RomeU4/10
Thereisneedforassistancetothefarmerstorecoverthegulliedareasthroughpracticalmeasuressuchas wattling and staking. This work should be combined with an education campaign about the risks in cultivatingsteepandunstableslopes.Themagnitudeoftheflooddamageandtheextentofthelandslides require an approach which comprises an effective demonstration of appropriate techniques for slope stabilizationtoenablefarmerstoapplythesamewithminimuminputsofcapitalontheirownlands.The demonstration should include simple engineering works like gabion check dams in gullies. On the more severely affected sites, demonstration sites could be established and used to train farmers in the applicationofsimilartechniquesintheirownfields.Atleasttwodemonstrationsiteswouldbenecessary, with locations near to village A and village B a priority. Experience gained during initial attempts to address these problems through training, extension and an awareness campaign should be useful, together with the established demonstration sites as a basis for ongoing improvements in the management of these areas. In the longer term there is a need for further systematic introduction of appropriatetechniquesandextensionsforrehabilitationofflooddamagedslopes,longtermwatershed managementandlanduseplanning.(TMA/1) The notion that there is 'an environmental perspective' is of course extremely misleading. There are a multitude of views ranging from those who are against all development because it might harm the environment,tothosewhoargueforastrongroleforgovernmentstoimposetheirplansofwhatought to be'. However this should not be seen as traditional exercises on the left or right of the political spectrumbutratherasareflectionofthemultiplicityofviews,whichmaycreateanillusionthattheyall fit neatly under the label of environmentalism. Some of the uncomfortable liaisons within the environmentalmovementshowstronglywhentheymovefromcritiquetointentoraction.Environmental insights and knowledge relating to such issues as the loss of biodiversity, tropical forest depletion, reductioninwildlands,soilerosion,desertification,deteriorationofwatershedsandwetlands,andlossof culturalpropertyare all relevanttoagriculturalprojectdevelopmentandmanagement.Butthepositive and complementary linkages with agricultural development to goals in these areas also need to be stressed.(U13/5) Effectonproductionorpreventativeexpenditureapproachcanbeusedtovalue.watershed/downstream effectsofdevelopmentprojects.(U13/17)