Answers to student book text questions

Unit 5 Topic 8: Chapter 8.1

pages 188189
1 Light: needed for photosynthesis; important that shoots and leaves move towards it; roots need to be in the soil so response away from light helps make sure they grow in the right direction; respond to direction, intensity and length of exposure. Gravity: growth movements of plant parts towards or away from the pull of gravity; roots grow towards gravity, shoots away; this helps to orientate the young plant as the seed germinates below ground shoots grow up, roots down, whichever way up the seed is planted. Chemicals: plant roots will grow towards some chemicals and away from others. Water: roots grow towards water in the soil; water needed for growth. Temperature: some plants or parts of plants respond to changes in temperature; there may be a positive movement towards lower temperature, e.g. many roots, or parts of the plant may respond to protect the cells and tissues, e.g. rhododendron leaves curl in the cold; important to help roots grow in the right direction, and also to protect plant tissues from damage in extreme cold. Touch, thigmotropism: plants (particularly climbing plants) grow in response to touch, e.g. runner beans curving up canes. 2 Plants respond to stimuli by growth. They need to respond to stimuli, such as direction and intensity of light, throughout life so that they can continue to grow. Animals respond to stimuli often by movement, largely through muscle contractions, in response to nerves so they can continue to respond when growth has stopped.

pages 190193
1 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid.
Part of plant affected seed stem Effect of red light (light, build-up of PFR) stimulates germination elongation inhibited by red light Effect of far red light (dark, build-up of PR) inhibits germination elongation is stimulated by far red light exposure to far red light gives the same effect as etiolation expansion is inhibited by far red light chlorophyll formation inhibited growth of lateral roots is stimulated in SDPs far red light promotes flowering in LDPs far red light inhibits flowering

leaf lateral roots flowering

expansion is stimulated by red light chlorophyll formation stimulated growth of lateral roots is inhibited in SDPs red light inhibits flowering in LDPs red light stimulates flowering

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Chapter 8.1 (cont.)

2 [S1C] The answers should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Suggests that a chemical message is produced in leaf exposed to periods of light and dark which travels to the flowering apical meristem. If it is a chemical message, takes time to be synthesised and to travel through plant from leaf to buds. So if the leaf is removed immediately, there is no time for the chemical to be made and moved. Suggests chemical message moves from one plant to another to stimulate flowering in both. A chemical from a leaf exposed to light and dark moves out into tissues of host plant again suggests chemical message. 3 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Light detected by phytochromes in leaves then split the flow chart for long-day and short-day plants. Short day: dark period of appropriate length or far red light conversion of PFR to PR balance of phytochromes moves to more PR than PFR triggers production of florigen in leaf cells florigen travels to cells in shoot apex stimulates flowering. Long day: dark period of appropriate length or red light conversion of PR to PFR balance of phytochromes moves to more PFR than PR triggers production of florigen in leaf cells florigen travels to cells in shoot apex stimulates flowering.

pages 194195
1 Photoperiodism: involves a major physiological change, such as flowering, which involves the transfer of a message from the leaves to the flowering regions of the plant; once it has been set up, it continues; depends on phytochromes and florigen. Phototropisms: much more localised; rely on auxins; can easily be reversed when light source moves. 2 Because cocoa butter is a fat, only fat-soluble substances are able to pass through it. The message passes through agar (which is water-based) but cannot penetrate the fat, so the message must be water-soluble. 3 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. In all the experiments shown, the dependent variable is growth. The independent variables were: A presence/absence of shoot tip; B block to transmission of chemicals on one side of shoot; C substance diffused from shoot tip into agar; D: substance diffused from shoot tip into agar, placed asymmetrically. Delicate shoots so can easily be damaged; simple design makes investigations very clear; capable of being repeated many times very cheaply and easily.

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Chapter 8.1 (cont.)

pages 196197
1 [S1C] Unilateral light seems to cause the IAA molecules to move laterally across the shoot, so that the side of a shoot exposed to light contains less IAA than the side which is not illuminated. This means that the shoot tip acts as a photoreceptor. More hormone diffuses down to the region of cell elongation on the dark side. The IAA molecules bind to specific receptor sites on the cell surface membranes, activating the active pumping of hydrogen ions into the cytoplasm. This changes the hydrogen ion concentration, providing the optimum pH for the enzymes that break bonds between adjacent cellulose microfibrils and keep the wall flexible. The cells absorb water by osmosis and the very flexible cell walls stretch and allow the cells to expand. Eventually, as the cells mature, the IAA is destroyed by enzymes, the pH of the cell walls rises and bonds form between the cellulose microfibrils. So the cell wall becomes more rigid and the cell cannot expand any more. Because there is more IAA on the dark side, there is more cell elongation and so growth on the dark side, resulting in the shoot bending towards the light. Once the shoot is growing directly towards the light, the unilateral stimulus is removed. The asymmetric transport of IAA ends and the shoot grows straight towards the light. 2 The answers should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. a Wents bioassay showed that the amount of growth (bending when the block was placed asymmetrically) was directly related to the amount of chemical in the block. This makes it possible to say that growth towards unilateral light must be due to higher levels of the chemical on the shaded side than on the light side of the shoot. b The current model of phototropisms explains the difference in elongation of the cells on the shady and light sides in terms of the movement of auxin from the light to the shady side, where auxin allows the cell walls to remain flexible for longer.

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Chapter 8.2

pages 198201
1 Nerve fibre: axon of an individual nerve cell; may carry impulses to (sensory) or from (motor) the brain but not both. Nerve: bundle of nerve fibres, may be all sensory, all motor or a combination of both. 2 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Nerve cell in CNS with dendrites to synapse with and receive input from other nerve cells, long axon/fibre to reach tissues, myelinated to give rapid speed of impulse transmission, synapses on effector to pass on impulse. 3 In invertebrates, the speed of transmission of a nerve impulse is directly related to diameter of nerve fibre, and there is a limit to how big a nerve fibre can grow. Most vertebrate neurones are associated with Schwann cells and therefore have a myelin sheath. As a result of the nodes of Ranvier, the transmission of a nerve impulse is much faster. So vertebrate nerves that need to carry impulses fast are myelinated, with relatively small diameters. Those that are not myelinated dont need to carry impulses very fast so they can still have small diameters. 4 Squid giant axons are large as they carry impulses relatively quickly during an escape response. This means that they are easy to find and access and easy to insert micropipettes into. Squids are invertebrates, so there are also fewer ethical issues with using them in experiments of this type.

pages 202205
1 The resting potential of a neurone is produced by the differential exchange of ions across the cell membrane. The membrane is relatively impermeable to sodium ions, but quite freely permeable to potassium ions. There are also very active sodium/potassium pumps which use ATP to move sodium ions out of the axon and potassium ions in. This lowers the concentration of sodium ions inside the axon, because they are pumped out and cannot diffuse back in again. Potassium ions are moved in to the cell by the pumps but they then diffuse out again along a concentration gradient through open potassium ion channels. Eventually the movement of positively charged potassium ions out of the cell along the concentration gradient is opposed by the electrochemical gradient. As a result, the inside of the cell is slightly negative relative to the outside. This gives a potential difference across the membrane of around 70 mV.

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Chapter 8.2 (cont.)

2 a An action potential is the result of a sudden and dramatic increase in axon membrane permeability to sodium ions. Specific sodium channels or sodium gates open up, allowing sodium ions to diffuse rapidly into the cell. The potential difference across the membrane is briefly reversed, with the cell becoming positive on the inside with respect to the outside, at about 140 mV. This depolarisation lasts about 1 millisecond. The sodium channels then close again and excess sodium ions are rapidly pumped out by the sodium pump, using ATP to supply energy. The permeability of the membrane to potassium ions is temporarily increased as voltage-dependent potassium ion channels open. Potassium ions diffuse out of the axon down their concentration gradient and an electrochemical gradient, attracted by the negative charge on the outside of the membrane. The inside of the cell becomes negative relative to the outside once again. It takes a few milliseconds before the resting potential is restored and the axon is ready to carry another impulse. The refractory period is the recovery time after an action potential during which an axon membrane cannot be restimulated. It is the time taken for the sodium pump and other ionic movements to restore the balance of positive and negative ions that produce the resting potential. Absolute refractory period is when the sodium channels are completely blocked and no resting potential. As recovery progresses there is the relative refractory period. Its importance is that it limits the rate at which impulses travel along a nerve fibre, preventing constant stream of impulses, and preventing the action potential from travelling backwards along the fibre. b An action potential can be recorded accurately by inserting a very fine glass microelectrode into an axon. Another electrode records the electrical potential from the outside. The results are shown on an oscilloscope. 3 The graph shows that DNP prevents the pumping of sodium ions out of the axon. This suggests that the ATP is being used to power the sodium pump when it runs out, the pump no longer works. As the DNP is washed away the pumping of sodium ions out begins again, suggesting that ATP production has started again. 4 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. The recording from the whole nerve shows an increasing level of response to an increasing stimulus. This is because more and more nerve cells within the nerve are responding to the stimulus. The response from the single axon shows the typical all-ornothing response where the response is the same to a stimulus beyond a threshold level.

pages 206209
1 The movement of a nerve impulse along the fibre is the result of local ion movements both in front of and behind the action potential. In an unmyelinated nerve fibre these events occur all along the membrane. Although each event takes only milliseconds, the time adds up as the action potential travels along the fibre. In myelinated neurones, ions can only pass in and out of the axon at the nodes of Ranvier,. So an action potential will jump from one node to the next. This speeds up transmission as the ionic movements occur much less frequently, taking less time.

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Chapter 8.2 (cont.)

2 They are involved in making the neurotransmitter substances in the presynaptic knobs; involved in the production of vesicles; involved in the breakdown of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft; involved in the production of ATP to power the various ion pumps and synthesis and breakdown of neurotransmitters. Any other valid points. 3 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Electron micrographs: show the presence of vesicles in the synaptic knob of the presynaptic neurone before an action potential; after repeated action potentials these vesicles are no longer visible, implying that they have released their contents as a result of stimulation. Also shows large numbers of mitochondria that supply the energy for the synthesis of the neurotransmitters etc. Botulinus toxin: blocks the release of acetylcholine and so shows that acetylcholine from the presynaptic membrane is needed for the transmission of an action potential across a synapse. Nicotine: stimulates the nervous system by binding to the post-synaptic membrane, mimicking the effect of acetylcholine and so suggesting that acetylcholine does the same. Strychnine etc.: show that acetylcholine causes the setting up of action potentials in postsynaptic neurones, because preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine causes the neurones to respond continuously. Curare: shows that blocking of acetylcholine stops transmission of action potentials from nerve cells to muscle cells confirming that acetylcholine needs to bind to acetylcholine receptors to initiate post-synaptic potential.

pages 210211
1 Accommodation occurs when all of the synaptic vesicles in a synaptic knob are discharged as a result of too many action potentials in rapid succession. The rate of synthesis of new vesicles cannot keep up and the neurone can no longer respond to the stimulus. A short rest restores the response as new vesicles are made. Accommodation allows organisms to ignore repeated harmless stimuli so that the CNS does not become overwhelmed with input. 2 Spatial and temporal summation make an organism more responsive to small stimuli which might not on their own trigger a response. A response coming into several sensory receptors at once, for example, can be added together to give awareness, e.g. the rods of the eye. Similarly, if a small stimulus which would not trigger a post-synaptic action potential on its own is repeated several times in quick succession, an organism becomes aware of it, thus increasing sensitivity and responsiveness.

pages 212213
1 a When a receptor cell receives a stimulus, sodium ions move rapidly across the cell membrane setting up a generator potential. A small stimulus results in a small generator potential and a large stimulus results in a large generator potential. If the generator potential is large enough to reach the threshold of the receptor neurone, an action potential will result in that neurone. If it is not, there will be no action potential.

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Chapter 8.2 (cont.)

b In convergence, even if the generator potential from an individual receptor cell is too small to set up an action potential, the generator potentials from several may add together or summate and trigger an action potential. This makes it possible for the sensory system to respond to low-level stimuli. 2 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Accommodation: overstimulation of any presynaptic neurone releases so many synaptic vesicles that further action potentials in the neurone cant release neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft and no action potential is generated in the postsynaptic neurone. This makes it possible for the animal to concentrate on new, and potentially more important, stimuli. Response returns as new neurotransmitter is synthesised. Adaptation: constant stimulation of receptor cells results in a gradual decline in response. Again this makes it possible for the animal to concentrate on new, and potentially more important, stimuli. Animal will not respond again regardless of amounts of neurotransmitter.

pages 214217
1 a Rhodopsin is formed from opsin and retinal. In the dark, retinal is all in the cis form. Light converts this to trans-retinal. This changes the shape of the retinal, and the rhodopsin breaks up into opsin and retinal. b The break-up of rhodopsin triggers a cascade reaction that results in the closing of the sodium channels in the rod membrane. As the sodium pump continues to pump Na1 out of the cell, the interior becomes more negative than usual. This produces a generator potential in the rod. If the generator potential is large enough to reach the threshold, or if several rods are stimulated at once, neurotransmitter substances are released into the synapse with the bipolar cell. This sets up an action potential in the bipolar cell which passes across the synapse to cause an action potential in the sensory neurone leading to the brain. In the visual areas of the brain this visual information is converted into an awareness of the image. 2 a Several rods synapse with a single bipolar cell, so summation of generator potentials is possible. In low light levels which would not result in an action potential in the bipolar cell from a single rod, summation of generator potentials from several rods can result in an action potential. Each cone synapses with a single bipolar cell so it is less likely to trigger an action potential in dim light. In addition, iodopsin in cones needs to be hit with more light energy than rhodopsin in the rods before it will break down. So, again, the rods will respond to dimmer light. b Several rods synapse (converge) on a single bipolar cell. This means that subtle changes in light level as something moves are detected by rods although not necessarily clearly. Cones need much bigger light differences, and there is no convergence, so they are less likely to respond to movement. c Cones respond only to bright light, and each individual cone synapses onto a single bipolar cell. As a result any image is usually clear and crisp.

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Chapter 8.2 (cont.)

pages 218219
1 The need to move the whole body around in animals means faster responses are required electrical coordination makes this more possible. Chemical coordination depends on diffusion and movement in mass flow systems such as blood and phloem and so speed is limited. It usually involves growth as the mechanism of response. It is sufficient for plant responses. 2 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid.
Plants chemical coordination plant hormones (growth substances) control growth, movement, flowering examples: auxins (IAA) gibberellins, florigen relatively slow changes Animals animal hormones control growth, development, sexual maturity, response to stress, blood sugar levels etc. examples: adrenaline, testosterone, oestrogen, human growth hormone, insulin relatively slow changes nervous system composed of conducting nerve cells controls rapid response to stimuli, e.g. reflexes, and brain allows coordination of many nervous inputs allowing learning, habituation etc. includes chemical transmission at synapses can be very rapid, long-term changes in synapses of brain related to memory

electrical coordination

none

3 Light falling on the sensory cells of the retina causes impulses to travel along neurones in the optic nerve to the brain. The impulses are detected in a control centre in the midbrain. The impulses travel along neurones to further control centres. These synapse with branches of the parasympathetic cranial nerve (the oculomotor) which transmits impulses to the iris. The impulses in the oculomotor nerve fibres stimulate the effectors (the muscles of the iris) causing the circular muscles to contract and the radial muscles to relax so the pupil constricts. If light levels drop, frequency of action potentials from the retina falls, impulses travel from the control centres along sympathetic nerves to the iris, the circular muscles relax and the radial muscles contract and widen the pupil. By reducing the amount of light entering the eye in bright conditions this reflex avoids damage to the delicate rods and cones by overstimulating them. In dim light, the reflex causes the pupil to open wide so as much light as possible falls on the rods to maximise what you can see.

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Chapter 8.3

pages 220221
1 The cerebral hemispheres are associated with higher brain functions seeing, thinking, learning and emotions for example. Folding of the cerebral hemispheres increases the surface area of these regions of the brain. It is thought that greater folding and thus greater surface area is associated with greater intelligence, more complex emotions and the ability to learn more complex skills. Humans have greater abilities than other primates, and more folding. The volume of tissue is important too which is a function not just of folding but of thickness. So dolphins have big surface area but less volume because the tissue layer is thinner. They are very intelligent but it is thought that their development does not rival humans. 2 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid.
Brain area cerebral hemispheres frontal lobe temporal lobe occipital lobe cerebellum hypothalamus Function vision, sight, thinking, learning, emotions emotional responses, planning, reasoning, decision-making primary motor cortex controls many movements sound recognition, hearing, speech, many memory functions vision, shape recognition, colour vision, sense of perspective coordinates smooth movements, maintains posture and balance coordinates autonomic nervous system, including thermoregulation, and controls many basic drives, e.g. thirst, hunger, aggression, reproductive behaviour controls reflex centres for heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, saliva production, peristalsis

medulla oblongata

pages 222227
1 X-rays: pass through body, absorbed differentially by different tissues, make an image on photographic film. Good for taking images of hard tissue, e.g. bones, but much less useful for producing images of soft tissues such as the brain. Computerised tomography (CT scan): thousands of tiny beams of X-rays passed through an area of the body, e.g. head. Beams attenuated by the density of the tissue. The X-rays which make it through are detected and measured. A computer collates the data to produce a cross-sectional image of a thin slice through the body. Special dyes can make areas X-ray opaque so they show up more clearly in the scan. Can identify major structures in the brain and detect problems such as brain tumours, bleeding in the brain or swellings of the arteries in the brain (aneurisms). Cannot be used to show how areas of the brain are used or change during different activities. Can be linked to observed changes in behaviour to indicate the importance of certain areas of the brain in particular functions. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI scan): Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to image the soft tissues (mainly due to amount of water in tissue), so no potentially damaging X-rays. Particularly good for imaging water in the body. The signals are analysed by computer and used to produce an image. Images show much finer detail than CT scans.
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Chapter 8.3 (cont.)

2D scans are usually produced a computer can create a 3D image from these. Can distinguish regions of the brain. Widely used to diagnose brain injuries, strokes, tumours and infections of the brain or the spine. Can also indicate links between the structures in the brain and patterns of behaviour. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): monitors uptake of oxygen in different brain areas, so indicates active areas of the brain. Can be observed in real time, so makes it possible to watch brain response while people carry out tasks. Gives an extremely spatially accurate image of the brain. Has to be carried out with patients head remaining completely still, which limits tasks that can be done. Used mainly to investigate normal brain structure and function. May soon be used to diagnose diseases such as the early signs of stroke damage and the onset of Alzheimers. 2 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Absolutist: Animals should not be used for experiments in this case for learning more about how the human brain might work. Morally, experimenting on animals that causes pain or death is completely unacceptable. Relativist: It is morally more acceptable to experiment on animals as a model for humans where there is a positive purpose to the research, e.g. it will benefit the treatment of humans with disease or damage to the brain.

pages 228231
1 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. a Absolutist: it is completely unacceptable to experiment on animals causing pain or death. Relativist: the work of Crowley and Katz could not ethically have been carried out on humans, but it was important research that helps us understand the development of vision in mammals, including humans and therefore justified using primates. b Absolutist: it is completely unacceptable to experiment on animals causing pain or death. Relativist: the work of Weisel and Hubel could not ethically have been carried out on humans, but it was important research that helps us understand the development of vision in mammals, including humans. It would not be ethical to use primates for this work as it was not directly of medical benefit, but kittens are more readily available experimental animals and therefore it is acceptable to use them. [S1C] 2 Animal work with embryos examining the structure of the brain as it is laid down to show that the basic structure develops at a specific stage of fetal development regardless of input. Animal work with kittens stitching eyes shut at various stages of development to show that there is a critical window during which loss of sight becomes permanent, suggesting that this is when the mature visual cortex develops. Animal work with monkeys showing same thing as work with kittens different critical period. Human observations, made on babies who are blind for some reason during the critical window, e.g. babies who needed surgery on cataracts etc.
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Chapter 8.3 (cont.)

3 Answers should show awareness that it is unethical to experiment on human infants in the way work has been done on kittens and monkeys, and that evidence might come from circumstances where babies are born with damage to brain areas or who are temporarily blinded/deprived of sight for some reason. 4 They were the first people to show that the brain is very plastic; that at birth, although many of the neural areas are present, they need input and experience to develop and work fully. They developed the idea and produced evidence to support the concept of critical windows of development which underpins much of our subsequent understanding of how the brain works.

pages 232237
1 The period of time during which vital neural connections are made in the brain in response to specific stimuli. Nature: axons from the light sensitive cells in the retina grow synapse in visual cortex in a very regular way known as ocular dominance columns. Neighbouring columns of cells receive input from the same area of the retina from the left eye and the right eye. Nurture: right stimulation needed during critical window of development for the area of the brain to develop properly. If the necessary input during the critical period of development fails, the opportunity to make the vital neural connection can be lost permanently. 2 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Must consider the needs of the baby first and the needs of research less important, e.g. it would be ethically unacceptable to leave a newborn baby with cataracts in order to test a hypothesis when it is known that the cataracts will interfere with the development of vision as the baby grows up. As long as the baby is not harmed or deprived in any way, then research could be acceptable. 3 a 36 b 20 c Each time a critical window of development appears, new neurones and connections are laid down if the appropriate stimulus is present. This increases the size of the brain. If the child is deprived of the stimulus, the brain does not develop fully, and once the critical window has passed, that damage cannot be undone so the brain ends up smaller. In children who suffer severe neglect, many critical windows are missed and so brain development is severely affected. 4 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Damaged brains: show what happens to the person as a result of specific damage or disease; may be difficult to separate the effect on specific areas of the brain if more than one region damaged; some kinds of damage are very rare, so takes a long time to collect sufficient evidence of its effect. Newborn babies: looks at how newborn babies respond to different stimuli; very limited in what can be done as cannot harm the babies; useful because the effect of nurture is minimal at this stage, so easier to separate from the effects of nature.
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Chapter 8.3 (cont.)

Twin studies and face recognition: comparison of responses from fraternal and identical twins; should help to separate out the effects of the environment and the genes. However, this assumes that identical twins develop identically from their genes, and this may not be true in all cases. Cross-cultural studies: looks at the impact of different beliefs and methods on behaviour; can be used to look at distinct differences in nurture. However, every individual is different and not everyone is affected by their culture to the same extent. The level of these differences between individuals may be difficult to measure, and so difficult to correlate with the results from the study.

pages 238239
1 Innate behaviour shows there are genetically determined responses to certain stimuli which occur as a result of specific nerve pathways laid down in the embryo from the instructions of the DNA. The stimulus for a piece of innate behaviour will always elicit the same response and the development of these neural pathways in the brain depends almost entirely on the information in the DNA. 2 Animal behaviour can be used to see the importance of nature on brain development through the study of innate behaviour and the role it plays in animals of different species. Learning behaviour from habituation and conditioned reflexes to exploratory and insight learning all play an important role in developing understanding of nurture in brain development. Which behaviours are completely the result of genetic pathways and which depend on learning (nurture) as well. For example, maternal behaviour might be thought to be instinctive and some aspects are, but animals which are hand-reared with no contact with their own species are often incompetent mothers. Any other valid points

pages 240241
1 Invertebrates with fast impulses in unmyelinated nerves have relatively large diameter nerve fibres which make the fibres relatively easy to identify and stimulate artificially. Also, as invertebrates, less ethical issues arise from their use as experimental animals. 2 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Habituation and accommodation both lead to the reduction in response to permanent or rapidly repeated stimulus. Accommodation is the physical result of depletion of neurotransmitter and synaptic vesicles in the synaptic knob of a presynaptic neurone. After a brief absence of the stimulus (action potential in the presynaptic neurone), the neurotransmitter and vesicles are resynthesised and the response restored. Habituation is the result of loss of response of the calcium ion channels in the presynaptic membrane, resulting in a loss of response to an action potential in the neurone. It is a learning response, and can be retained over a long time, reducing the response to things that happen constantly or very frequently and so leaving the brain better able to focus on occasionally changing stimuli which may be more important for survival.

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Chapter 8.4

pages 242247
1 Neurotransmitter synthesis and storage: If a drug blocks this process, synaptic transmission would lessen and then stop as supplies of neurotransmitter reduced. This would mean nerves using that neurotransmitter would no longer be able to pass impulses between them, causing loss of motor or sensory skills and processes in the brain. Neurotransmitter release: A drug stopping neurotransmitter release would stop synaptic transmission as the impulse in the presynaptic fibre would not be transmitted to the postsynaptic membrane causing loss of motor or sensory skills and processes in the brain. Neurotransmitter-receptor binding: A drug blocking this would stop the development of the post-synaptic potentials which in turn would prevent the development of an action potential in the post-synaptic fibre. Alternatively the drug may maintain binding so that the stimulus to the post-synaptic fibre was continuous, causing confusion and fatigue further in the system. Neurotransmitter reuptake: a drug blocking this would slowly reduce the intensity of the response as less neurotransmitter would be resynthesised and be ready for release. This would speed up fatigue etc. Neurotransmitter breakdown: a drug blocking this would mean that stimulation would continue as the concentration of neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap would build up steadily so there would be constant stimulation of the post-synaptic membrane and fatigue. 2 Dopamine synapses: produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, the axons from them spread through the frontal cortex, the brain stem and the spinal cord, so they are closely involved in the control and coordination of movement. Serotonin synapses: produce serotonin in a group of cells in the brain stem with axons that spread throughout the brain into the cortex, the cerebellum and the spinal cord. They have a widespread influence on cells throughout the brain so low levels mean overall brain activity is suppressed. Particularly related to depression. 3
L-dopa precursor of dopamine so crosses the bloodbrain barrier enables brain cells to maximise dopamine production Ecstasy crosses bloodbrain barrier affects serotonin synapses in brain, blocks the serotonin reuptake system so synapses flooded with serotonin, and may cause release of all the serotonin from presynaptic knob, flooding brain with serotonin acts as stimulant to brain and psychotropic improves mood, sense of well-being, energy etc. physiological effects include increased heart rate, change in thermoregulation, loss of thirst sensation, prevention of urine production by kidney

relieves stiffness and slowness of movement therapeutic

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Chapter 8.4 (cont.)

4 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. SSRIs seem to work by blocking the serotonin reuptake proteins and so maintain a relatively high level of serotonin in the synaptic cleft, to bind with the post-synaptic membrane receptors. However the working hypothesis from the genetic evidence is the opposite. The short form of the serotonin reuptake protein allele and its frequency (i.e. in homozygous or heterozygous state) affect whether or not the person is likely to suffer from depression. People with the short form produce less of the reuptake protein so serotonin is taken up more slowly by the presynaptic neurone after its release into the synapse. Logically this would result in more serotonin being left in the synaptic cleft and so less depression in the same way as people respond to SSRIs. In reality, people with the short form are more likely to experience depression. Perhaps they have less serotonin available in the presynaptic knob to be released with the subsequent impulses? Further investigations would need to look at how much serotonin is in the presynaptic knob, and/ or how much and how long serotonin remains in the synaptic cleft in the different genetic forms and during treatment with SSRIs.

pages 248251
1 The Human Genome Project has identified all of the human genes and increasingly identifies the genes that are associated with particular diseases and risk groups. This is the information on which pharmacogenomics builds as it develops medicines that work with a particular genome. 2 The ability to prescribe the right drug for an individual patient that would work with their particular genetic makeup. It would increase the ability to prescribe the right and lowest possible dosage with minimal risk of side effects or adverse drug reactions. 3 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Identification of genes for treatment: time-consuming and expensive; response to drugs can be complex; should the money be invested in this kind of research that will benefit just groups of people, or would it be better to spend it on something that benefits everyone? Cost: having identified that only a proportion of a population will benefit, is it socially and morally acceptable to produce a drug that works for them, but not one that works for others in that population? Knowing your genes: should only you know, or should genomes be stored for analysis by drug companies to help them decide what drugs they should focus on? Should individuals be told about gene variants that may lead to other problems that cant be tackled, or is it better not to know? Cost of training: to keep doctors and pharmacists up to date; will cost society but would be essential.

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Chapter 8.4 (cont.)

4 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Many possibilities including: kappa-opioids as painkillers for women; screening for cytochrome P450 before drug trials; identifying at risk individuals for certain types of cancer to allow treatment before the cancer starts; P-glycoprotein transporter substance affects the ability of people to take up digoxin, a heart drug one genotype results in a far greater uptake of the drug than another; racial variations, e.g. incidence of heart disease in Asian populations and development of drugs targetted at people with a specific genetic profile.

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1 The diagram given here is a minimum. Give credit for any correct extra details.
required gene cut out using restriction endonuclease enzyme

plasmid to be used as vector

plasmid with new gene inserted using DNA ligase host bacterial cell

modified bacterium makes drug as new gene expressed

2 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. (1) Wrong to use genetically engineered organisms under any circumstances. (2) The potential benefits of the use of genetically engineered microorganisms far outweigh any risks. 3 a
Drugs from GM plant required gene cut from human or other organism and inserted into Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens plant cells infected by modified A. tumefaciens which transfers desired gene to the plant genome plant cells then cloned on suitable hormonecontaining medium to produced mass of undifferentiated modified plant cells plant cells then transferred to suitable medium to produce huge numbers of GM plantlets that will mature to produce the desired drug in their leaves/fruit etc. Drugs from GM microorganism required gene cut from human or other organism and inserted into plasmid plasmid transferred into host bacterial cells where it becomes part of bacterial DNA, marker gene usually added bacteria identified by marker cultured in fermenters to make new protein drugs downstream processing required to separate the microorganisms and the desired end-product

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Answers to student book text questions

Chapter 8.4 (cont.)

b Risks: cost of development may deter companies and main use in less-developed countries, possibility that GM crops will interbreed with wild species and change them, or that GM plants will lose their ability to produce the vaccine. Benefits: long-term, relatively cheap, can be grown by communities that need them around the world, no problems with needing cool storage or specialised medical personnel to deliver, easy for children or adults to take. 4 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Possible examples include: blood-clotting factors Factor VII and IX from goat/sheep/ rabbit milk; alpha-1-antitrypsin from sheep milk; ATryn (for treating hereditary antithrombin deficiency) from goat milk. Evaluation will depend on drug chosen, but should include an assessment of cost of producing the drug, effect on animals used, success of procedure used to create transgenic animals, benefits to people who are treated with the drug compared with previous treatment. 5 [S1C] The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid. Answer needs to include points such as genetically modified microorganisms, plant vaccines, GM crops etc. Benefits include: specific drugs made in large quantities in controlled way lose dependence of chemicals extracted from animal cadavers drugs/vaccines produced in a way which makes delivery/cost etc. in developing world easier plants modified to suit growing conditions/nutritional requirements etc. Risks include: risk of release into outside world risk of contamination of natural plants with gene markers, e.g. infertility cost to countries which cannot afford the GM technology for drug or foods.

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