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E2-E3: CIVIL

CHAPTER-3 SOIL PARAMETERS & APPLIED FOUNDATION DESIGN

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Soil Parameters & Applied Foundation Design

1.0 Introduction Geotechnical Engineering is a relativel y modern branch of civil engineering. As a disciplin e, it is academicall y as exciting as practicall y challenging Geotechnical engineering is actually the new name of a subject known earlier as Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Of this, foundation engineering, at least as an art, is as ancient as civil engineering whereas the roots of Soil Mechanics, which forms its scientific base, can be traced only from 1773 with Coulombs law for shear strength of soil given in that year. Subsequent contributions were few upto the year 1925, which was the bir th of modern Soil Mechanics with the publication of Terzaghis celebrated book Erdbaumechanik. Professor Karl von Terzaghi, who is rightl y, regarded as the father of modern Soil Mechanics. Before designing a foundation for a stru cture it is essential to know the behavior of soils under loads. For study of behavior of soils in depth knowledge of soil mechanics is required. It is essential to associate the structural engineer in drawing up the soil investigation programme and interpretation of the report. He must visit the site to facilitate proper scrutiny of the soil investigation report by comparing the results and the recommendation with the information available from similar sites and constructed projects. 2.0 Field Identifica tion Of Soils Soil grains consist of inert rock minerals (cobble, gravel, sand, silt), often combined with significant amounts of clay (say, more than 5 percent). While inert silt grains may be angular or rounded (thus contributing to greater or less angl e of internal friction, ), particles of clay are small platelets with negative charges on both faces which attract the positively charged ends of water molecules. This bond is responsible for the cohesion ends of water molecules. This bond is responsible for the cohesion C of clay. Silt or sand with appreciable amounts of clay (say, more than 15 percent) behaves like clayey soil since the permeability of clay is of the order of 10 - 7 centimeters/second compared to 10cms/ second for sand. This capacit y of the clay to hold the water molecules for long even when pressure is applied on the soil, greatl y influences its behavior i.e. shears strength, compressibilit y and permeabilit y.

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2.1 Simple and Quick Methods of Field Identification of Soils: (i) Fine sand is differentiated from silt by placing a spoonful of soil in a glass jar or test tube, mixing with water and shaking it to a suspension. Sand settles first, followed by silt which may take about five minutes. This test may also be used for clay which takes more than 10 minutes to start settling. The percentages of clay, silt and sand are assessed by observing the depths of the sediments. Silt is differentiated from clay as follows: (a) Clay lumps are more difficult to crush with fingers than silt. When moistened, the soil lump surface texture is felt with the finger. If it is smooth, it is clay; if rough, it is silt. A ball of the soil is formed and shaken horizontall y on the palm of the hand. If the material becomes shiny from water coming to the surface, it is silt. If soil containing appreciable percent clay is cut with a knife, the cut surface appears lustrous. In case of silt, the surface appears dull.

(ii)

(b)

(c)

(iii)

Field: indication for the consistency of cohesive soils are as follows: Stiff : Cann ot be moulded with in the figure Medium: Can be moulded by the fingers on strong pressure. Readil y indented with thumb nail. Soft : Easil y moulded with the fingers. Color of the soil indicates its origin and the condition under which it was deposited. Sand and gravel deposits may contain lenses of silt, clay or even organic deposits. If so, the presumptive bearing capacit y is reduced. Based on the field identification of the soil, the presumptive bearing capacit y of the soil can be guessed by r eferring to table 2 of IS 1904 1986. The objectives of preliminary soil investigation are to drawn up an appropriate program for detailed soil investigation and to examine the sketch plans and preliminary drawings prepared by the Architect from the point of suitabilit y of the proposed structure.

(iv)

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TABLE 1 : SAFE BEARING CAPACITY

Rev date: 01-04-2011

S. No .

TY P E O F RO CK S / SO I L S

SAF E B EA R IN G CAP AC I T Y (3 ) k N/ m 2 3 240

REM AR K S

(1 ) a ) Ro ck s 1.

(2)

(4 )

Ro c k s ( h ar d ) wi t ho u t la mi n at io n d e fec ts , fo r e xa mp le, gr a ni te, tr a p a nd d io r it e La mi n ated r o c k s, fo r e x a mp le, s to ne a nd li me s to ne i n so u nd co nd itio n Re s id ual d ep o si ts o f s ha tter ed a nd b ro k e n b ed ro c k a nd har d s ha le, ce me n ted ma ter ia l So ft r o c k b ) No n - co h e si ve so i l s Gra ve l, sa nd a nd gr a v el, co mp ac t a nd o fferi n g h i g h r e s is ta nc e to p e ne tra tio n wh e n e x ca va ted b y to o l s Co ar se s a nd , co mp ac t a n d d r y

2.

1 620

3.

880

4.

440

5.

440

(See No te 2 )

6.

440

Dr y me a ns t ha t t h e gro u nd wa ter le ve l i s at a d ep t h no t le ss t ha n t he wi d t h o f fo u nd a tio n b elo w t he b a se o f t he fo u nd a tio n -

7. 8.

Med i u m s a nd , co mp ac t a nd d r y Fi n e s a nd , si te( d r y l u mp s e as il y p ul ver iz ed b y t he f i n ger s) Lo o se gr a ve l o r sa nd g r av el mi x t u re s, lo o s e co ar s e to med i u m sa nd , d r y Fi n e s a nd , lo o s e a nd d r y c) Co h e siv e so i ls So ft s h ale , o r st i f f c la y in d eep b ed , d r y

245 150

9.

245

(See No te 2 )

10.

100

11.

440

This group is susceptible to long term consolidation settlement

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12.

Med i u m cl a y, r e ad i l y i n d en ted wi t h a th u mb na il Mo i st cla y a nd sa nd - cla y mi x t ur e wh i c h ca n b e i nd e n ted wi t h str o n g t h u m b p res s ur e

245

13.

150

14. So ft cl a y i nd e nted wi t h mo d e r at e t h u mb p res s ur e 15. Ver y so ft cl a y wh i c h ca n b e p e ne tra ted se ve ral ce n ti me ter s wi t h t he t h u mb 50 100

NO T E :

Values are very much rough for the following reasons: a) Effect of characteristics of foundations (that is, effect of depth, width, shape, roughness, etc) has not been considered. b) Effect of range of soil properties (that is, angle of frictional resistance, cohesion, water table, densit y, etc) has not been considered. c) Effect of eccentricity and indication o f lo ad s h as no t b ee n
co n s id er ed .

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E2-E3/Civil 3.0 Soil Mechanics Basic Concepts

Rev date: 01-04-2011

3.1 Soil Mass Represented By 3 -Phase System: Soil solids, water and air are constituents of soil mass are represented diagrammaticall y as three phase system shown below.

V s =Volume of soil solids. V a =Volume of air. V w =Volume of water. V=Total volume of soil mass = Vs+ Va + Vw 1)

W s =Weight of soil solids. W a =Weight of air considered as negligible. W w =Weight of water. W=Total Weight of soil mass = W s + Ww

Water content. : The water content w, also called the moisture content, is defined as ratio of weight of water & weight of soil solids. w = Weight of water x 100 Weight of soil solids

2)

The water content is generall y expressed as a percentage. Unit Weights : The weight of soil per unit volume is defined as

unit weight or specific weight . In SI units is expressed as N/m 3 or kN/m 3 . In soil Engineering five different five unit weights are used in various computations. i) Bulk Unit Weight (). The bulk unit weight is the total mass W of the soil per unit of its total volume. Thus, = ii) W V Dry Unit Weight ( d ). : The dry unit weight is the weight of soil solids per units to tal volume of the soil mass.

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E2-E3/Civil d = Ws V

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The dry unit weight is used to express the denseness of the soil. iii) Unit Weight of Soil Solids ( s ) : The unit weight of soil solids is the mass of soil soli ds (w s ) per units of volume of solids (Vs): s = Ws

iv)

Vs Saturated Unit Weight ( s a t ): When the soil mass is saturated, its bulk unit weight ( ) is called saturated unit weight. The saturated unit weight is the ratio of the total soil mass of saturated sample to its total volume.

sat = v)

W s (saturated)

V Submerged Unit Weight (): When the soil exits below water it is in submerged condition. The submerged unit weight () of soil is defined as the submerged weight per unit total volume. = W sub = V
sat -

3.

Specific gravity G: is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to that of water: G = s / w

4.

Voids ratio. (e) Voids ratio e of a given soil sample is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of soil solids in the given soil mass. Thus, e = V v/V s = n / 1-n

5.

Porosity. (n) The porosit y n of a given soil sample is the ratio of the volume of voids to the tot al volume of the given soil mass. Vv n = V = e +1 e

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The voids ratio e is generall y expressed as a fraction, while the porosit y n is expressed as a percentage and is, therefore also referred to as percentage voids. 6 Degree of Saturation . The degree of saturation Sr is defined as the ratio of the volume of water present in a given soil mass to the total volume of voids in it. Sr = Vw Vv

6. Various Inter -Relations i) ii) e. S r = w.G e = w.G (for Sr = 1 or full y saturated soil degree saturation 100% ) G . w d = 1 + e ( v)
=

of

iii)

iv)

+ e.S r ) w 1 + e

For S r = 0 , G . w = d = 1 + e For S r = 1 , = sat = ( e) w 1 + e

G +

vi)

vi) d vii)
=

1 + w

(G - 1 ) w 1 + e

7. Density Index: The term densit y index ID or relative densit y or degree of densit y is used to express th e relative compactness of a natural soil deposit. The densit y index is defined as the ratio of the difference between the voids ratio of the soil in its loosest state and its natural voids ratio (e) to the difference between the voids ratios in the looses t and densest states:

ID
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emax = voids ratio in the loosest state emin = voids ratio in the densest state e = natural voids ratio of the deposit.

This term is used for cohesion less spoil only. When the natural state of the cohesion less soil is in its loosest form e = emax and hence ID = 0. When the natural deposit is in its densest state e = emin and hence ID = 1. 4.0 Plasticity Characteristics of Soils Plasticit y of soil is its abilit y to undergo deformation without cracking or fracturing. Plasticit y is an important index propert y of fine grained soils, especiall y clayey soils. Fine grained soil may be mixed with water to form a plastic paste which can be moulded into any form by pressure. The addition of water reduces the cohesion making the soil still easier to mould. Further addition of water reduces the cohesion until the material no longer retains its shape under its own weight, but flows as a liquid. Enough water may be added until the soil grains are dispersed in a suspension. If water is evaporated from such a soil suspension, the soil passes through various stages or states of consistency. In 1911,the Swedish agriculturist Atterberg divided the entire range from liquid to solid state into four stages : (i) the liquid state, (ii) the plastic state, (iii) the semi solid state and (iv) the solid state. He set arbitrary limits, known as consistency limits or Atterberg limits. As shown in the fig. below.

a)

Liquid limit (wl). Liquid limit is the water content corresponding to the arbitrary limit between liquid and plastic state of consistency of a soil. It is

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Rev date: 01-04-2011 defined as the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid state, but has a small strength against flowing.

b)

Plastic limit (wp). Plastic limit is the water content corresponding to an arbitrary limit between the plastic and the semi solid states of consistency of a soil. It is defined as the minimum water content at which a soil will just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread approximately 3 mm in a diameter. Shrinkage limit (ws). Shrinkage limit is defined as the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content will not cause decrease in the volume of soil mass. It is lowest water content at which a soil can still be completely saturated. Plasticity index (Ip). The range of consistency with in which a soil exhibits plastic properties is called plastic range and is indicated by plasticity index. The plasticity index is defined as the numerical difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of soil: Ip = wl - wp

c)

d)

5. Unified Soil Classification And Indian Standard Classification. USC system and as adopted by the ISI (IS : 1498 1970: Classification and Identification of soils for general engineering purpose) is given below. Soils are broadly divided into three divisions. Coarse grained soil. In these soils, 50% or more of the total material by weight is larger than 75 micron IS sieve size. Fine grained soils. In these soils, 50% or more of the total material by weight is smaller than 75 micron IS sieve size. Highly organic soils and other miscellaneous soil materials. These soil contain large percentage of fibrous organic matter, such as peat, and the particles of decomposed vegetation. In addition, certain soils containing shells, cinders and other non soil materials in sufficient quantities are also grouped in this division. 1. Coarse grained soils. Coarse grained soils are further divided into two sub divisions: Gravels (G). In these soils more than 50% the coarse fraction (+ 75 micron) is larger than 4.75 mm sieve size. This sub division includes gravels and gravelly soil, and is designated by symbol G.

(a)

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E2-E3/Civil (b)

Rev date: 01-04-2011 Sands (S). In these soils more 50% the coarse fraction is smaller than 4.75 mm IS sieve size. This sub division includes sands and sandy soils. Each of the above sub-divisions are further sub divided into four groups depending upon grading and inclusion of other materials. W C P M : Well graded : Clay binder : Poorly graded : Containing fine materials not covered in other groups.

These symbols used in combination to designate the type of coarse grained soils. For example, GC means clayey gravels. 2. Fine grained soils. Fine grained soils are further divided into three sub divisions. (a) Inorganic silts and very fine sands :M (b) Inorganic clays :C (c) Organic silts and clays and organic matter : O The fine grained soils are further divided into the following groups on the basis of the following arbitrarily selected values of liquid limit which is a good index of compressibility: Silts and clays of low compressibility, having a liquid less than 35, and represented by symbol L. Silts and clays of high medium compressibility, having a liquid limit greater than 35 and less than 50, and represented by symbol I . Silts and clays of high compressibility, having liquid limit greater than 50, and represented by a symbol H. Combination of these symbols indicates the type of fine grained soil. For example, ML means inorganic silt with low to medium compressibility.

(i) (ii) (iii)

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TABLE 2.0 BASIC SOIL COMPONENTS (IS CLASSIFICATION)

Soil Soil Components Particle size range and description Symbol Round to angular, bulky hard, rock particle, Average diameter more than 30 cm Boulder None Round to angular, bulky hard, rock particle, Average diameter smaller than 30 cm but retained on 80 mm sieve.

Cobble

None Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock particle, passing 80mm sieve but retained on 4.75 mm sieve Coarse : 80 mm to 20 mm sieve Fine : 20 mm to 4.75 mm sieve Rounded to angular bulky, hard, rocky Particle, passing 4.75 mm sieve retained on 75 micron sieve. Coarse : 4.75 mm to 2.0 mm sieve Medium : 2.0 mm to 4.25 micron sieve. Fine : 425 micron to 75 micron sieve. Particle smaller than 75 micron sieve identified by behavior , that it is slightly plastic or non plastic regardless of moisture and exhibits little or no strength when air dried. Particles smaller than 75 micron sieve identified by behavior , that is, it can be made to exhibit plastic properties within a certain range of moisture and exhibits considerable strength when air dried. Organic matter in various sizes and stages of decomposition.

Gravel Coarse Grained

Sand

Silt Fine grained Components Clay

Organic matter

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Rev date: 01-04-2011 Table 3.0 Classification of Coarse -grained Soils (ISC System)

Division
(1) Coarsegrained soils (More than half of material is larger than 75-micro

Subdivision
Gravel (G) (more than half of coarse fraction is larger than 4.75 mm IS sieve) Clean gravels (Fines less than 5%)

Group symbol
(1) GW

Typical Names
Well graded gravels

Laboratory Criteria
Cu greater than 4 Cc between than 1 and 3

Remark
When fines are between 5% to 12% border line cases requiring dual s ymbols such as GP-GM, SW-SC, etc.

(2) GP

Poorl y graded gravels Silt y gravels

Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW

Gravels with appreciable amount of fines (Fines more than 12%)

(3) GM

(4) GC

Clayey gravels

Atterberg limits below Aline or I p less than 4

Atterberg Limits plotting above A-line with Ip between 4 and 7 are border line cases Atterberg requiring use limits of dual s ymbol below A- GM-GC line or I p less than 7

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Table (Continued)
Division Subdivision Group symbol Typical Names Well - graded gravels Laboratory Criteria Remark

Sand (S) (more than half of coarse fraction is Smaller than 4.75 mm IS sieve)

Clean Sand (Fines less than 5%)

(5) GW

Cu greater than 6 Cc between than 1 a nd 3

(6) SP

Poorl y graded gravels Silt y Sands

Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW Atterberg limits below Aline or I p less than 4 Atterberg limits below Aline or I p less than 7 Atterbergs Limits plotting above A-line with Ip between 4 and 7 are border line cases requiring use of double s ymbol SM -SC

Sands with appreciable amount of fines (Fines more than 12%)

(7) SM

(8) SC

Clayey gravels

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(Continued) Divisio n
(2) Fine grained soils (more than 50% pass 75 IS Sieve)

Subdivision

Group Symbols

Typical names

Laboratory Criteria (see Fig 5.6)

Atterberg limits plotting above A line with Ip between 4 to 7 (hatched zone) MLCL

Remarks
(1) Organic and inorganic soils plotted in the same zone in plasticit y chart are distinguished by odour and colour or liquid li mit test after oven-dryi ng. A reduction in liquid limit after oven-drying to a value less than threefourth of the liquid limit before oven -drying is positive identification of organic soils. (2) Black cotton soils of India lie along a band partl y above the A-line and partl y below the A line

Low(1) GW compressibili ty (L) (Liquid Limit (2) CL less than 35%)

Inorganic silts Atterberg limits with none to low plot below A plasticit y line or Ip less than 7 Inorganic clays of Atterberg limits low plasticit y plot below A line or Ip less than 7 Organic silts low plasticit y of Atterberg limits plot below A line

(3) OL

Intermediate (4) MI compressibili ty (I) (Liquid limit (5) C I greater than 35 but less than 50% (6) OI

Inorganic silts of Atterberg limits medium plasticit y plot below A line Inorganic clays of Atterberg limits medium plasticit y plot above Aline Organic silts of Atterberg limits medium plasticit y plot below A line

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(Continued) Divisio n Subdivision Group Symbols Typical names Laboratory Criteria (see Fig 5.6) Remarks

High (7) MH compressibi lit y (H) (Liquid (8) CH limit greater than 50%) (9) OH

Inorganic silts of high compressibilit y Inorganic clays of high plasticit y Organic medium plasticit y clays to of high

Atterberg limits plot below A-line See plasticit y chart (Fig. Atterberg limits plo t below 56) A-line Atterberg limits plot below A-line

(3) Highl y organic soil

PT

Readil y identified by Peat and other highl y colour, odour, spongy feel organic soils and fibrous texture

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E2-E3/Civil 6.0 Bearing Capacity

Rev date: 01-04-2011

Definitions 1. Footing: - A footing is a portion of the foundation of a structure that transmits loads directly to the soil. 2. Foundation: - A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with and transmits loads to the ground. Foundation soil: - It is the upper part of the earth mass carrying the load of the structure. Bearing capacity: - The supporting power of a soil or rock is referred to as its bearing capacity. The term bearing capacity is defined after attaching certain qualifying prefixes, as defined below. Gross pressure intensity (q):- The gross pressure intensity q is the total pressure at the base of the footing due to the weight of the superstructure, self weight of the footing and the weight of the earth fill, if any. Net pressure intensity (qn) :- It is defined as the excess pressure, or the difference in intensities of the gross pressure after the construction of the structure and the original overburden pressure. Thus, if D is the depth of footing qn = q D where is the average unit weight of soil above the foundation base. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu):-The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the minimum gross pressure intensity at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu):- It is the net increase in pressure at the base of foundation that causes shear failure of soil. qnu = qu D Net safe bearing capacity (qns) :-The net safe bearing capacity is the net ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factory of safety F. qns = qnf F 10. Gross Safe bearing capacity (qs) :-The maximum pressure which the soil can carrying safely without risk of shear failure is called the safe bearing capacity. It is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus original overburden pressure. qs = qns + D.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

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11.

Allowable bearing capacity or pressure. (qna) :- It is the net loading intensity at which neither the soil fails in shear not there is excessive settlement detrimental to the structure. Failures in Soil 1. General Shear Failure: - An analysis of the condition of complete bearing capacity failure, usually termed general shear failure, can be made by assuming that the soil behaves like an ideally plastic material. In such a failure, the soil properties are assumed to be such that a slight downward movement of footing develops fully plastic zones and the soil bulges out. 2. Local Shear Failure:-In the case of fairly soft or loose and compressible soil, large deformation may occur below the footing before the failure zones are fully developed. Such a failure is called a local shear failure.

I.S. Code Method for Computing Bearing Capacity: General IS Code (IS: 6403 1981) recognizes, depending upon the deformations associated with the load and the extent of development of failure, three types of failure of soil support beneath the foundations, they are (a) General Shear Failure; (b) Local Shear Failure; and (c) Punching Shear Failure, occurs on soils of high compressibility. In such a failure, there is vertical shear around the footing, perimeter and compression of soil immediately under the footing, with soil on the sides of the footing remaining practically uninvolved. 2. Bearing capacity equation for strip footing for c- soils The ultimate net bearing capacity of strip footing is given by the following equations: i) For the case of General shear failure: qnu = cNc + D (Nq 1) + 0.5 B N ---------------(1) ii) For the case of local shear failure: qnu = 2/3 cNc + D (Nq 1) + 0.5 B N ------------(2)

For obtaining Nc, Nq , N bearing capacity facotors corresponding to local shear failure, calculate(m) = tan-1 (0.67 ) and read Nc, Nq , N for general shear failure as given in table 4.0 below.

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E2-E3/Civil Table 4.0 Bearing Capacity Factors (Is : 6403 1981) Degree 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Nc 5.14 6.49 8.35 10.98 14.83 20.72 30.14 46.12 75.31 138.88 266.89 Nq 1.0 1.57 2.47 3.94 6.40 10.66 18.40 33.30 64.20 134.88 319.07 Nr 0.0 0.45 1.22 2.65 5.39 10.88 22.40 48.03 109.41 271.76 762.89

Rev date: 01-04-2011

3.Shape factor, depth factor and inclination factor The above bearing capacity equations, applicable for strip footing, shall be modified to take into account, the shape of the footing, inclination of loading, depth of embedment and effect of water table. The modified bearing capacity formulate are given below : i) For general shear failure qnu = cNc Sc dc ic + D (Nq-1) Sq dq iq +1/2 B N S d i w -------(1) ii) For local shear failure qnu = 2/3 cNc Sc dc ic + D(Nq-1) Sq dq iq +1/2 B N S d i w---(2) The depth factors are given as under ; dc =1+ 0.2 (D/B ) N 1/2 where N = tan2 (45+ /2) 0 dq = d =1 for <10 and 1/2 dq = d =1 + 0.1 (D/B) N for > 100

Shape 1.Continous strip 2. Rectangle 3. Square 4. Circle Sc 1.0 (1+ 0.2 B/L) 1.3 1.3

Shape factors Sq 1.0 (1+0.2 B/L) 1.2 1.2

S 1.0 (1-0.4 B/L) 0.8 0.6

The depth factors are to be applied only when the back filling is done with proper compaction. The inclination factors are given as under ic = iq =(1- /90)2 and i = (1- / )2 Where = inclination of the load to the vertical, in degrees.

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E2-E3/Civil 4.

Rev date: 01-04-2011 Effect of water table The effect of water table is taken into account in the form of a correction factor w. The value of w may be chosen as indicated below. a) w=1.0 If the water table is likely to permanently remain at or below at a depth of (D+B) beneath the ground level surrounding the footing below. b) W=0.5 If the water table is located at a depth D or likely to rise to the base of footing or above, If the water table is likely to permanently get located at depth Dw below the G.L. such that D<Dw<(D+B), then w be obtained by linear Interpolation.

It may be noted that if the water table rises above th e base of footing, w will remain at its minimum value of 0.5. 5. Bearing capacity of Cohesion less soils (c=0) For cohesion less soils having c=0, Indian Standard Code recommends that the bearing capacity be calculated (a) based on relative density or (b) based on standard penetration resistance value, and (c) based on static cone penetration test. (a) Based on relative density In this method, bearing capacity may be calculated by Equations 1& 2 together with relevant shear strength parameter. In these formulate, c is taken equal to zero. (b) Based on standard penetration resistance value. The standard penetration resistance is determined at a number of selected points at intervals of 75 cm in the vertical direction or at change of strata and the average value beneath each point is determined between the level of base of the footing and the depth equal to 1.5 to 2 times the width of foundation. In computing the value any individual value more than 50 percent of the average calculated shall be neglected and average recalculated (the value for all loose seams shall however be included). Knowing the value of N, the value of () is read from Fig. given in the IS Code. The ultimate net bearing capacit y is then calculated from the formula. Where the s hape factors, depth factors and inclination factors are determined as described earlier, and the bearing capacit y factors Nq and N are available. (c) Based on Static cone penetration test. The static cone point resistance qc is determined as per IS :4968 (Part III) 1976 at a number of selected points at intervals of 10 to 15 cm. the observed values are corrected for the dead weight of sounding rods. Then the average value at each one of the location is determined between the level of the base of the footing and the depth equal to 1.5 to 2 times the width of footing. The average of static cone point resistance
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value is determined for each one of the location and the minimum of the average value is used in the design. The net ultimate bearing capacit y of s hallow strip footing on cohesion less soil deposit is then determined from Fig. given in the IS Code. 6. Bearing Capacity of Cohesive Soils ( = 0) The net ultimate bearing capacit y immediatel y after construction on fairl y saturated homogenous cohesive soils can be calculated from the expression. q n u = c Nc Sc dc i c Where Nc = 5.14 (for =0) The value of c is obtained from unconfined compressive strength test. Alternativel y, cohesion c may be determined from the static cone point resistance. 7.0 Planning for Soil Investigation Soil investigation must conform to the provisions in I.S. 1892 1979. The scope of investigation is indicated in para 2.1 and 2.2 of this code. Engineering properties of soil depend on the soil structure, i.e. nature of soil grains and their arrangement, volume of air and water (degree of saturation and porosit y). Since these vary from one location to another, the program of soil investigation needs to be evolved for each project. It should provide for adequate data and make appropriate recommendation supported by proper calculations in respect of the following: 1. The t ype of foundation. 2. Allowable bearing capacit y for the foundation. 3. Total and differential settlements. 4. Highest groundwater level ever reached. 5. Anticipated construction problems and suggested solution (sheep piling, dewatering, boulders/rock excavation, differential, settlements, damage to adjacent property, environment etc.) A copy of the surveyed site plan and layout plan of buildings indicating the type and sizes of the buildings are required. It is essential that the location of bore holes together with the reduced levels are marked on the site plan. To determine the nature and extent of detailed soil investigation, a preliminary investigation is necessar y as stipulated in para 3.1.1 of
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I.S. 1892 - 1979. Knowing the t ype of superstructure, the first step is to inspect the site and its neighborhood and collect the information about the soil profile, t ype of foundation generall y adopted and to guess the presumptive allowable bearing pressure for the soil. This is done through reconnaissance and simple visual/manual tests. If soil investigation details are not available for nearby sites, a test pit or a bore hold may be dug to examine the soil at foundation level. Knowledge of regional soil deposits corresponding to the localit y, prevalent practices of subsoil investigation and foundation design greatl y facilitate drawing up an appropriate program of soil investigation. Major regional soil deposits of Indi a are - Alluvial soils, Black cotton soils, Laterities, Desert soils and Sub marine soils (Reference may be made to Indian contributions to Geotechnical Engineering published by Indian Geotechnical societ y for sources of information of the Regional deposit s). 1. Detailed soil investigation Degrees of applicability of various field and laboratory tests are indicated in Tables 1 and 2. The situations in which each test is applicable and the limitations of such tests are discussed in the following paragraphs. In arriving at the allowable bearing pressure on foundations, both the ultimate bearing capacit y (based on shear strength and the permissible settlement are taken into account. Normall y settlement governs the design but for narrow strip foundations on soft at shallow depths, bearing capacit y based on shear failure may govern. 1.1 a) Characteristics of soil in foundation Cohesion less soils and soils with cohesion and angle of internal friction ( c - soils ) Sand and silt are cohesion less soils. Silt with even 5 to 8 percent of clay has significant cohesion. Shear strength, s of soil is developed due to resistance to rolling, sliding and deformation of soil particles/skeletal structure. Cohesion, c is due to inter particle attraction due to p resence of clay and the angle of internal friction is essentiall y due to resistance to inter particle slip of coarser grains like silt and sand. Shear strengths is given by s = c + tan Where is normal stress on the shear plane.

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Since water has no shear strength, the entire shear strength is due to inter-granular pressure which is affected by the excess pore water pressure developed in cla yey soils. The parameters c and corresponding to maximum shear strength are determined by considering effective pressures which are equal to total pressure minus pore water pressure. These are determined by consolidated drained test for cohesion le ss soils (and for c - soils if insitu drainage occurs as the load is applied). During testing, the excess pore water pressure is dissipated completel y through a slow process of consolidation and an equall y slow process of shear. The time required for gradual increment of load upto shear failure is determined as per appendix A of I.S. 2720 (part 13) 1986. soil in situ exists, generall y, in a consolidated state ( 3 ). As construction proceeds, additional loads come on to the soil. If the permeabilit y o f the soil is low, which can occur if the fine grained soil contains more than 15 percent clay and is classified as clay with intermediate or high compressibilit y, the excess pore water pressures developed in the claye y soil can not dissipate as fast as t he rate of application of load. Hence for clayey soils with appreciable clay content ( say more than 15 percent), the soil parameters C and are determined from consolidated un -drained test in which the soil is consolidated slowly but sheared quickly. If the clay content is high ( say more than 30 percent) or very low ( say less than 15 percent), the tests are performed by Box shear as per I.S. 2720 (Part 13) 1986. The results are representative of field conditions under plane shear onl y (which is 15 to 20 percent higher than for tri-axial shear). For semi pervious cohesive soils, the consolidated un-drained Test is performed by Tri -axial Test (as per I.S. 2720 ( part II ) since the inevitable (though small) drainage of the soil during shearing in Box Shear Test introduces an element of error. Shear strength of stiff intact clays such as boulder clays, clayey silts are better determined by drained tests since the soils are generall y over consolidated. Saturation reduces the shear st rength and long term time dependant consolidation of clay takes place during testing , onl y if the soil is saturated. It is thus necessary to determine shear strength of the soil in saturated condition if the soil in situ is likel y to be saturated due to rising of the ground water table. Hence it is essential to ascertain the highest ground water level ever reached. Due to the capacit y of clay to absorb water by capillary action and the very large variation in shear strength of unsaturated clayey soils wit h moisture content, results of Box Shear Test cannot reliabl y represent in situ shear strength of unsaturated clay. Even while considering the results of consolidated un-drained Tri -axial Test or in situ test on unsaturated soils, the
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effect of variation of insitu shear strength due to possible change in moisture content due to rain or rise in water table needs to be considered. Satisfactory undisturbed samples of cohesion less soils are difficult to obtain from bore holes. Soil obtained fro m the split spoon sampler from standard penetration test may possess large shear strains due to disturbance. Hence shear tests in the laboratory on cohesion less soils do not represent the true site condition. The most common field test is the standard penetration test (Ref. I.S. 2131 1981). This test, if carefull y executed, in soil undisturbed by boring operations, enables to estimate satisfactorily the bearing capacit y as per I.S. 6403 - 1981 and allowable bearing pressure on settlement con sideration as per I.S. 8009 (Part 1) 1976. By using the same equipment and with the same driller, N values in the same soil can be reproduced with a coefficient of variation of about 10 percent. Use of defective equipments such as a damaged anvi l, worn out driving shoe, old/oil y/poorl y lubricated rope sheaves etc. can result in significantl y erroneous N values. Pushing a boulder while driving the sampler, rapid withdrawal of sugar or bit plug causing a quick condition at the bottom of the bore hole by too much difference in the water levels between the ground water table and in the hole are other sources of error. The original standard penetration Test was developed for sand. However, at present it is commonl y used for all t ypes of soils. Alluvial silt deposits are mixtures of medium dense fine sand and silt with a small percent of clay. In some cases, layers of stiff soil are encountered at depth of 6 to 10 meters. Delhi silt has about 20 35% sand, 50-65% silt and upto 15 pe rcent clay. b) Cohesive soils

Due to very low permeability, highly cohesive soils in their natural state posses shear strength due to cohesion only and are prone to time dependant settlement. Particles of clay being very small in diameter (less than 0.002 mm), grain size analysis of the soil fraction passing 75 micron is determined as per I.S. 2720 (Part IV) 1985. Except when the soil is non plastic (indicated by the inability to perform the test to determine plastic limit), it is essential to determine the percentage of clay and silt separately. Natural clay deposits may contain upto 70% or even more of material belonging to sand and silt grades. Such clayey soils, when saturated, behaves as if they are purely cohesive under normal loading conditions from the building. Silt with even 25% clay behaves as clay. Apparent angle of internal friction is low in the un-drained condition since no water is expelled from the soil initially when the load is
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applied. This is the accepted basis for calculating ultimate bearing capacity of saturated clays. Only in the case of very slow rate of loading, or with very silty soils, drained condition persists during loading, producing increase in effective pressure on soil due to decrease in pore water pressure. Consequently shear strength is increased due to increase in the angle of internal friction from apparent to true value. In most cases, allowable bearing pressure is dependant on permissible total settlement but in every case the foundation is checke d against shear failure. Tri -axial tests on undisturbed samples in the laboratory, in situ vane shear test to determine the shear strength and static cone test for bearing capacit y of predominantly cohesive soils are reliable. Shear strength of soft sensitive clays are measured by in -situ vane shear test as per I.S. 4434 1978 since laboratory tests on disturbed samples of such soils are not reliable. In cohesive soils, apart from static tests, in situ compressive strength tests are routinel y made using a Pen/Pocket pentro -meter. It is usual practice to take thin walled tube samples for laboratory testing and compare the field and laboratory test results. Alluvial clay deposits consist and clay deposited in river valleys and estuaries (on the bed of the sea). They are normall y consolidated. Stiff surface crust is due to exposure to the effects of weather and vegetation. Load bearing structures with very shallow and narrow foundation in the surface crust are constructed which do not tra nsmit stresses to the underl ying soft and highl y compressible deposits. In the case of wide or deep foundations, it is necessary to adopt low bearing pressures or use a raft or piles. Alluvial clays, especiall y marine clays, are sensitive to dis turbance. If they are disturbed in sampling or in construction operations (such as in piling) they show a marked loss in shear strength. 1.2 Anticipated problems in construction due to soils characteristics. In sandy/alluvial soils, if ground water table is lowered, ground subsidence in the area surrounding the construction site may occur due to consolidation of underl ying clayey layers. In such a case, it may be necessary to provide a water retaining barrier around the site if structures exists adjacent to the excavation (since pumping to dewater may produce 30 to 50 mm settlement within a short period of time). When pore water in the soil is just enough to moisten sand but not saturate it , the surface tension makes it possible to pr ovide shallow excavations with near vertical sides. With continued drainage and evaporation or vibration, the sides collapse. Near vertical excavation
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in a cohesive soil may collapse due to rainfall softening the clay and creating excess pore water pre ssure. Excavation in sands below the water table may result in a slumping of the sides and boiling of the bottom, unless a properl y designed ground water lowering system is adopted. If excavation goes below the firm surface crust of alluvial clay, support by timbering or sheet pilling is and stiffened trenches are prone to failure by heaving of the bottom and bulging of the side supports. 1.3 Programme of detailed soil investigation In planning the Programme, full advantages should be taken of available information from preliminary investigation, geo technical consultants data base and soil Investigation reports for the nearb y sites and their correlation with actual performance of buildings and load tests on piles. If rock is encountere d in a bore hole, boring must extend at least 2 meters to differentiate a boulder from bed rock. If rock is encountered in different bore holes near about the proposed foundation level, adequate number of bore holes are required to plot the rock contour. On the basis of preliminary borings or prior site knowledge, details of in situ tests and laboratory tests are worked out keeping in view the limitation of each. Current methods of subsoil exploration are outlined in Appendix A of IS 1892 1979 and the tests generall y required are indicated in Table 3 and Appendix A of this Code of Practice. A.S.T.M. suggests that when more than 15% of gravel or sand is present in any t ype of soil, the description should include with. For fine grained soils (with more than 50% passing 75 micron sieve ) with sand or gravel is written for percentages between 15 and 29 and gravell y of sandy for larger percentages. Sands or gravels may be classified by the standard penetration tests into broad groups as follows: No of S.P.T. blows N Loose Less than 10 Medium Dense 10 to 30 Dense ( or compact) More than 30 Based on un-drained shear strength, clayey soils may be classified as follows
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E2-E3/Civil Soft Medium Stiff

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After establishing correlation on the basis of other reliable tests, standard penetration test results have been in use for many years for relative densit y, angle of internal friction, un-drained compressive strength, settlement and modules of sub grade reaction. Some of these are of questionable value unless corroborated by adequate calibration data for the locality since many were originall y proposed without extensive study of the large number of variables affecting the N values. A. Tests required for classification of soils 1) Classification as per IS 1498 1970 based on particle size anal ysis as per IS 2720 (Part 4) 1985 and index properties of the soil as per IS 27 20 (part 5) 1985. On the basis of index properties, if the soil is classified as clay of intermediate or high compressibilit y, It is necessary to determine the clay and silt percentages separatel y. Hence in addition to sieving, pipette or hydrometer test is necessary to determine the percentage of clay. 2) In assessing the engineering behavior of a cohesive soil, it is necessary to determine in situ water content in addition to liquid limit and plastic limit of re -moulded soil. B. Tests required to determine safe bearing capacity of shallow foundations ( including raft)as per I.S. 6403 1981. Apart from ascertaining the highest level ever reached by the ground water table and tests for classification of soil as per I.S. 14981970 based on grain size analysis as per I.S. 2720 (part iv) 1985 index properties of the soil as per IS 2720 (Part 5) 1985, the following tests are required to determine safe bearing capacity based on shear strength consideration: 1) Standard penetration test as per I.S. 2131 1981 for coarse grained /fine grained cohesion less soils and semi pervious clayey soils (i.e. c soils with clay upto about 30 percent). 2) Direct shear (controlled strain) test as per I.S. 2720 (Part 13) 1986. Consolidated un-drained test for cohesive and for C soils and consolidated drained test for cohesion less soils. The results may be compared with standard penetration test/static cone penetration test results. Since there is escape of pore water during box shear, partial

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Rev date: 01-04-2011 drainage vitiates the consolidated un-drained test. Hence this test is not exact for semi pervious soils such as clayey sands/silts (i.e. with clay more than 15% but less than 30%). For such soils , Tri-axial Tests are required if shear strength is the critical criterion. 3) Static cone penetration test as per I.S. 4968 (part 3) 1976 for foundations on non stiff clayey soils such as fine grained soils (i.e. more than 50% passing 75 micron sieve). In fine and medium coarse sands such tests are done for correlation with S.P.T. and to indicate soil profiles at intermediate points. 4) Unconfined compressive strength test as per I.S. 2720 (part 10) 1973 for highly cohesive clays except soft/sensitive clays. 5) Vane shear test for impervious clayey soils except stiff or fissured clays. 6) Tri-axial shear tests for predominantly cohesive soils. If shear strength is likely to be critical.

C. Tests required to determine allowable bearing pressure for shallow foundations on settlement consideration. 1) Standard penetration test as per I.S. 2131 1981 for cohesion less soils and semi pervious clayey soils (i.e. c soils with clay upto about 30 percent) 2) Consolidation test as per I.S. 2720 (part 15) if the settlement of clayey layer/layers calculated on the basis of liquid limit and in-situ void ratio indicates that settlement may be critical. Consolidation test is not required if the superimposed load on foundation soil is likely to be less than preconsolidation pressure (assessed from Liquidity Index and sensitivity or from unconfined compressive strength and plasticity index). 3) Plate load test as per I.S. 1888 1982 for cohesion less soils and c soils where neither standard penetration test now consolidation test is appropriate such as for fissured clay/rock, clay with boulders etc. D. Test specially required for raft foundations (Refer para 3 of I.S. 2950 (Part I ) 1981. Apart from other tests for shallow foundations, the following tests are required especially for raft foundation : 1) Static cone penetration test as per I.S. 4968 (part 3) 1976 for cohesion less soil to determine modulus of elasticity as per I.S. 1888 1982. 2) Standard penetration test as per I.S. 2131 1981 for cohesion less soils and c soils to determine modulus of sub grade reaction. 3) Unconfined compressive strength test as per I.S. 2720 (part 10) 1973 for saturated but no pre-consolidated cohesive soil to determine modulus of sub grade reaction. 4) As specified in I.S. 2950 (part I) 1981, plate load test as per I.S. 1888 1982 where tests at sl. 1 to 3 above are not appropriate such as for fissured clays/ clays boulders.
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Rev date: 01-04-2011 5) In case of deep basements in pervious soils, permeability is determined from pumping test. This is required to analyze stability of deep excavation and to design appropriate dewatering system.

E. 1)

Tests specially required for deep foundations While the composition and depth of the bearing layer for shallow foundations may vary from one site to another, most pile foundations in a locality encounter similar deposits. Since pile capacity based on soil parameters is not as reliable as from load tests, as a first step it is essential to obtain full information on the type, size, length and capacity of piles (including details of load settlement graph ) generally adopted in the locality. Correlation of soil characteristics ( from soil investigation reports) and corresponding load tests (from actual projects constructed) is essential to decide the type of soil tests to be performed and to make a reasonable recommendation for the type, size length and capacity of piles since most formulae are empirical. If information about piles in the locality are not available or reliable, it may be necessary to drive a test pile and correlate with soil data. Standard penetration test to determine the cohesion (and consequently the adhesion based on or methods) to determine the angle of friction ( and consequently the angle of friction & between soil and the pile and also the point resistance) for each soil stratum of cohesion less soil or c- soil. Static cone penetration test to determine the cohesion ( and consequently the adhesion based on or methods ) for soft cohesive soils and to check with S.P.T. result for fine to medium sands. Hence for strata encountering both cohesive and cohesion less soils, both S.P.T. and C.P.T. are required. Vane shear test for impervious clayey soils. Un-drained Tri-axial shear strength of undisturbed soil samples (obtained with thin walled tube samplers) to determine c and for clayey soils (since graphs for correlations were developed based on un-drained shear parameter). In case of driven piles proposed for stiff clays, it is necessary to check with the c and from remoulded samples also. Drained shear strength parameters are also determined to represent in situ condition of soil at end of construction phase. Self boring pressure meter test to determine modulus of sub grade reaction for horizontal deflection for granular soils, very stiff cohesive soils, soft rock and weathered or jointed rock. Ground water conditions and permeability of soil influence the choice of pile type to be recommended. Hence the level at which water in the bore hole and the level at which water in the bore hole remains are noted in the bore logs. Since permeability of clay is very low, It takes several days for water in the drill hole to rise upto the ground water table. Ground water samples need to be tested to consider the possible chemical effects on
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2) 3)

4)

5) 6)

7)

8)

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Rev date: 01-04-2011 concrete and the reinforcement. Result of the cone penetration test for the same soil show substantial scatter. Hence, they need to be checked with supplementary information from other exploration methods. Pressure meters are used to estimate the in situ modulus of elasticity for soil in lateral direction. Unless the soil is isotropic, the same value cannot be adopted for the vertical direction. A list of tests required for soil investigation is given in Table 3.

2)

Recommendation in the soil investigation Reports: Due to the difficulty in assessing the contact pressure on the foundation soil by individual columns/wall. And variation in soil properties, it is common practice to provide an adequate factor of safety while making recommendation for the foundation based on results of soil investigation. However, we may have a problem if the investigating firm recommends, say, a special type of foundation with a safe bearing pressure of 8 tones per sq. meter and it turns out that the safe bearing pressure is 12 tones per sq. meter which would permit spread footings resulting in substantial economy. Similarly, suggestion of a pile foundation without considering other economic types of foundation is inappropriate. Hence, it is necessary to examine the report to ensure that the recommendations flow from the data which have been correctly interpreted.

2.1 Bearing capacity For shallow foundation, the current practice is to use an average N value in the zone affecting soil behavior. For a spread footings, the effective zone extends to a depth equal to twice the width below the footing. For a square footing, the effective zone extends to a depth equal to one and a half times the width (if the effective zones of adjacent footings do not overlap). Weighted average is used. For piles, average N for each stratum is used. It is undesirable to place a footings on soil with a relative density less than 0.5 in such cases, the soil should be compacted by drainage and / or preloading prior to placing footings on it. The effect of ground water table on settlement is considered as per I.S. 8009 (Part 1) 1976 and I.S. 6403 1981. Recent geo technical studies indicate that prediction of consolidation settlements are satisfactory when compared with actual measurements. The predictions are better for inorganic insensitive clays than for others. The predictions require great care if e Vs log p curve is curved throughout or the clay is very sensitive. Much care is also required if the clay is highly organic as the creep component of settlement is substantial.
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If required, settlements can be computed for various point such as corner, centre or beneath lightest or the heaviest parts of a building. Differential settlement can be computed as the difference between the settlements of columns with maximum and minimum settlement. Alternatively, it may be estimated at 3/4th of the computed maximum total settlement for spread footings for columns /walls. Limiting the total settlement and the differential settlement to that permissible as per I.S. 1904 1986, the allowable bearing pressure on the foundation soil is recommend for various sizes of footings, based on equal settlement consideration. If after applying the empirical rules, or computing settlements of the structure at various points based on the assumption of a flexible foundation, it is shown that the total and differential settlements exceed safe limits for spread/ strip footings and the structure itself does not have sufficient rigidity (i.e. unlike a well tied building with adequate cross walls and reinforced concrete bands at intermediate levels) to prevent excessive differential movement with ordinary spread foundations, provision of a rigid raft foundations either with a thick slab or with deep beams in both directions may be considered. If a tall building with basement is founded on clay, the base of the excavation will initially heave to a convex shape. As superstructure is constructed floor by floor, the soil will be consolidated and the bottom will finally deform to a concave (bowl) shape. The critical factor for framed buildings is the relative rotation (or angular distortion) whereas the ratio of deflection to length is critical in load bearing walls which fall by sagging or hogging of the centre length of the wall. In view of excessive cost of a raft foundation, adequate soil investigation must be done and the report should clearly bring out by proper analysis of results that it is not possible to provide spread footings including combined footings. In some cases of alluvial deposits, there may be a variation in characteristics of soil deposit beneath a large raft. A stiff crust of variable thickness and extent. Precautions may be indicated to avoid the lateral yield of soil if loose sand is encountered beneath the edges of raft at depths less than 2.5 to 3.0 meters below the ground level.

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Rev date: 01-04-2011 The immediate settlement calculated on the basis of theory of elasticity is strictly applicable to flexible bases only and is used to determine the contact pressure distribution under the raft. In practice most foundations are intermediate between rigid and flexible. Even very thick ones deflect when loaded by the superstructure. If the base is rigid, the settlement is uniform (but raft may tilt) and the settlement is about 7% less. In the equation for settlement, the weighted average of the modulus elasticity is adopted in place of a single value for the entire depth below foundation. If N values are used to calculate the modulus of elasticity, which generally increases with depth, weighted average of the modulus is calculated and used in computing immediate settlement.

3. Shear strength In some cases, consolidated Drained Test on cohesion less soils (i.e. soils containing less than 5 percent clay) may give a small value of cohesion, of the order of 0.10 to 0.15 kg/cm2. This is attributed to test inaccuracy and surface tension. Hence this small value of c being unreliable, is neglected in analyzing field conditions (such as stability of slope etc.). Generally, deep cuts in clayey soils are designed for short term stability based on total stress analysis in consolidated un-drained condition. These are analyzed for long term stability if the cut slope is to exist even when consolidated drained conditions may occur. 4.0 Pile Foundation A pile foundation is recommended only when a raft foundation cannot be recommended due to excessive settlement (which must be calculated from consolidation test) when the shallow foundation is on a loose filled up soil or is under lain by a highly compressible soil stratum. The base level of the piles is determined considering the end resistance of the stratum and settlement behavior of the soil under the pile groups. A slip of 5 to 10 mm of the soil is enough to develop full skin resistance along the pile whereas a displacement of the order of 10 percent of diameter of pile tip is necessary to mobilize full end bearing resistance. Driven piles compact loose and medium dense cohesion less soils and hence are preferable. For such piles, pile driving formulate are more reliable for cohesion less soils than for cohesive soils. Large surface cracks are formed by driven piles in stiff clay. Hence the skin resistance may be neglected upto about 1.8 meters at top. Capacity of driven cast in-situ concrete piles is determined as per Appendix A of I.S. 2911 (part 1/Sec 1) 1979.

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Rev date: 01-04-2011 Capacity of bored piles is more dependent on the construction technique than for driven piles. Soil is loosened as a result of boring operations. Shaft friction values for bored piles in sands may be only half of that for driven piles. This ratio is about one third for end bearing resistance. If concrete is placed ( but not mechanically compacted ) while withdrawing the shell tube, the surrounding cohesion less soil may be considered to be in loose condition. Capacity of bored cast in situ concrete piles is determined as per Appendix B of I.S. 2911 (part 1/Sec 2) 1979. If piles encounter shrinkable clays near the ground, due allowable may be made for loss of frictional resistance and also for uplift due to swelling. In stiff fissured clays, bored cast in situ piles or low. Displacement driven piles are usuall y recommended. Dense silts cause high penetration resistance for driven piles but the capacit y of the pile remains low due to disturbance of the soil during driving. Normall y consolidated clays cause down drag on bored cas t in situ piles due to consolidated on account of drainage occurring as a result of boring. Point resistance and skin friction of pile in sand increases as the length of the pile increases upto the critical depth equal to 10 times the pile dia meter for loose sand and 20 times for dense sand, Beyond this length, the values remain constant. Point resistance driven through increases with maximum value the pile. of piles longer than 15 to 20 times the diameter, weak strata into thick firm sand deposit depth of embed ment in this stratum upto a corresponding to 8 to 12 times the diameter of

Except for bored piles in sand capacity of a group of piles equals the sum of the capacities of individual piles in the group. In case of bored piles in sand, the capacit y is about two thirds the sum of capacit y. Check is necessary for failure of the pile group as a single block. Pile capacit y may be calculated by several appropriate methods so as to establish upper and lower bound values. Errors ar e ver y high when results from one t ype of soil deposit in one locality or valid for one year of pile are extrapolated to derive the value for

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Rev date: 01-04-2011 different deposits in another localit y or another t ype of pile involving a different construction technique. With a view to limit the number of piles in each group to the minimum, the recommendation should indicate the highest possible capacit y of the pile considering the soil parameters, the bore log and the appropriate t ype of pile. 5. Conclusion:

Technical sanction of a project is based on sound engineering practice. It is thus of utmost importance to evolve and acceptable practice for planning of soil investigation and appropriate recommendation for foundation. Every soil investigation report should be examined at an appropriate level before acceptance of the recommendation regarding the type of foundation and the allowable bearing pressure. This is essential in view of the high cost of foundation and that any error in foundation is difficult to rectify or may have disastrous consequence.

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LIST OF VARIOUS FOUNDATION ENGINEERING CODES

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SP 36 : Part 1 : 1987 Compendium of Indian standards on soil engineering: Part 1 Laboratory testing of soils for civil engineering purposes SP 36 : Part 2 : 1988 Compendium of Indian standards on soil engineering: Part 2 Field testing IS 1080 : 1985 Code of practice for design and construction of shallow foundations in soils (other than raft, ring and shell) IS 1498 : 1970 Classification an d identification of soils for general engineering purposes IS 1725 : 1982 Specification for soil based blocks used in general building construction IS 1888 : 1982 Method of Load Test on Soils IS 1892 : 1979 Code of practice for subsurface investigations for foundations IS 1904 : 1986 Code of practice for design and construction of foundations in soils: general requirements IS 2131 : 1981 Method for Standard Penetration Test for Soils IS 2132 : 1986 Code of practice for thin walled tube sampling of soi ls IS 2720 : Part 2 : 1973 Methods of test for soils: Part 2 Determination of water content IS 2720 : Part 3 : Sec 1 : 1980 Methods of test for soils: Part 3 Determination of specific gravit y Section 1 fine grained soils IS 2720 : Part 1 : 1983 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 1 : Preparation of Dry Soil Samples for Various Tests IS 2720 : Part III : Sec 2 : 1980 Test for Soils - Part III : Determination of Specific Gravit y - Section 2 : Fine, Medium and Coarse Grained Soils IS 2720 : Part 4 : 1985 Met hods of Test for Soils - Part 4 : Grain Size Anal ysis IS 2720 : Part 5 : 1985 Method of Test for Soils - Part 5 : Determination of Liquid and Plastic Limit IS 2720 : Part 6 : 1972 Methods of test for soils: Part 6 Determination of shrinkage factors IS 2720 : Part 9 : 1992 Methods of test for soils: Part 9 Determination of dry densit y - moisture content relation by constant weight of soil method IS 2720 : Part 10 : 1991 Methods of test for soils: Part 10 Determination of unconfined compressive strength IS 2720 : Part 11 : 1993 Methods of test for soils: Part 11 Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of a specimen tested in inconsolidated, indrained triaxial compression without the measurement of pore water pressure

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IS 2720 : Part 12 : 1981 Method s of test for soils: Part 12 Determination of shear strength parameters of soil from consolidated undrained triaxial compression test with measurement of pore water pressure IS 2720 : Part 13 : 1986 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 13 : Direct Shear Test IS 2720 : Part 14 : 1983 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 14 : Determination of Densit y Index (Relative Densit y) of Cohesionless Soils IS 2720 : Part XV : 1965 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XV : Determination of Consolidation Properties IS 2720 : Par t VII : 1980 Methods of Test for Soils - Part VII : Determination of Water Content -Dry Densit y Relation Using Light Compaction IS 2720 : Part 8 : 1983 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 8 : Determination of Water Content -Dry Density Relation Using Heavy Compaction IS 2720 : Part 20 : 1992 Methods of test for soils: Part 20 Determination of linear shrinkage IS 2720 : Part 22 : 1972 Methods of test for soils: Part 22 Determination of organic matter IS 2720 : Part 23 : 1976 Methods of test for soils: Part 23 Determination of calcium carbonate IS 2720 : Part 25 : 1982 Methods of test for soils: Part 25 Determination silica sesquioxide ratio IS 2720 : Part 16 : 1987 Methods of Test for Soil - Part 16 : Laboratory Determination of CBR IS 2720 : Part 17 : 1986 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 17 : Laboratory Determination of Permeabilit y IS 2720 : Part 18 : 1992 Methods of test for Soils - Part 18 : Determination of Field Moisture Equivalent IS 2720 : Part 19 : 1992 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 19 : Determination of Centrifuge Moisture Equivalent IS 2720 : Part XXI : 1977 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XXI : Determination of Total Soluble Solids IS 2720 : Part XXIV : 1976 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XXIV : Determination of Cation Exchange Capacit y IS 2720 : Part 27 : 1977 Methods of test for soils: Part 27 Determination of total soluble sulphates IS 2720 : Part 28 : 1974 Methods of test for soils: Part 28 Determination of dry densit y of soils inplace, by the sand replacement method IS 2720 : Par t 30 : 1980 Methods of test for soils: Part 30 Laboratory vane shear test IS 2720 : Part 33 : 1971 Methods of test for soils: Part 33 Determination of the densit y in place by the ring and water replacement method

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IS 2720 : Part 35 : 1974 Methods of test for soils: Part 35 Measurement of negative pore water pressure IS 2720 : Part 26 : 1987 Method of Test for Soils - Part 26 : Determination of pH Value IS 2720 : Part XXIX : 1975 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XXIX : Determination of Dry Densit y of Soil s In-place by the Core-cutter Method IS 2720 : Part 31 : 1990 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 31 : Field Determination of California Bearing Ratio IS 2720 : Part XXXIV : 1972 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XXXIV : Determination of Densit y of Soil In -place by Rubber-balloon Method IS 2720 : Part 36 : 1987 Methods of test for soils: Part 36 Laboratory determination of permeabilit y of granular soils (constant head) IS 2720 : Part 37 : 1976 Methods of test for soils: Part 37 Determination of sand equival ent values of soils and fine aggregates IS 2720 : Part 38 : 1976 Methods of test for soils: Part 38 Compaction control test (hilf method) IS 2720 : Part XL : 1977 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XL : Determination of Free Swell Index of Soils IS 2720 : Part XLI : 1977 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XLI : Measurement of Swelling Pressure of Soils IS 2720 : Part XXXIX : Sec 1 : 1977 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XXXIX : Direct Shear Test for Soils Containing Gravel - Section I : Laboratory Test IS 2720 : Part XXXIX : Sec 2 : 1979 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XXXIX : Direct Shear Test for Soils Containing Gravel - Section 2 : In -Situ Shear Test IS 2809 : 1972 Glossary of Terms and S ymbols Relating to Soil Engineering IS 2810 : 1979 Glossary of terms relating to soil dynamics IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 1 : 1979 Code of practice for design and construction of pile foundations: Part 1 Concrete piles, Section 1 Driven cast in -situ concrete piles IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 2 : 1979 Code of practice for des ign and construction of pile foundations: Part 1 Concrete piles, Section 2 Bored cast -in-situ piles IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 3 : 1979 Code of practice for design and construction of pile foundations: Part 1 Concrete piles, Section 3 Driven precast concrete piles

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IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 4 : 1984 Code of practice for design and construction of pile foundations: Part 1 concrete piles, Section 4 Bored precast concrete piles IS 2911 : Part 2 : 1980 Code of practice for desing and construction of pile foundations : Part 2 Timber piles IS 2911 : Part 3 : 1980 Code of practice for design and construction of pile foundations: Part 3 Under reamed piles IS 2911 : Part 4 : 1985 Code of practice for design and construction of pile foundations: Part 4 Load test on piles IS 2950 : Part I : 1981 Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Raft Foundations - Part I : Design IS 2974 : Part 2 : 1980 Code of practice for design and construction of machine foundations: Part 2 Foundations for impact t ype machine (hammer fou ndations) IS 2974 : Part 3 : 1992 Code of practice for design and construction of machine foundations: Part 3 Foundations for rotary t ype machines (Medium and high frequency) IS 2974 : Part 4 : 1979 Code of practice for design and construction of machine foundations: Part 4 Foundations for rotary t ype machines of low frequency IS 2974 : Part 5 : 1987 Code of practice for design and construction of machine:foundations Part 5 Foundations for impact machines other than hammers (forging and stamping press, p ig breakers, drop crusher and jolter) IS 2974 : Part I : 1982 Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine Foundations - Part I : Foundation for Reciprocating Type Machines IS 4091 : 1979 Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Foundat ions for Transmission Line Towers and Poles IS 4332 : Part 1 : 1967 Methods of test for stabilized soils: Part 1 Methods of sampling and preparation of stabilized soils for testing
IS 4332 : Part 3 : 1967 Methods of test for st abilized soils: Part 3 Test for determination of moisture content -dry density relation for stablized soils mixtures IS 4332 : Part 4 : 1968 Methods of test for st abilized soils: Part 4 Wetting and dr ying, fr eezing and thawing tests for compa cted soil -cement mixtures IS 4332 : Part 5 : 1970 Methods of test for st abilizd soils: Part 5 Determination of unconfined compressi ve strength of stablized soils IS 4332 : Part II : 1967 Methods of Test for Stabilized Soils - Part II : Deter mination of Moisture Content of Stabilized Soil Mixtures

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IS 4332 : Part 8 : 1969 Methods of test for st ablized soils: Part 8 Determination of li me content of li me stabli zed soils IS 4332 : Part 10 : 1969 Methods of test for stabilized soils: Part 10 Test for soil/bituminous mixtures IS 4332 : Part V I : 197 2 Methods of Test for Stabilized Soils - Part VI : Flexural Strength of Soil -cement Using Si mple Beam With Third-point Loading IS 4332 : Part V II : 1973 Methods of Test for Stabilized Soils - Part VII : Deter mination of Cement Content of Cement Stabilized Soils IS 4332 : Part IX : 1970 Methods of Test for Stabilized Soils - Part IX : Deter mination of the Bituminous Stabilizer Content of Bitumen and Tar Stabi lized Soils IS 4434 : 1978 Code of practice for in -situ vane shear test for soils IS 4968 : Part 1 : 1976 Method for subsurface sounding for soils: Part 1 Dynamic method using 50 mm cone without betonite slurry IS 4968 : Part 3 : 1976 Method for subsurface sounding for soils: Part 3 Static cone penet ration test IS 4968 : Part II : 1976 Method for Su bsurface Sounding for Soils - Part II : Dynamic Method Using Cone and Bentonite Slurr y IS 5249 : 1992 Method of test for deter mination of dynamic properties of soil IS 6403 : 1981 Code of practice for deter mination of bearing capacity of shallow foundati ons IS 8009 : Part II : 1980 Code of Practice for Calculation of Settlement of Foundations - Part II : Deep Foundat ions Subj ected to Symmetrical Static Vertical Loading IS 8009 : Part I : 1976 Code of Practice for Calculation of Settlements of Foundation s - Part I : Shallow Foundations Subj ected to Symmetrical Static Vertical Loads IS 8763 : 1978 Guide for undistrubed sampling of sands and sandy soils IS 9198 : 1979 Specification for compaction rammer for soil testing IS 9214 : 1979 Method for deter min ation of modulus of sub -grade reaction (k -value) of soils in the field IS 9259 : 1979 Specification for liquid li mit apparatus for soils IS 9456 : 1980 Code of practice for design and construction of conical and hyperbolic paraboloidal types of shell fou ndations

IS 9556 : 1980 Code of practice for design and construction of diaphragm walls IS 9640 : 1980 Specification for split spoon sampler IS 9669 : 1980 Specification for CBR moulds and its accessories

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IS 9716 : 1981 Guide for lateral dynamic load t est on piles IS 9759 : 1981 Guidelines for de -watering during construction IS 10042 : 1981 Code of practice for site -investigations for foundation in gravel boulder deposits IS 10074 : 1982 Specification for compaction mould assembly for light and heavy compaction test for soils IS 10077 : 1982 Specification for equipment for determination of shrinkage factors IS 10108 : 1982 Code of practice for sampling of soils by thin wall sampler with stationery piston IS 10270 : 1982 Guidelines for design and co nstruction of prestressed rock anchors IS 10379 : 1982 Code of practic for field control of moisture and compaction of soils of embankment and subgrade IS 10442 : 1983 Specification for earth augers (spiral t ype) IS 10589 : 1983 Specification for equipm ent for determination of subsurface sounding of soils IS 10837 : 1984 Specification for moulds and accessories for determination of densit y index (relative densit y) of cohesionless soils IS 11089 : 1984 Code of practice for design and construction of rin g foundation IS 11196 : 1985 Specification for equipment for determination of liquid limit of soils cone penetration method IS 11209 : 1985 Specification for mould assembl y for determination of permeability of soils IS 11229 : 1985 Specification for she ar box for testing of soils IS 11233 : 1985 Code of practice for design and construction of radar antenna, microwave and TV tower foundations IS 11550 : 1985 Code of practice for field instrumentation of swelling pressure in expansive soils IS 11593 : 1986 Specification for shear box (large) for testing of soils IS 11594 : 1985 Specification for thin walled sampling tubes and sampler heads IS 11629 : 1986 Code of practice for installation and operation of single point hydraulic over -flow setting gauge IS 12023 : 1987 Code of practice for field monitoring of movement of structures using tape extensometer IS 12175 : 1987 Specification for rapid moisture meter for rapid determination of water content for soil IS 12208 : 1987 Method for measurement of ea rth pressure by hydraulic pressure cell

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IS 12287 : 1988 Specification for consolidometer for determination of consolidation properties IS 12979 : 1990 Specification for mould for determination of linear shrinkage IS 13094 : 1992 Guidelines for selection of ground improvement techniques for foundation in weak soils IS 13301 : 1992 Guidelines for vibration isolation for machine foundations IS 13468 : 1992 Specification for apparatus for determination of dry densit y of soils by core cutter method IS 14893 : 2001 Non -Destructive Integrity Testing of Piles (NDT) Guidelines IS 15284 : Part 1 : 2003 Design and Construction for Ground Improvement - Guidelines - Part 1 : Stone Columns

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Questions
1. Explain Density index of soil? 2. Explain the different divisions in which the soil is broadly divided in Indian standard of soil classification system? 3. Explain in brief sub division of soil on the basis of arbitrarily selected liquid limit of fine grained soils? 4. Define Void ratio, Porosity and Degree of saturation of soil? 5. Explain in brief the different types of failure in soil? 6. Define Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage Limit in Plasticity Characteristics of Soils? 7. List the different Tests which are specially required for deep foundations? 8. Explain the effect of water table on bearing capacity of soil? 9. Define Ultimate bearing capacity and Gross safe bearing capacity of soil? 10. When Pile foundation is recommended?

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