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E N Z Y M E S T A B I L I Z A T I O N BY C R O S S - L I N K I N G
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of a support may decrease both the binding capacity and the reactivity of the enzyme. Also, in medical therapy applied enzyme must in many cases interact with receptors or other components of cellular membranes. In this instance, a support may change the key pathways dramatically. In this chapter, stabilization of enzymes through intramolecular crosslinking will be discussed in detail. The principles of intramolecular crosslinking are shown schematically in Fig. 1. This approach is based on diminishing the polypeptide entropy which is the principal thermody!
@ ...@ - -
IL
SLOW It,
VERY SLOW
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FIG. 1. General scheme of enzyme stabilization effected by intramolecular cross-linking. (A) 1, Native oligomeric enzyme; 2, reversibly dissociated subunits; 3, irreversibly denaturated subunits; 4, cross-linked enzyme; 5, irreversibly denaturated cross-linked enzyme. (B) 1, Native monomeric enzyme; 2, denaturated enzyme; 3, cross-linked enzyme.
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Then, Husain and Lowe l used protein cross-linking with a bifunctional reagent as a means to study the tertiary structure of an enzyme molecule consisting of a single polypeptide chain. In addition, this technique has been applied to exploring the quaternary structure of oligomeric enzymes by Davies and Stark.l~ Since the publication of these pioneering works cross-linking of proteins has become a widely used technique.~2-21 Procedures have been developed for attachment of D N A and RNA molecules to proteins 22 with the aid of cross-linking methodology. Immunoanalysis and radioactive labeling have been used for identifying proteins in crosslinked protein complexes, 23 and, recently, the use of the cross-linking approach in fundamental studies in biochemistry has been reviewed. 24
Cross-Linking Reagents
There are now many bifunctional compounds available for cross-linking of proteins. 12-2~ Examples of such reagents are dialdehydes, diimido esters, diisocyanates, and bisdiazonium salts. Moreover, diamines such as H2N(CH2)nNH2 may be used for cross-linking of protein carboxyl groups, if the latter have been preactivated by treatment with carbodiimide. 25 Likewise, diacids such as HOOC(CH2)nCOOH (after their preactivation with carbodiimide) could be used for cross-linking of protein
8 p. j. Flory, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 78, 5222 (1956). 9 F. C. Hartman and F. Wold, Biochemistry 6, 2439 (1967). 10 S. S. Husain and G. Lowe, Biochem. J. 103, 855 (1968). ii G. E. Davies and G. R. Stark, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. U.S.A. 66, 651 (1970). lz H. Fasold, J. Klappenberger, and H. Remold, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 10, 795 (1971). ~3 F. Wold, this series, Vol. 25, p. 623. 14 O. R. Zaborsky, Enzyme Eng. 1, 211 (1972). ~5 R. E. Peeney, G. Blankenborn, and H. B. F. Dixon, Adv. Protein Chem. 29, 135 (1975). 16 R. Uy and F. Wold, in "Biomedical Applications of Immobilized Enzymes and Proteins" (T. M. C. Chang, ed.), p. 15. Plenum, New York, 1976. 17 K. Peters and F. M. Richards, Annu. Rev. Biochem. 46, 523 (1977). 18 R. B. Freedman, Trends Biochem. Sci. (Pers. Ed.) 4, 193 (1979), 19 M. Das and F. Fox, Annu. Rev. Biophys. Bioeng. 8, 165 (1979). 10 T. H. Ji, this series, Vol. 91, p. 580. 21 K.-K. Han, C. Richard, and A. Delacourte, Int. J. Biochem. 16, 129 (1984). 22 K. C. Smith, in "Aging, Carcinogenesis and Radiation Biology," p. 67. Plenum, London, 1976. 23 S. K. Sinha and K. Brew, J. Biol. Chem. 256, 4193 (1981). 24 K. Martinek and V. V. Mozhaev, Adv. Enzymol. 57, 179 (1985). z5 V. P. Torchilin, A. V. Maksimenko, A. M. Klibanov, I. V. Berezin, and K. Martinek, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 522, 277 (1978).
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amino groups. 26 Both diamines and diacids are commercially available and relatively inexpensive, factors that are of prime importance in biotechnology. In addition, application of heterobifunctional cross-linking reagents 13,2,2j offers the possibility of increasing the number of crosslinks by reacting with different functional groups of the protein to be modified. Photochemical activation provides another possibility in the use of cross-linking reagents 27 (for reviews, see Refs. 20, 21, and 28). Since cross-linking requires reaction with at least two functional groups, probably differing in chemical reactivity and/or spatial location, better control over the cross-linking reaction might be obtained in a stepwise crosslinking approach. This is possible if the reagent contains both a chemically reactive group and a light-activatable (photochemical) group (or two photochemical groups showing no overlap in their photoactivation spectra). 29 Cleavable cross-linking reagents useful in some situations contain in the molecule a chemical bond that can be split readily under mild conditions (e.g., under mild oxidation or reduction conditions)3; for reviews, see Refs. 17-21. Also, water-insoluble (hydrophobic) cross-linking reagents have been used to modify membrane proteins. 17,~8
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619
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O.O.-',.KING
BIFUNCTIONAL
versible character of chemical cross-linking by applying a mixture of bifunctional reagents of different chain lengths. 31 This means that in the course of the reaction the protein molecule itself will"select" intramolecular cross-linking in preference to one-point modification. Furthermore, the probability of intermolecular cross-linking may be reduced by decreasing the enzyme concentration in the reaction medium. Alternatively, to suppress intermolecular cross-linking the protein could be attached to a solid support through a cleavable spacer arm, prior to cross-linking. After cross-linking, the spacer containing, for example, a disulfide linkage, is cleaved by reducing the S-S bond with thiol reagents. 32,33In addition, a light-initiated heterobifunctional reagent can be used for cross-linking, resulting in no intermolecular side reactions. 27 In this case, first the bifunctional reagent reacts chemically at one end of the molecule, and then, after illumination of the premodified protein, it reacts photochemically at the other end of the cross-linking reagent (containing a diazo or an azide group). On illumination, a highly reactive carbene or nitrene is produced, reacting with the closest C - H linkage of the protein.
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(900 mg) is dissolved in 30 ml of 0.2 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.7. Succinic anhydride (300 mg) is then added in small portions while keeping the enzyme solution in the cold (4) and maintaining the pH at 7.7. Under these conditions over 80% of available amino groups (14-15) of the enzyme are succinylated. 25 The reaction mixture is then passed through a column (2.6 60 cm) packed with Sephadex G-50 (Pharmacia). (The column is preequilibrated with 10 mM KCI.) The elution rate is 1.5 ml/ min. The succinylated o~-chymotrypsin preparation shows both catalytic activity and thermostability that are comparable to the same properties of the native enzyme. 25
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ENZYME
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0.3
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STABILIZATION
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621
E 0.25
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FIG. 3. Dependence of the first-order rate constant of thermoinactivation of cross-linked ~-chymotrypsin on the chain length of the diamine reagents used for cross-linking: curve 2, cross-linked native ~-chymotrypsin; curve 3, cross-linked succinylated c~-chymotrypsin; curve 1, thermostability of native and succinylated c~-chymotrypsin. From Torchilin et a l ? s
groups. It is worth adding that intermolecular cross-links were not formed under the experimental conditions, and that the monofunctional crosslinking analog, 1-aminopropan-3-ol, caused a certain destabilization of the enzyme. On the basis of the above, it is suggested that intramolecular cross-links were formed in o~-chymotrypsin after treatment of the carbodiimide-activated enzyme with 1,4-tetramethylenediamine. Premodification of the enzyme with succinic anhydride resulted in additional reactive carboxyl groups on the protein surface. It was found that cross-linked succinylated preparations showed an increased thermostability compared
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A
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FIG. 4. (A) Thermoinactivation at 60 of native GAPDH () and of GAPDH cross-linked with oxalic acid ( I ) , succinic acid (&), glutaric acid ( I ) , adipic acid ([~), pimelic acid (A), and dodecandioic acid (<>). The inset shows the dependence of the half-life (~'1/2)of modified GAPDH on the number of methylene groups (n) of the diacid. (B) Densitometer traces for SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of native GAPDH (1), GAPDH cross-linked with oxalic acid (2), GAPDH cross-linked with succinic acid (3), GAPDH cross-linked with glutaric acid (4), GAPDH cross-linked with adipic acid (5). Thirty micrograms of protein was applied to each gel. From Torchilin e t al. 26
with that of cross-linked unmodified enzyme (Fig. 3), indicating that a large quantity of cross-linkages had been formed (succinylation does not influence the thermostability of ot-chymotrypsin, see above). It was also found that for cross-linked succinylated a-chymotrypsin, the maximal stabilizing effect is produced not by 1,4-tetramethylenediamine but by the shorter reagent 1,2-ethylenediamine (Fig. 3). This fact is an additional indication that the surface of succinylated a-chymotrypsin globule is more "populated" with carboxyl groups than that of the native enzyme. Thus, premodification of the enzyme makes possible regulation of the stabilization effect both with respect to the degree and the optimal length of the cross-link.
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MIGRATION
FIG. 4B.
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pared with the thermostability of the enzyme modified with commercially available diacids such as HOOC(CH2)nCOOH (using reagents with n varying from 0 to 10). Experimental. On cross-linking two portions of solid carbodiimide (final concentration 2 x 10 -3 M) are added at 45-min intervals to an aqueous solution containing different cross-linking reagents (5 x 10-4 M ) . HOWever, dodecandioic acid (5 x 10-2 M) is activated in a solution containing dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) (1%, v/v). The reaction mixtures are allowed to incubate for 1.5 hr at pH 4.5, then the pH is increased to 8.2 and GAPDH is added to the reaction mixtures (final protein concentration 0.25 mg/ml). After reaction for 1.5 hr, the reaction is stopped by subjecting the mixtures to gel chromatography on Sephadex G-50 (packed in a minicolumn that is placed in a centrifuge or by dialyzing the reaction mixtures prior to preparative electrophoresis. All experiments are performed 26 at 20. (The catalytic activity of the modified enzyme is found to be 20-40% of that of the native enzyme, depending on the bifunctional reagent used for cross-linking.) In the thermoinactivation experiments, native or modified enzyme (2 10 -6 M ) in 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.5) is incubated at 60. Samples are withdrawn at appropriate time intervals, and the enzyme activity is measured spectrophotometrically at 60 or 25 according to the assay method described in Ref. 36. Analytical sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is performed as described by Laemmli. 37 Results and Discussion. In Fig. 4A it can be seen that intramolecularly cross-linked GAPDH is more stable at 60 than native enzyme. Figure 4A also shows that the degree of stabilization is dependent on the chain length of the bifunctional reagent used. Figure 4B shows the results of SDS-gel electrophoresis of various cross-linked preparations. By comparing both figures it can be seen that the results of the SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis agree well with the results of the thermoinactivation experiments. Both native enzyme and the enzyme treated with the shortest bifunctional reagent, oxalic acid (this cross-linked preparation showed the same thermostability as native, untreated GAPDH), migrated in the gel as a single band corresponding to migration of the promoter of GAPDH (Fig. 4B). On the other hand, cross-linked enzyme preparations showing increased thermostability migrated as the dimer, trimer, tetramer, and/or higher oligomeric forms of the enzyme. Maximal thermostabilization was found when succinic acid (Fig. 4A) was used as a
36 W. Ferdinand, Biochem. J. 92, 578 (1964). 37 U. K. L a e m m l i , Nature (London) 227, 680 (1970).
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625
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FIG. 5. (A) Thermoinactivation at 60 of G A P D H reconstituted from dimers crosslinked with succinic acid (O); native e n z y m e (0). (B) Semilogarithmic plot of the data in (A). Activity m e a s u r e m e n t s were performed at 25 . From Torchilin et al. ~6
cross-linking reagent. In agreement with this observation is the finding that the same cross-linked enzyme yielded several SDS-polyacrylamide gel bands corresponding to different cross-linked forms of the enzyme (Fig. 4B). Thus, it is concluded that the chain length of succinic acid closely matches the distance between amino groups (located on different subunits of the enzyme) participating in the cross-linking reaction. An interesting cross-linking experiment is thermoinactivation of GAPDH reconstituted from isolated cross-linked dimer molecules (Fig. 5). The dimers were prepared from succinic acid-treated GAPDH after preparative electrophoresis of the cross-linked enzyme in 8 M urea. From kinetic analysis of the thermoinactivation of native GAPDH, it can be concluded that the thermoinactivation is a two-step process in which the first step is reversible. It is interesting to note that the first step of the inactivation process was absent in thermoinactivation experiments of GAPDH obtained from cross-linked dimers. It should also be added that cross-linked GAPDH undergoes unfolding without prior dissociation of the enzyme into subunits and therefore cannot be reactivated. Conclusion. The thermoinactivation of oligomeric enzymes is suggested 38to be a two-step process in which the first step is protein dissocia38 V. S. T r u b e t s k o y and V. P. Torchilin, I n t . J. B i o c h e m . 17, 661 (1985).
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tion into subunits and the second step is unfolding of the subunits (Fig. 1). Thus, by cross-linking of protein structures, the first step of the inactivation process is prevented due to an increased barrier to enzyme dissociation.
Copyright 1988 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.