Design Criteria Report For 7 State Capitals

Project Name:
Provision of Consultancy Services for Feasibility Studies, Detailed Designs and

Tender Documents for Urban Water and Sanitation Facilities in Seven State Capi-
tals of Bentiu, Bor,Torit, Aweil, Kuajok, Rumbek and Yambio.
Project Number: 5096004 and 5096005
Report for: Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Republic of South Sudan
PREPARATION, REVIEW AND AUTHORISATION
Revision # Date Prepared by Reviewed by Approved for Issue by
1 06.01.2012 Bwahama Nteko
2
3
ISSUE REGISTER
Distribution List Date Issued Number of Copies
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
SMEC Republic of South Sudan
SMEC, Kenya
SMEC Project File
SMEC COMPANY DETAILS
SMEC International Pty Ltd.
3rd Floor, Kipro Plaza, Sports Road (Westlands)
P.O. Box 14094 00800, NAIROBI, Kenya.
Tel:

+254 20 2016958
Fax:
Email:

rmafricak@smecafrica.com; www.smec.com

Republic of South Sudan
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Juba
MULTI DONOR TRUST FUND (MDTF) SOUTHERN SUDAN (SS)
WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECT (WSSP)
MDTF GRANT TF096197, PROJECT ID P111061
CONTRACTS NOS MWRI/WSSP/SER/01/2011 AND MWRI-SER-007/2010
FOR
PROVISION OF CONSULTANCY SERVICES FOR FEASIBILITY STUDIES, DETAILED
DESIGNS AND TENDER DOCUMENTS FOR THE URBAN WATER AND SANITATION
FACILITIES IN SEVEN STATE CAPITALS OF BENTIU, BOR, TORIT, AWEIL, KUAJOK,
RUMBEK AND YAMBIO
Draft Design Criteria Report

06 January 2012
SMEC International Pty Ltd.
7 STATE CAPITALS URBAN WATER AND SANITATION FACILITIES PROGRAMME DESIGN CRITERIA REPORT
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Provision of Consultancy Services for Feasibility Studies, Detailed Designs and Tender Documents for Urban Water
and Sanitation Facilities in Bentiu, Bor, Torit, Aweil, Kuajok, Rumbek and Yambio| Design Criteria Report | PAGE I

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 Project Background ................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Project Objectives ...................................................................................................... 1-1
1.3 Expected Results of the Project ................................................................................. 1-1
1.4 Main Objectives of the Design Criteria Report ........................................................... 1-1
2 PROJECT DESIGN CRITERIA ................................................................................. 2-1
2.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Design Horizons ........................................................................................................ 2-1
2.3 Technical Standards .................................................................................................. 2-1
2.4 Guidelines on Level of Water Supply Services ........................................................... 2-1
2.5 Guidelines on Level of Sanitation Services ................................................................ 2-2
2.6 Basis for Design of Sanitation Services ..................................................................... 2-2
2.7 Population and Water Demand .................................................................................. 2-2
2.8 Fire fighting ................................................................................................................ 2-7
2.9 Peak Factors ............................................................................................................. 2-7
3 DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS ................................................................ 3-1
3.1 Water Quality ............................................................................................................. 3-1
3.2 Raw Water Abstraction .............................................................................................. 3-1
3.2.1 Groundwater Abstraction ........................................................................................... 3-1
3.2.2 Surface Water Abstraction ......................................................................................... 3-1
3.3 Transmission Mains ................................................................................................... 3-2
3.3.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.3.2 Gravity Mains ............................................................................................................. 3-2
3.3.3 Pressure Mains .......................................................................................................... 3-2
3.3.4 Pipe Fittings and Valves ............................................................................................ 3-2
3.3.5 Surge Protection ........................................................................................................ 3-3
3.4 Water Pump Stations ................................................................................................. 3-3
3.4.1 Pumping Capacity...................................................................................................... 3-3
3.4.2 Pump Materials .......................................................................................................... 3-3
3.4.3 Suction Mains ............................................................................................................ 3-3
3.4.4 Instrumentation .......................................................................................................... 3-3
3.5 Storage Tanks ........................................................................................................... 3-4
3.5.1 Water Treatment Reservoirs ...................................................................................... 3-4
3.5.2 Water Distribution Reservoirs .................................................................................... 3-4
3.5.3 Reservoir Design ....................................................................................................... 3-4
3.6 Dimensioning of Water Distribution Systems ............................................................. 3-4
3.6.1 Pressure Requirements ............................................................................................. 3-4
3.6.2 Hydraulic Design of Distribution Mains ....................................................................... 3-4
3.7 Design of Water Distribution Networks ....................................................................... 3-5
3.7.1 System Design of Distribution Network ...................................................................... 3-5
3.7.2 Flow Metering ............................................................................................................ 3-5
3.7.3 Zoning and District Metering ...................................................................................... 3-5
4 DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT FACILITIES ...................................................... 4-1
4.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Screening .................................................................................................................. 4-1
4.3 Desilting ..................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.4 Aeration ..................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.4.1 Spray Aerators ........................................................................................................... 4-2
4.4.2 Multiple Tray Aerators ................................................................................................ 4-2
TABLE OF CONTENTS

and Sanitation Facilities in Bentiu, Bor, Torit, Aweil, Kuajok, Rumbek and Yambio| Design Criteria Report | PAGE II

4.4.3 Cascade Aerator ........................................................................................................ 4-2
4.5 Coagulation ............................................................................................................... 4-2
4.5.1 Rapid Mixing .............................................................................................................. 4-2
4.5.2 Coagulant Chemicals ................................................................................................. 4-4
4.6 Flocculation ............................................................................................................... 4-4
4.6.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.6.2 Horizontally Baffled Flocculation (Sinuous Channel) .................................................. 4-4
4.6.3 Mechanical Flocculation (Mixing) ............................................................................... 4-4
4.7 Clarification ................................................................................................................ 4-5
4.7.1 Conventional Settling Tanks ...................................................................................... 4-5
4.7.2 Lamellae Settlers ....................................................................................................... 4-5
4.8 Filtration ..................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.8.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.8.2 Rapid Sand Filtration ................................................................................................. 4-6
4.8.3 Slow Sand Filters ....................................................................................................... 4-6
4.9 Disinfection ................................................................................................................ 4-7
4.9.1 Ultraviolet radiation .................................................................................................... 4-7
4.9.2 Ozone ........................................................................................................................ 4-7
4.9.3 Chlorination ............................................................................................................... 4-7
4.10 Sludge Treatment ...................................................................................................... 4-8
5 DESIGN OF SANITATION SYSTEMS ...................................................................... 5-1
5.1 On-Site Sanitation Systems ....................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.1 Overall Sanitation Strategy ........................................................................................ 5-1
5.1.2 Septic Tanks .............................................................................................................. 5-1
5.1.3 Treatment of Septic Tank Sludge ............................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Sludge Treatment Facilities ....................................................................................... 5-2
5.2.1 Waste Stabilisation Ponds ......................................................................................... 5-2
5.2.2 Influent Design Parameters ....................................................................................... 5-2
5.2.3 Effluent Quality Requirements ................................................................................... 5-2
5.2.4 Screening .................................................................................................................. 5-3
5.2.5 Anaerobic Ponds ....................................................................................................... 5-3
5.2.6 Facultative Ponds ...................................................................................................... 5-3
5.2.7 Maturation Ponds ...................................................................................................... 5-3
6 ECONOMIC CRITERIA ............................................................................................. 6-1
6.1 Selection of PipeLine Materials .................................................................................. 6-1
6.2 Economic Life and Maintenance Costs ...................................................................... 6-1
6.3 Economic Benefits of Project ..................................................................................... 6-2

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Guidelines on Level of Water Supply Services........................................................... 2-1
Table 2: Domestic Water Demand ........................................................................................... 2-3
Table 3: Institutional Water Demand ........................................................................................ 2-4
Table 4: Industrial Water Demand ........................................................................................... 2-4
Table 5: Commercial Water Demand ....................................................................................... 2-4
Table 6: Assumed Base Population and Population Breakdowns ............................................ 2-6
Table 7: Peak Factors ............................................................................................................. 2-7
Table 8: Minimum Washout Sizes ........................................................................................... 3-3
Table 9: Septic Tank Sizing ..................................................................................................... 5-1
Table 10: Standards for Effluent from Sewage Treatment Works ............................................ 5-3
Table 11: Economic Working Life and Annual Maintenance Costs .......................................... 6-1
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

and Sanitation Facilities in Bentiu, Bor, Torit, Aweil, Kuajok, Rumbek and Yambio| Design Criteria Report | PAGE I

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
DUWS Department of Urban Water and Sanitation
DWS Department of Water Supply
EDR Equalizing Discount Rate
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
GIS Geographic Information System
GOSS Government of Southern Sudan
GRSS Government of the Republic of South Sudan
GWh Giga-Watt hours
ha Hectare
HMIS Hydro-meteorological Information System
IA Implementing agencies (ID, MASL, CEB, NWSDB, WRB, MD, DMC)
ID Internal Diameter (diameter of pipe or bore casing)
IDP Internally Displaced Person(s)
km kilometre
L/sec Litres per Second (Flow rate)
m Metre
m
3
/day Cubic Metres per day (Flow rate)
MCA multi-criteria analysis
MCM Million Cubic Meters
MD Meteorological Department
MDTF Multi Donor Trust Fund
MENR Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Bentiu)
MFP Ministry of Finance and Planning
MIWM Ministry of Irrigation and Water Management
MW mega Watt
MWRI Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
NAWAM National Water Management Implementation Project
ND Nominal Diameter (of pipe or bore casing)
NGO Non Governmental Organization
SMEC SMEC International Pty Ltd
TOR Terms of Reference
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational & Scientific Organization
USOM United States Operations Mission
WASH Water and Sanitation Hygiene
WB World Bank
WRAS Water Resources Assessment Study
WRD Water Resources Department
WRM Water Resources Management
CHAPTER 1

Provision of Consultancy Services forFeasibility Studies, Detailed Designs and Tender Documents for Urban Water
and Sanitation Facilities in Bentiu, Bor, Torit, Aweil, Kuajok, Rumbek and Yambio| Design Criteria Report| PAGE 1-1
1 1 I IN NT TR RO OD DU UC CT TI IO ON N
1.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND
The Republic of South Sudan is the worlds newest country; inaugurated on the 9th July 2011
after a referendum on independence held from 9th to 15th January 2011.
The Project, Feasibility Studies, Detailed Designs and Tender Documents Consultancy services
for Urban Water and Sanitation for the Seven State Capitals facilities, is the first project to be
awarded under the new government. It is to be undertaken within the seven state capitals of
Bentiu (Unity State), Bor (Jonglei State), Torit (Eastern Equatoria State), Aweil (Northern Bahr
el-Ghazel State), Kuajok (Warrap State), Rumbek (Lakes State) and Yambio (Western Equato-
ria State).
The result of the Project will be feasibility studies, detailed design reports and tender documents
for improving and extending the water supply and sanitation facilities of the seven towns.
1.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES
As stated in the Terms of Reference (ToR), the objectives of the study are to:
- Investigate and determine a technically viable intervention for rehabilitating or providing
new water supply and sanitation systems in the three state capitals of Bentiu (Unity
State), Bor (Jonglei State) and Torit (Eastern Equatoria State);
- Investigate and determine economically feasible intervention for rehabilitating or provid-
ing new water supply and sanitation systems in the three towns; and
- Investigate and determine environmentally sound and socially responsive intervention
for rehabilitating or providing new water supply and sanitation systems.
1.3 EXPECTED RESULTS OF THE PROJECT
The expected results and outputs of the consulting services for the Project seven State Capitals
under this assignment comprise:
- Feasibility studies for water supply coverage in defined supply area and implementa-
tion of appropriate on-site sanitation strategies (Project Horizon: 20 Years; 2032);
- Detailed design of required water supply and sanitation measures;
- Preparation of tender documents for all required investments;
- Conduct water resources assessment for both surface and ground water; and
- Inclusion of MWRIs Technical guidelines such as distribution network, drinking water
treatment plant, etc.
1.4 MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE DESIGN CRITERIA REPORT
This Design Criteria Report is intended to establish standards and criteria for:
- specific and total water demand;
- design of storage, pumping, treatment and effluent and sludge disposal facilities;
- dimensioning of water supply and sanitation works;
- materials and methods for civil construction, valves, fittings and accessories, pumps,
equipment, etc; and
- prioritised on-site sanitation.
CHAPTER 2

2 2 P PR RO OJ JE EC CT T D DE ES SI IG GN N C CR RI IT TE ER RI IA A
2.1 GENERAL
The Design Criteria is primarily based on the MWRIs Technical Guidelines for Drinking Water
Distribution Networks and for Construction and Management of High Capacity Water Yard, April
2009. Where the design guideline is silent, other design standards, guidelines or previous ex-
perience of project specialists have been used in consultation with appropriate stakeholders.
Where appropriate, the design criteria may deviate from the above-mentioned guidelines to fit
the realities of South Sudan.
The design basis will be applied for the specific conditions for the preparation of the seven indi-
vidual feasibility studies.
The approved Design Criteria Report will provide the basis for both the conceptual (preliminary)
designs as will be reported in the feasibility study reports, and the detailed designs as will be
reported in the detailed design reports, for each individual town.
2.2 DESIGN HORIZONS
The Consultant recommends that the phasing of investments will be based on design horizons
as follows:-
- Phase I (2013 2022): Under Phase I the water and sanitation requirements up to year
2022 will be provided, while provision will be made for upgrading to year 2032 in all
components of the system (but any work that is not integral to meeting demand of 2022
will be deferred to phase II).
- Phase II (2023 2032): The infrastructure constructed in phase I will be upgraded to
meet the water and sanitation requirements up to year 2032.
Multiple Phase investments will consider conditions forecasted for Year 2013 - 2022, but be co-
herent with development concepts to Year 2032.
2.3 TECHNICAL STANDARDS
All locally or imported goods will conform to the British Standards (BS). The standards may be
complemented by other standards such as those issued by the American Water Works Associa-
tion (AWWA), Germany (DIN) and South Africa (SABS).
2.4 GUIDELINES ON LEVEL OF WATER SUPPLY SERVICES
Water supply services should be available to all people living within the designated urban area
of the service area. Guidelines on the levels of service to be provided within the main urban
area are presented in Error! Reference source not found..
Table 1: Guidelines on Level of Water Supply Services
Service Aspect Guideline
Hours of service Continuous 24 hours per day.
Water quality Water supplied should comply with World Health Organisation (WHO)
Guidelines for drinking water. Deviations may be made where the
standards are difficult to achieve, provided such deviations are not inju-
rious to health, and provided that customers are notified of any precau-
tions to be taken.
CHAPTER 2

Reliability To provide a service to all customers for at least 99% of the time and
limit interruptions to the supply to no more than 12 hours for any one in-
terruption occurring.
Metering All production, treatment and customers should have a metered supply.
2.5 GUIDELINES ON LEVEL OF SANITATION SERVICES
An overall sanitation strategy for the main urban area would determine the need for piped sew-
erage services. Such services would be provided where on site sanitation services are unsatis-
factory due to factors such as unsuitable underlying geology or high water tables.
Sewerage services would be integrated with other sanitation facilities, including the provision of
public toilets, and collection and disposal of sludge from septic tanks.
Major industries that are outside the central area covered by the sewer network should general-
ly be expected to treat and dispose of their own waste water in accordance with WHO stand-
ards. For industrial estates, separate wastewater collection and disposal systems may be pro-
vided that are independent of any municipal system. Urban Water Authorities may take-over
and operate these systems.
All Urban Water Authorities would establish standards for industrial waste water discharges to
sewers, which prohibit any toxic materials, excessive oil and grease and substances likely to
adversely affect the operation of the wastewater treatment plant. There would also be a limit on
the BOD and suspended solids (SS) loads of the effluent, and charges should be related to the
quality as well as the quantity of effluent discharged. Industries should be liable for any costs
incurred by the Urban Water Authority where industrial effluents that do not comply with the
standards, or for any damages to the sewers or the treatment process.
Where a piped sewerage system is provided, wastewater collected should be treated and dis-
posed in accordance with WHO standards. Provision should be made for the acceptance and
treatment of septic tank sludge at any waste water treatment plant.
2.6 BASIS FOR DESIGN OF SANITATION SERVICES
The sanitation infrastructure shall comply with the following:
- All wastewater within the service area shall be contained in a manner consistent with
safe disposal of wastewater as per WHO Guidelines.
- All effluent from wastewater generated in the service areas shall meet the WHO Guide-
lines when it is discharged outside the service area.
2.7 POPULATION AND WATER DEMAND
For the population projections the following growth rate are adopted:
- The assumed intensive returnee influx period (2009-2013) a growth rate of 5%
- Assumed intensive urbanisation period (2014-2022) a growth rate of 4%
- Assumed urban growth stabilisation period (2023-2032) a growth rate of 3%
The same rates are used for the estimation of growth of the institutions and commercial activi-
ties in the town for the purpose of estimating water demand.
The 2008 census data have been disputed by the 7 State Authorities and therefore the State
Government Authorities provided the current population (2011) which have been used as Base
population to project population up to 2032.
The residential housing categories for the 7 Town are divided into the following categories:
CHAPTER 2

- First Class housing with a plot size 30m by 35m;
- Second class housing with a plot size of 25m by 30m; and
- Third class housing with plot size of 20m by 25m.
It is envisaged that majority of the town dwellers shall live in the third class housing.
Per capita water demand has been agreed with the client to be as follows:
- Kiosk Public Tap consumers located in Third class housing type is 20 l/capita/day;
- Yard Tap consumers located in Second class housing type is 40 l/capita/day; and
- House connection consumers located in First class housing type is 80 l/capita/day.
Projection of per capita consumption, population percentage distribution and projected average
per capita domestic water demand as given in Table 1.
Non domestic water demand has been computed as follows:
- Institutional demand: 10% of domestic demand;
- Industrial water demand: 10% of domestic demand;
- Commercial water demand: 10% of domestic demand;
- Total water demand: 130% of domestic demand;
- System losses: 25% of Total flow;
- Average Day demand: (30 x(1+1/0.75) = 173% of domestic demand;
- Operational Consumption of Water Treatment Plant (WTP): 7% of raw water inflow.
Net maximum day demand excluding WTP demand is for the purpose of sizing storage and dis-
tribution system. Gross maximum demand includes WTP demand for the purpose of sizing raw
water sources and raw water transmission.
Tanzania Design Manual suggests that capacities of raw water and treatment facilities include
an operational demand of 5% for water treatment and a further 2% for other operational de-
mands. For the purpose of this study we shall assume that the treatment plant will consume 7%
of the raw water will be used for the water treatment plants internal demand (including back-
washing and other operational requirements).

Table 2: Domestic Water Demand
Consumer Category Per Capita Water Demand
(l/ca/d)
Tanzania Kenya Ethiopia Design Basis for this
Project
People using kiosks/public tap 25 20 20 20
People using yard tap 50 - 30-35 40
People with house connection 250 250 60 -150 80 (recommended by
client)
CHAPTER 2


Table 3: Institutional Water Demand
Consumer Unit Tanzania Kenya Ethiopia Design Basis
for this Project
Remark
Day schools l/std/d 25 25

10% of
Domestic
Demand

10% of Domes-
tic Demand
With WC
Boarding
schools
l/std/d 70 50 With WC
Health care
dispensaries
l/visitor/d 10 - Out-patients
only
Health care
dispensaries
50 l/bed/d 5,000 l/d No modern
facilities
Health care
dispensaries
100 l/bed/d 5,000 l/d With WC
and sewer
Hospitals, dis-
trict
l/bed/d 200 200 With WC
and sewer
Hospitals, re-
gional
l/bed/d 400 400 With sur-
gery unit
Administrative
offices
l/worker 70 25 With WC

Table 4: Industrial Water Demand
Industry Type
Water Demand
Tanzania Kenya Ethiopia Design Basis for
this Project
Medium Scale
(water intensive)
50
m
3
/ha/d

20 m
3
/ha/d

Responsibility of Establish-
ment to develop own supply

10% of Domestic
Demand
Medium scale
(medium water
intensive)
20
m
3
/ha/d
Responsibility of Establish-
ment to develop own supply
Small scale (dry) 5
m
3
/ha/d
10% of Domestic Demand
Table 5: Commercial Water Demand
Consumer Unit Tanzania Kenya Ethiopia Design Basis
for this Project
Remarks
Hotels l/bed/d 70
200
400
50
300
600

10% of
Domestic
Demand

10% of Domes-
tic Demand
Low class
Medium class
High class
Bars l/bar/d 70
100
300
-
-
500
Low class
Medium class
High class
Shops 1/shop/d

70
130
-
100
Low and medium
class
High class
CHAPTER 2

Real losses mainly comprise physical leakages from pipelines and service connections, but also
leakages and overflows at storage tanks. Reductions of real losses should relate to the cost of
the water saved. For each system, there is an economic level of leakage, beyond which the cost
of saving the water exceeds the cost of producing additional supplies.
A loss of around 30% of production would be seen as the maximum acceptable level for system
losses, 25% as a normally acceptable level, and 15% probably being the practical minimum
achievable level in most African towns. For the purpose of this project, given that the systems
will be mostly new installations, we shall assume a system loss of 25%.
In order to get viable figures for physical losses i.e. Non Revenue Water (NRW) in the produc-
tion, treatment, pumping and storage facilities, the transmission and distribution networks and
the house connections, spot / basic leak detection investigations has to be executed for the
analysis and assessment of physical NRW.
The following approach recommended:
- comparison of meter readings at significant points of the water supply system balanc-
ing the out- and inflows (production, treatment, transmission, storage and distribution),
- on-site inspections: the inspection concentrated on the trunk mains; knowing the bigger
impact of leakages on big sized pipes and on the appurtenances, as most leakages in
the network occur at network appurtenances like valves, fire hydrants and service con-
nections.
- comparison of flow readings at outflows and inflows of the production site and reser-
voirs can be done using ultrasound flow meters plus readings on bulk meters installed
in the system. Measurements can be done on the transmission mains as well as for in-
flows and outflows for reservoirs within the distribution system.

CHAPTER 2

Provision of Consultancy Services forFeasibility Studies, Detailed Designs and Tender Documents for Urban Water and Sanitation Facilities in Bentiu, Bor, Torit, Aweil, Kuajok,
Rumbek and Yambio| Design Criteria Report| PAGE 2-6
Table 6: Assumed Base Population and Population Breakdowns
State
Capital Population Data
Assumed Base
Population
Growth
Rate to
Base
Year of
2012
Assumed
population
Year 2012
Consumption Types
2012
Consumption Types
2022
Consumption Types
2032
Pop. Year 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Yambio
Census 2008: 105,881
Estimated 2011: 105,881 105,881 2008 5% 128,699 95% 4% 1% 55% 30% 15% 30% 45% 25%
Rumbek
Census 2008: 70,534
Estimated 2011: 120,650 120,650 2011 5% 126,683 85% 10% 5% 55% 30% 15% 30% 45% 25%
Kuajok Estimated 2011: 60,000 60,000 2011 5% 63,000 100% 0% 0% 55% 30% 15% 30% 45% 25%
Aweil
Census 2008: 59,217
Estimated 2011: 120,460 120,460 2011 5% 126,483 100% 0% 0% 55% 30% 15% 30% 45% 25%
Bor
Census 2008: 61,716
Estimated 2011: 100,000 100,000 2011 5% 105,000 40% 30% 30% 30% 35% 35% 20% 35% 45%
Bentiu
Census 2008: 61,331
Estimated 2011: 95,000 95,000 2011 5% 99,750 40% 30% 30% 30% 35% 35% 20% 35% 45%
Torrit
Census 2008: 33,660
Estimated 2011: 54,045 54,045 2011 5% 56,747 40% 30% 30% 30% 35% 35% 20% 35% 45%

Consumer Categories
1 Kiosk Public Tap Consumers
2 Yard Tap Consumers
3 House Connection Consumers

CHAPTER 2

2.8 FIRE FIGHTING
Project Towns are classified as Urban areas, and thus fire fighting requirements will be consid-
ered for design of water distribution networks.
The location of fire hydrants will be finalized after consultation with the stakeholders and ap-
proval of the client.
This project adopts the following Tanzania design manual criteria for fire fighting:
- Minimum Flow at hydrant: 10 l/s
- Minimum residual pressure at hydrant: 15 m
- Number of Simultaneous Fires: 2
2.9 PEAK FACTORS
Peak factors will be used for establishing design capacities for dimensioning of facilities and
pipelines. These peak factors comprise peak day factor and peak hour factor.
Average daily demand multiplied by the peak day factor represents the maximum daily demand,
which will be used for design of intakes, transmission mains and treatment plants.
Maximum daily demand multiplied by the peak hour factor represents the maximum hourly de-
mand, which is used for design of water distribution systems. Fire fighting requirements are
added to the maximum daily demand.
Fire fighting reserve requirements are added to the maximum daily demand as 10% of the vol-
ume of the balancing reservoirs.
Table 7: Peak Factors
Population Tanzanian Design Manual
Range of Peak Factors
Design Basis for this Project

Peak Day Factor Peak Hour
Factor
Peak Day Factor Peak Hour Factor
10,000 1.80 1.50 2.40 -2.0 1.7 2.3
10,000 30,000 1.50 1.40 2.0 1.70 1.5 1.9
30,000 -100,000 1.50 -1.30 1.70 -1.60 1.4 1.7
More than 100,000 1.30 1.60-1.50 1.3 1.6

Water distribution networks will be dimensioned for fire fighting requirements for maximum day
demand conditions.

CHAPTER 3

3 3 D DE ES SI IG GN N O OF F W WA AT TE ER R S SU UP PP PL LY Y S SY YS ST TE EM MS S
3.1 WATER QUALITY
Water supply systems will be designed to achieve the WHO Standards latest edition: Guidelines
for Drinking Water Quality, 3
rd
Edition incorporating 1
st
and 2
nd
Addenda Vol1, Recommenda-
tions, 2008.
3.2 RAW WATER ABSTRACTION
3.2.1 Groundwater Abstraction
Drilling of a borehole will be completed to just lower than the bottom of the lowest aquifer to be
exploited. Boreholes will be cased to protect the hole and the pump rising main in the borehole.
Ductile Iron (DI) or PVC or Steel casings will be used depending on the type of formation and
quality of the groundwater. A pump will be installed at 2/3rd the depth of the water column or 1m
below the stabilised cone of depression. Groundwater abstraction will be limited to 80% of the
yield of the maximum pumping test.
Well casings will be installed:
- to be placed such that it finishes about 50cm above the ground surface,
- to be placed at all non-water bearing zones,
- to be placed about 1.5 or 2m from well bottom.

Blind casings will be used in the impervious formation, and slotted screens will be used in the
aquifer formation. Size of casing is determined by size of borehole and the annular space be-
tween casing and pump. The annular space between the borehole and filter casing will be filled
with washed and well-rounded gravel taken from a river bed.
The Consultant recommends the following specifications for gravel pack and screens:
- Thickness of gravel pack: minimum 100 mm,
- Grain size: 1.5 2mm, achieved through sieving of river sand,
- Material: Only quartz gravel will be accepted. The gravel must be clean and washed
(no dirt must enter the borehole). Crushed rocks will not be accepted,
- Shape of the grains: The grains must be well rounded; crushed rocks will be rejected,
- Slot widths of screens: 1mm.
The Consultant recommends the use of stainless steel for pump casing, impeller and motor for
borehole pumps for sources of groundwater with corrosive characteristics, depending on the pH
of the groundwater and the amount of corrosive compounds such as chlorides in the water.
3.2.2 Surface Water Abstraction
Intakes in rivers will preferably be 3 to 4m below the surface but at least 1m above the river bot-
tom. In rivers with bilharzia risk, the intake point will be a minimum of 80m from the shoreline
with a connecting underwater pipeline.
Gravity intake pipes will be designed for a flow equal to 120 percent of the pump capacity with a
self-cleaning velocity of at least 0.7m/s.
A strainer will be mounted on the inlet and will be at least 1.0m below water level and at least
1.0m above the bottom. The velocity through the strainer will be less than 0.7m/s. The width of
strainer slits will preferably be less than 5mm and of strainer holes 5 10mm. The design of
CHAPTER 3

the strainer will allow for 30% clogging. Total opening of the strainer will be 2 3 times the
cross-area of the intake pipe.
3.3 TRANSMISSION MAINS
3.3.1 General
Transmission mains will be designed to have minimum slopes of 0.3% for DN 200 mm and
0.2% for DN > 200 mm.
Flow velocities in transmission mains will be between 0.6 2m/s and will be lower in smaller
diameter pipes and higher in larger diameter pipes. The maximum operating velocity will be
2m/s to ensure safe operation of the pipeline.
Minimum pipe cover will be 1m unless the Engineer authorizes a shallower installation, in which
case, special measures may be specified. Pipes above ground will be coated Steel or Ductile
Iron (DI) pipe materials.
Transmission mains will be sized using the Hazen Williams formula for pipe head losses. The
Consultant recommends a C-value of 100 for existing pipelines, 140 for new Steel or Ductile
Iron (DI) pipe materials, and 140 for new PVC and HDPE pipe materials. Given that the pipes
will have to perform according to the required demand for 20 years, the following C factors are
recommended to be used for this project:
- Steel or Ductile Iron (DI) pipe materials: C=100
- PVC and HDPE pipe materials: C=130
Minor head losses will be calculated by assuming a loss of 10% above pipe friction losses (i.e.
increasing the length of the pipes by 10% of actual for the purpose of distribution modelling).
3.3.2 Gravity Mains
Gravity mains will be sized so that the total quantity required for the future forecasted maximum
daily demand can flow through the pipe in 24 hours.
3.3.3 Pressure Mains
Pressure mains will be sized so that the total quantity required for the future forecasted maxi-
mum daily demand can flow through the pipe in 16 hours.
PVC pipe materials will not be used for pressure mains. The Consultant recommends this crite-
rion for long transmission mains, because PVC pipes are susceptible to ovaling from negative
pressure surges. PVC pipes are also susceptible to uneven soil settlement. The combination of
these two conditions can result in high leakages at socketed joints.
3.3.4 Pipe Fittings and Valves
All throttling valves will be gate valves. Isolating valves up to and including DN 300 will be gate
valves, and valves larger than DN 300 will be butterfly valves except where otherwise specifical-
ly required.
All valves will be designed for a maximum permissible differential working pressure of 16 Bar
except where higher pressures are necessary.
Air valves will be fitted at all high points and at significant changes in downward slope. Distance
between air valves will not exceed 1000m for long transmission mains, and will not exceed
600m for transmission mains of minimum slope in flat areas.
Washouts will be fitted at all low points. For large diameter mains the washout tee will be an in-
vert tee to evacuate water and any settled deposits from the pipeline. Error! Reference source
CHAPTER 3

not found. presents criteria for minimum washout branch diameters of washouts (from Tanza-
nian Design Manual).
Table 8: Minimum Washout Sizes
Main Pipeline Diameter Washout Branch Diameter
Up to 300 mm 80 mm
400 - 600 mm 100 mm
700 - 1000 mm 150 mm
1100 - 1400 mm 200 mm
1600 mm & greater 250 mm
3.3.5 Surge Protection
Surge pressures will be considered when designing transmission mains. Maximum surge pres-
sures will be calculated when assessing the risk of system failure. Special attention will be given
to negative pressures in rising mains. Appropriate surge protection will be provided for systems
where system failure is likely to happen.
Simple Guide for Design of Air Vessels for Water Hammer Protection of Pumping Lines (ASCE
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, August 2002) will be referred as appropriate.
3.4 WATER PUMP STATIONS
3.4.1 Pumping Capacity
For electrically driven pumps, the Consultant recommends that intake pump stations are de-
signed with a capacity to operate for 22 hours per day.
Where the reliability of electrical power supply is questionable, a standby diesel generator unit
will be included to provide for at least 50% of the maximum pumping capacity of the station.
For diesel engine powered pumps, the pumping capacity will be fixed in accordance with the
stipulation above, but based on a pumping period of not more than 14 hours per day.
The Consultant recommends that the incoming flow to any booster pump station would not be
less than 110% of the capacity of the booster pump station.
3.4.2 Pump Materials
The Consultant recommends the use of stainless steel for pump casing and impeller for raw wa-
ter sources with both corrosive and erosive characteristics, depending on the pH of the water
and the amount of corrosive and erosive compounds such as chlorides and grit in the water.
3.4.3 Suction Mains
The Consultant recommends that the flow velocity in suction mains will not exceed 1.5m/s. Site
average NPHS will be kept greater than the required NPSH by at least 1m. Raw water submers-
ible pumps will be considered instead of above surface pumps.
3.4.4 Instrumentation
Pressure gauges will be provided to monitor suction and delivery pressures for each pump.
Voltmeters and ammeters will be provided for each switch-gear and each motor starter panel.
For large motors above 200 kW, a thermometer should be incorporated to monitor the motor
bearing temperature under running conditions. Hour-meters on larger but not on smaller rotating
assemblies should be provided to monitor the total period of use of such items.
CHAPTER 3

3.5 STORAGE TANKS
3.5.1 Water Treatment Reservoirs
For water treatment facilities using pumped backwashing of rapid sand filters: the Consultant
recommends that reservoirs at these facilities will be designed with two compartments. The first
compartment will function as a sump for backwash pumps, and store a sufficient amount of fil-
tered and chlorinated water for two backwashes, while also providing a chlorine contact time of
at least 30 minutes to ensure sufficient disinfection. The second compartment will be used ex-
clusively for storage of final treated water.
3.5.2 Water Distribution Reservoirs
The Consultant recommends that storage tanks, which also provide pressure balance within the
distribution system, have total cumulative capacity equivalent to 30% of maximum daily demand
for each design phase. This capacity is used for the sum of demand balancing, emergency and
fire fighting reserve. In these cases any distribution pumping from WTPs would not exceed the
maximum daily demand for each design phase (excluding stand-by pumps).
The following storage capacities shall be used in this project:
- Balancing Storage: 35% of Maximum Day Demand
- Fire Storage: 10% of Maximum Day Demand
- Emergency: 5% of Maximum Day Demand
- Total Storage Capacity: 50% of Maximum Day Demand
3.5.3 Reservoir Design
Ground reservoirs and elevated tanks may either be reinforced concrete or steel. At or near the
coast, concrete structures will be used because of the salt laden atmosphere.
Ground reservoirs will have heights not less than 3 metres and not higher than 6 metres.
The most economic plan shape for a two-compartment rectangular reservoir is usually obtained
when its length at right-angles to the division wall is 1.5 times its breadth.
The Consultant recommends that flat-roofed concrete reservoirs will be covered with earth and
grassed, but a gravel topping would also be considered.
3.6 DIMENSIONING OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
3.6.1 Pressure Requirements
Consultant recommends minimum residual pressure of 10m for distribution mains unless ap-
proved by the Engineer. Maximum pressure for distribution mains will be 60m. Storied buildings
would make their own arrangements for boosting the water where the pressure is not sufficient
for upper stories of these buildings.
3.6.2 Hydraulic Design of Distribution Mains
Distribution networks will be dimensioned for two demand scenarios which represent critical op-
erating conditions of the network. First scenario represents maximum hourly demand conditions
based on lowest water levels in service reservoirs. Second scenario represents minimum hourly
demand conditions based on maximum water levels in service reservoirs. Minimum hourly de-
mand would be based on the inverse of the peak hourly factor.
The Consultant recommends that velocity in pipes will be limited as follows:
CHAPTER 3

- 50 100 mm diameter = 0.6 1.0 m/s
- 150 250 mm diameter = 1.0 1.5 m/s
- 300 600 mm diameter = 1.2 2.0 m/s
Distribution mains will be sized using the Hazen Williams formula for pipe head losses. The
Consultant recommends a C-value of 100 for Steel or Ductile Iron (DI) pipe materials, and 130
for PVC and HDPE pipe materials.
3.7 DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
3.7.1 System Design of Distribution Network
No service connection will be taken from primary distribution mains. Where a service main
draws water directly from a primary distribution main, a valve will be placed straight on to the
branch of the tee. Similarly, where a service main branches from another, the branch will be
provided with a valve.
All individual connections will consist of a pipe of HDPE material of minimum 15 mm diameter
which shall be taken from the nearest distribution pipe by a ferruled saddle or reducing tee, de-
pending on the size and material of the distribution pipe. Ferrules alone will not be used. The
service pipe will be laid till just outside or just within the plot boundary, where the stop cock and
meter will be located.
Public kiosks will serve not more than 1,500 people within a walking distance not exceeding
400m. Each kiosk will have taps serving not more than 250 people per tap.
3.7.2 Flow Metering
Flow meters will be provided for outflows at all pump stations, water treatment reservoirs and
public storage tanks.
Bulk flow meters of diameters greater than 150 mm will be inclined in-line turbine type meters.
Domestic (consumer) meters will be of the single jet inferential type.
3.7.3 Zoning and District Metering
Appropriate zoning of the water supply areas will be defined in order to identify the locations for
the installation of bulk water meters and section valves for suitable district metering.
Zones will be defined according to energy source. A pressure zone is normally commanded by
one or several high level reservoirs. If the scheme does not permit construction of a number of
reservoirs due to financial or other constraints, then separate distribution mains can be taken
from the same service reservoir, and each zone will have its own separate distribution system,
but with interlinking between the zones via a normally closed valve.
District metered areas (DMAs) will be defined according to one of the following types:
- Branch DMA: This type has only one possible inflow location to the DMA. This type is
most applicable for towns that have no regular layout of roads.
- Grid DMA: This type has inflow into the DMA from at least two directions. This type is
most applicable for towns that have a rectangular road layout.
- Ring DMA: This type has distribution mains located around the DMA boundaries. The
flow is directed inward from any side and reaches any location inside the DMA.
- Radial DMA: This type has a distribution reservoir placed at the centre of a DMA and
the supply pipes radiate out away towards the DMA boundaries. If a town has a radial
layout of roads, this type may be the most suitable.
CHAPTER 5

4 4 D DE ES SI IG GN N O OF F W WA AT TE ER R T TR RE EA AT TM ME EN NT T F FA AC CI IL LI IT TI IE ES S
4.1 GENERAL
The following methods of water treatment are considered to be suitable, used in different com-
binations as necessary to achieve the desired results:
- Screening or straining
- Roughing or pre-treatment filters
- Plain sedimentation
- Chemical coagulation, flocculation and settling
- Filtration either by Slow Sand or Rapid Gravity filtration
- Disinfection
- Control of algae
- Taste and odour control
- Softening
- Removal of iron and manganese
- De-fluoridation of water
Minimum treatment will be: disinfection for groundwater sources; and some form of filtration fol-
lowed by disinfection for surface water sources. The most feasible (technically and financially)
option will be developed for each town / source individually.
4.2 SCREENING
The following are typical of surface water screens:
- They should be easily accessible, at least during medium and low flows, and inclined
upwards away from the river or stream.
- Velocity entering the screen not should exceed 0.3m/sec.
- Size of the openings of the screen should be: 10
-2
to 10
-3
m (normally 25mm for coarse
screen and 6mm for fine screen)
Head losses for screening units will be calculated using the following formula:

with: b = Shape factor

w = maximum bar width
b = minimum aperture width
V = velocity in pipe
= the angle of inclination of the bars to the horizontal.
The Consultant recommends two units for any proposed screening, and each one of the two
screen wall openings is designed for the full design flow.
In case larger amounts of suspended solids are expected to be found in the raw surface water:
the Consultant recommends to consider band or drum screens, which are arranged as endless
bands or rotating drums of perforated materials. The screening element (band or drum) is in
u | sin
2
2
3
4
g
V
b
w
h
a
|
.
|
\
|
=
CHAPTER 5

continuous movement, and is continuously and automatically cleaned by a water jet washing off
the screened material into a trough.
In case the raw surface water contains a considerable amount of zooplankton, algae or other
microscopic-sized particles: microstrainers might be used in addition or as alternative to the
screens. Microstrainers are revolving drums mounted in open tanks with a straining medium
usually being a stainless steel wire fabric of a very fine mesh (apertures of 20 to 50 m).
Microstrainer drums are submerged for about 75% of its diameter and rotates at about 1 to 5
rpm. The raw water enters the drum axially and flows out radially through the fabric. Cleaning is
accomplished by a row of water jets along the full length of the rotating drum. Particulate matter
is thus backwashed into a hopper placed along the full length of the drum.
4.3 DESILTING
Any proposed desilting facilities shall be designed with the following criteria:
- Intake velocity is normally in the range of 1 to 1.5 m/sec
- Velocity entering the chamber is reduced to 0.5 m/sec
- Silt then settles when upward velocity is between 0.15 m/min - 0.90 m/min.
- A means of silt removal is provided, and where possible this would be done by flushing
under gravity flow conditions back to the water source
4.4 AERATION
4.4.1 Spray Aerators
Any proposed spray aerators shall be designed to have diameters 10 40mm. The pressure at
the nozzle head would be 2 9m. Discharge rating per nozzle would be 30 600 l/min. Aerator
areas would be 30 90 m2 per 1,000m3/hr.
4.4.2 Multiple Tray Aerators
Any proposed multiple tray aerators shall have 3 5 trays at intervals of 0.3 0.7m with a head
of 1.5 3m. The area would be 15 to 45 m2 per 1,000 m3/hr per tray, with the total area of the
trays about 70 150 m2 per 1,000 m3/h depending on the number of trays applied.
4.4.3 Cascade Aerator
For any proposed cascade aerators, the efficiency of the aeration process is determined by the
hydraulic loading of the cascade weirs, which shall be in the range of 20 100 m3/h*m.
Exposure time can be increased by increasing the number of steps which shall be between 3
and 10 steps. The fall in each step will be 0.15 0.6 m. The area would be 40 m2 per 1,000
m3/hr per step, with the total area of the steps about 200 400 m2 per 1,000 m3/h depending
on the number of steps applied.
4.5 COAGULATION
4.5.1 Rapid Mixing
For rapid mixing in coagulation processes, operation and maintenance costs are minimized by
using either of the following options:
- Static mixers making use of turbulent flow within a pressure pipeline
- Hydraulic mixers making use of a hydraulic jump (for example at a weir overflow)
CHAPTER 5

Static mixers are pipeline mixers with radial mixing by employing stationary, shaped diverters
within the pipeline, which forces the liquids (the raw water and the coagulant solution) to mix
themselves. These mixers comprise fixed mixing elements installed in a housing of a diameter
which is the same as the pipe diameter.
Hydraulic mixers provide the power input according to the hydraulic head loss according to the
following formula:
P = Q * * g * h
with: P: power input (W)
Q: water flow (m
3
/s)
: water density (kg/m
3
)
g: gravity acceleration (m/s
2
)
h: hydraulic head loss (m)
Hydraulic mixers are usually suitable where some head loss can be tolerated. When compared
to static mixers, hydraulic mixers have the advantage that the coagulant dosing can be moni-
tored by visual observation (open flow), whereas in static mixers the coagulant solution is dosed
into a pressure pipeline and possible pipe blockage may not easily be observed.
The Consultant recommends that electrically driven stirrers are not used because of potential
maintenance problems.
However, if electrically driven mechanical mixers would be used, the Consultant recommends
the use of high speed flash mixers because optimum coagulation efficiency greatly depends on
the rapid dispersion of the coagulant in the raw water. This may not be fully achieved with pad-
dle type mixers at moderate rotation speed.
Rapid Mixing of Impeller Type
These mixers operate at high rotational speeds from 150 to 1,500 rpm or more and are mounted
on a vertical or inclined shaft. In the design of this type of flash mixer which is usually deep,
circular or square a detention time of 10 to 40 seconds would be provided. The preferred ve-
locity gradient is 300 m/s per metre depth or more.
Power required is 1 3 watts per m
3
/hr flow. Impeller diameter to tank diameter D
i
/D
t
should be
0.2 0.4 where D
i
is impeller diameter and D
t
is tank diameter.
The shaft speed of the propeller would be greater than 100 rpm for imparting a tangential veloci-
ty greater than 3m/s. The preferred ratio of height to diameter of tank is 1:1 3:1. To reduce
vortex and rotational movement of water about the impeller shaft, baffles projecting 1/10 1/12
of the tank diameter at least in four places along the wall of tank would be provided. The mixing
chamber would be placed below the chemical feed flow ensuring short chemical feed lines.
Rapid Mixing of Paddle Type
Any mixing in a tank with paddles would have the following criteria:
- mixing time: 0.2 2 minutes
- circle speed: 0.6 2m/sec
- revolution per minute: 5 20 rpm
- energy: 1 4 Wh/m3
- G = velocity gradient: 700 1000 (s-1)
CHAPTER 5

4.5.2 Coagulant Chemicals
Aluminium Sulphate (Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
*18H
2
O) (Alum) is the most widely used chemical for water co-
agulation. However, an alternative coagulant Polyaluminium Chloride (PAC) has proven its suit-
ability and has significant advantages when compared to the use of Alum:
- Improved floc formation,
- Significantly reduced coagulant dosing rates (reduction of more than 50% possible),
thus compensating the higher unit price if compared to Alum,
- Low or even no relevant pH-reduction (whereas Alum dosing at common dosing rates
usually requires lime dosing for pH-correction),
- Less sludge production in the sedimentation stage.
The suitability of alternative coagulants and the determination of most appropriate dosing rates
should be subject to water treatability tests (Jar-Tests).
4.6 FLOCCULATION
4.6.1 General
The required power input for moderate mixing in the flocculation stage may be achieved by ei-
ther hydraulic or mechanical means.
Baffled flocculation basins are preferred over other alternatives for reasons of lower operation
and maintenance requirements, and less operation costs, especially because no electrically
driven devices are involved.
Baffled flocculation basins may either be of the horizontally baffled type (sinuous channel with
around-the-end baffles) or of the vertically baffled type (over- and under-baffles). For easiness
of operation (especially cleaning) the horizontally baffled type (sinuous channel) is preferred.
The Consultant recommends the following criteria for the flocculation process:
- G 15 60 s-1
- GT 10,000 100,000
- HRT 15 60 minutes
4.6.2 Horizontally Baffled Flocculation (Sinuous Channel)
Sinuous channels would be designed for flow velocities of 0.25 0.4m/sec and a detention pe-
riod of 20 30 minutes. The head loss over the total channel may range from 0.3 1m. Higher
velocities are preferred for highly turbid water.
The loss of head in bends is computed as 2 3.5 times the velocity head for each 180 degree
bend (half cycle turn) for round-the-end type.
This option does not involve mechanical moving parts, except only fixed staggered baffles to
achieve large and settlable flocs.
4.6.3 Mechanical Flocculation (Mixing)
For very large size plants, mechanical agitators of the paddle type installed in distinct floccula-
tion chambers can be considered.
In case of mechanical flocculation, it is recommended to apply the so-called tapered flocculation
with at least two flocculation chambers in series. The power input in the first chamber would be
significantly higher, whereas it reduces in the second chamber in order not to destroy the flocs.
CHAPTER 5

The peripheral velocity should be between 0.5 and 0.8m/s in the first tank and between 0.1 and
0.3 m/s in the second tank.
- Detention time = 15 60 minutes
- Paddle area = 10% 20% of area of flocculator
- Head loss in mechanical flocculation is generally of the order of 0.1 0.2m
4.7 CLARIFICATION
4.7.1 Conventional Settling Tanks
Conventional settling tanks may either be horizontal flow clarifiers or vertical flow clarifiers.
Typical surface loading rates for conventional clarifiers are 1m/h for horizontal tanks and 2m/h
for up flow tanks. The latter can be increased to up to 5m/h if polyelectrolytes are used as floc-
culation aid.
Conventional settling tanks would be designed using weir overflow rates of 250 300 m
3
/m
2
/day
and surface loading of 1.0 m
3
/m
2
/h (or 24 m
3
/m
2
/day) calculated on net available surface area.
Effective depth of water would be a minimum of 2.0m allowing for sludge deposits, with the total
net depth at least 2.5m.
Average detention times in conventional settling tanks may range between 2 hours for vertical
flow clarifiers and 4 hours for horizontal flow clarifiers.
To avoid destruction of flocs, the velocity of the flocculated water between flocculation tank and
the settling tank should at no place exceed 0.2m/s.
4.7.2 Lamellae Settlers
Lamellae type clarifiers are settling tanks equipped with inclined parallel plates or tubes in order
to significantly increase the effective settling surface. This configuration allows much higher sur-
face loadings and will thus reduce the overall area required for these clarifiers.
Typical surface loading rates for lamellae type clarifiers are in the range of 5 12m/h, but pur-
pose built units may even attain 20m/h or even higher rates, depending on the raw water char-
acteristics and the flocs produced in the coagulation and flocculation stage. The angle of inclina-
tion to the horizontal is usually 55
o
70
o
.
In order to avoid algae growing enhanced by direct sunlight, the clarifiers should be covered by
an appropriate sun protection roof.
4.8 FILTRATION
4.8.1 General
Rapid gravity sand filters are the most widely used filtration devices, having proven their effi-
ciency for a wide range of different types of water. Rapid gravity sand filters allow operational
flexibility, especially in terms of the frequency and the phasing of the filter backwashing. How-
ever, rapid gravity sand filters have higher operation and maintenance requirements when com-
pared to slow sand filters.
Slow sand filters provide a low operation and maintenance solution for low turbidity waters. This
option represents a static process without any operational flexibility. Due to the smaller grain
size, slow sand filters may tend to clog easier, especially for cases where the water fed to the
slow sand filters contains algae.

CHAPTER 5

4.8.2 Rapid Sand Filtration
Filters will be constructed in banks of three or more filter units, and each filter unit would have
an individual inlet that can be closed for maintenance and backwashing. The inlet would be de-
signed in such a way that flushing and velocities over 0.4m/s do not occur.
Surface loads would be between 4 and 7 m3/h*m2, and the filter structure would be designed
with a minimum height between the top of the filter media and the bottom of the wash water
channel of at least 30% of the height of the filter media as this expands during backwashing.
The filter bed would be approximately 1.0m thick and preferably consist of well rounded quartz
sand with an effect size of 0.7 1.0mm and uniformity coefficient in the range of 1.3 1.5. The
supporting gravel layer would have a minimum height of 0.1m and grain size of 2 8mm.
The available hydraulic head above the top of the filter bed would be 1.3 1.5m (for constant
head type filters) and around 2.0 2.5m (for constant flow type filters).
The most effective filter backwashing is achieved by the sequence of air scour to loosen the
clogged filter media, followed by a combined air/water sequence and finished by rinsing only
with water.
Backwashing of each filter unit is usually required once within 48 hours, however the design of
the filter backwashing facilities will allow for backwashing of each filter unit once every 24 hours.
The backwash procedure consists of a sequence of three steps:
- Air scour at a rate of 50 60m/h for 3 5 minutes
- Combined air scour (50 60m/h) and wash water (10 20m/h) for 5 10 minutes
- Water rinsing at a rate of 25 to 30 m/h for 5 to 10 minutes.
The required amount of wash water for backwashing of one filter unit will always be available
and will be taken from the treated (disinfected) clear water storage tank.
4.8.3 Slow Sand Filters
Slow sand filters consist of a relatively deep sand bed over a supporting bed of fine gravel and
an under-drain pipe-work system (typically 0.9 1.2m deep on start-up) and are cleaned by pe-
riodically removing the surface layer until the remaining bed depth is not less than 0.6m before
being re-sanded. The sand used is finer than the 1 2mm range that is typical in rapid sand
filters, having typically a mean particle size in the range of 0.15 0.4mm.
For slow sand filtration, the turbidity in the incoming water should not exceed an average of 5
10 NTU, and certain (filamentous) types of algae and organic load must be low. Any temporary
shock-loads by high turbidity waters (e.g. during rainy periods) must also be avoided.
For calculation of total area of slow sand filter beds, a working rate of 0.1 0.15 m3/m2/hr
would be used. When one filter is not operational, the working rate of the remaining filter beds
would not exceed 0.2m3/m2/h.
The chamber outlet should be made large enough to keep the entrance velocity into the slow
sand filter below 0.1m/s.
The grain size distribution of the filter sand should have an effective size 0.15 0.35mm and the
coefficient of uniformity should preferably be about 1.75 but less than 3.
About 1.5m of head of water above the filter bed should be adequate.
The collection pipes beneath the filter zone would be placed at 1m intervals and be perforated
with holes of 3.5mm diameter, or by saw-cuts placed on the underside of the pipe. The distance
between holes or saw-cuts would be about 100mm. Around the collection pipes and up to a lev-
el of about 0.3m above, a bottom layer of broken stones (50 to 100mm) and coarse gravel
(grain size 16 to 23mm) would be placed. Above this layer would be placed a layer of about
CHAPTER 5

0.1m finer gravel (grain size 4 to 5.6mm) and a layer of about 0.1m coarse sand (grain size 1 to
4mm) on top of which is placed the actual filter sand.
Filter cleaning, by scraping off a 25mm surface layer of sand, is required at intervals, usually of
between 30 and 100 days depending on the turbidity of the water being filtered. The depth of
sand should not be allowed to become less than 600mm.
The Consultant recommends a minimum of two filter units would be provided for any proposed
slow sand filtration.
4.9 DISINFECTION
4.9.1 Ultraviolet radiation
Light radiation is an effective disinfection method for clear water, but its effectiveness is signifi-
cantly reduced when the water is turbid and contains nitrate, sulphate, and ferrous iron.
In addition, this disinfection method does not produce any residual that would protect the water
against any new contamination that could serve for control and monitoring purpose.
Hence UV disinfection is not recommended for the present Project.
4.9.2 Ozone
Ozone is increasingly used for disinfection of drinking water supplies in industrialized countries
because it is effective in eliminating compounds that give objectionable taste or colour in water.
Like UV disinfection, ozone normally leaves no measurable residual which could serve for moni-
toring the process. The absence of a residual also means that there is no protection against
new contamination of the water after its disinfection.
The high installation and operation costs, and the need for continuous power, make the use of
ozone relatively expensive. Furthermore the operation of ozone generators requires a number
of safety precaution measures, which might not be easily ensured under the operational condi-
tions within the present Project towns.
Hence disinfection using ozone is not recommended for the present Project.
4.9.3 Chlorination
Chlorine and chlorine compounds provide a number of advantages when compared to other dis-
infection methods and disinfection chemicals.
Its ability to destroy pathogens is fair, and its widespread availability makes it well suited for dis-
infection. Its cost is moderate, and for these reasons chlorine is the most widely used disinfect-
ant throughout the world. As a disadvantage, chlorination by-products such as trihalomethanes
are of possible health concern.
Alternative chlorine dosing chemicals comprise the following:
- For large schemes, the use of gaseous chlorine is preferable.
- For medium sized schemes, the use of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or calcium hypo-
chlorite (HTH) with 65 70 % available chlorine is preferable.
- For small schemes, chlorinated lime or bleaching powder Ca02*Ca(OCl)2 with up to
39% available chlorine is preferable.
Great care must always be taken when using chlorine as gaseous form because it is extremely
poisonous. Only qualified and authorised personnel should be involved in mixing and dosing.
Chlorine solutions should wherever possible be fed into the water by means of gravity or dis-
placement dosers, and dosing pumps would only be used for medium and large plants.
CHAPTER 5

A contact period of at least 30 minutes in the clear water tank and the transmission main should
be allowed before the water reaches the first consumer.
Normally the necessary disinfectant added would be in the range of 0.5 2.0 mg/l (free chlo-
rine). If chlorine gas is used, the cylinders or drums must be stored in a cool, well-ventilated
place. Valves must never be left open after use, as any residual gas then combines with mois-
ture to form hydrochloric acid.
If bleaching powder is used, then separate mixing and dosing tanks must be provided so that
solid deposits do not clog the dosing mechanism and that the dose at the point of application
would be visible.
In case the chlorine raw product is supplied in dry powder form (such as for calcium hypo-
chlorite), the mixing tanks should be designed to operate at least for a period of 8 hours at max-
imum dosing rate. The storage area for chlorine raw product should allow for 30 days storage at
maximum dosing rate.
Chlorine residual meters should also be provided for measuring chlorine concentration for water
conveyed after disinfection from the treatment plant for distribution.
4.10 SLUDGE TREATMENT
Sludge in water treatment mainly occurs as settled suspended solids in the clarification stage
and as filter backwash water from rapid gravity sand filters.
Coagulant sludges result from treatment plants using coagulation chemicals, and these sludges
often need to be treated before disposal.
Sludges from process units not using chemicals and from slow-sand filters are predominantly
innocuous, and may often be disposed off to watercourses without treatment.
In a well operated clarification and filtration plant using coagulation, most of the suspended mat-
ter is removed in the clarifiers, leaving about 2-5 mg/l of suspended solids to be removed by the
filters. Therefore filter wash water is comparatively dilute and chemical free when compared to
the clarifier sludge.
The recommended technology for clarifier sludge treatment is sludge drying beds. Thereafter
the dried sludge would be disposed off to a municipal landfill site, whereas the drying beds
drainage water may be transferred to the water course (subject to approval of the corresponding
Authority) or could be recycled to the head of the water treatment plant.
Sedimentation is recommended for filter backwash water treatment, with the settled solids to be
transferred together with the clarifier sludge to the sludge drying beds, whereas the supernatant
of the sedimentation tank may be transferred to the water course (subject to approval of the cor-
responding Authority) or could be recycled to the head of the water treatment plant.
The sedimentation tank for filter backwash water treatment will have a minimum capacity to hold
two backwash water cycles, including a 20% safety factor.
Assuming a settling velocity of the backwash water of 0.8m/h and a tank depth of 4m, a settling
time of about 5 hours is required.
The design of the sludge drying beds should be based on a specific drying bed area of at least
40 m per 1,000 m/d water production capacity.
The total depth of the drying bed should be at least 1m. About 0.5m is required for sludge ac-
cumulation and storage of the dewatered sludge, and about 0.5m is required for take-up of the
daily quantity of non-dewatered sludge.

CHAPTER 6

5 5 D DE ES SI IG GN N O OF F S SA AN NI IT TA AT TI IO ON N S SY YS ST TE EM MS S
5.1 ON-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS
5.1.1 Overall Sanitation Strategy
An overall sanitation strategy will consider measures to provide septic tanks to those house-
holds presently lacking septic tanks, regardless whether these households have flush toilets or
not. Such sanitation strategy would also include measures to improve services for emptying
septic tank sludge, and then treating and disposing this sludge.
Charges for emptying of septic tanks must also be considered as part of an overall sanitation
strategy.
5.1.2 Septic Tanks
The sizes of septic tanks are based on the criteria of Error! Reference source not found..
Table 9: Septic Tank Sizing
Type All Wastes
(No. of Users)
Solid Wastes Only
(No. of Users)
Dimensions
Length
(mm)
Width
(mm)
Depth
(mm)
1 1 to 6 10 2100 600 1500
2 7 20 2600 750 1700
3 15 30 3000 900 1700
4 30 45 3500 1050 1800
5 40 60 4000 1200 1800
5.1.3 Treatment of Septic Tank Sludge
The Consultant recommends design criteria of 1 l/cap/day or 0.035 m
3
/cap/year for the volume
of sludge from septic tanks to be further treated in any proposed sludge treatment system.
Any separate treatment of sludge collected from septic tanks would be based on anaerobic
ponds with have a minimum depth of 2 to 5 m. The bottom and slopes would be lined with 40cm
of clay in order to avoid infiltration, where HDPE lining would be considered as an alternative.
The slopes from the top to 1m under the water level would be protected with stone pitching.
This sludge treatment would be based on the following criteria:
- Maximum BOD load: 320 mg/l
- Minimum retention time (liquid): 3 days
- Sludge storage: minimum 1 year
- Total solids (TS) content in raw sludge: 2.5%
- Faecal coliform: 2,500 No./ml
- Suspended solids (SS): 6,000 g/m3
- Removal of total solids (TS) in anaerobic pond: 80%
- Removal of BOD in anaerobic pond: 60%
Sludge drying beds would have a sludge depth of 0.2m. The bottom of the bed would consist of
a 0.15m layer of fine sand, followed by a 0.1m layer of coarse sand and a 0.2m layer of graded
CHAPTER 6

gravel. Beneath the gravel layer, a crushed stone layer varying in size with total a depth of
0.15m would be built as the bottom layer. 150mm PVC drainage pipes would be laid below the
crushed stone layer at a longitudinal slope of 1:200.
5.2 SLUDGE TREATMENT FACILITIES
5.2.1 Waste Stabilisation Ponds
The Consultant recommends that any proposed sludge treatment facilities would be based on
waste stabilisation ponds (WSP), especially where land is relatively cheap and available. Any
proposed WSP facility may comprise a combination of anaerobic, facultative and maturation
ponds, or as a single treatment unit, or several such units in parallel. Anaerobic and facultative
ponds would be designed for BOD removal, and maturation ponds for pathogen removal, alt-
hough some BOD removal occurs in maturation ponds, and some pathogen removal in anaero-
bic and facultative ponds. The final effluent quality would depend largely on the size and num-
ber of maturation ponds and a relatively non-toxic influent.
Any proposed WSP facility would be located at least 200m (preferably 500m) downwind from
the community they serve. Ponds would not be located within 2km of airports to avoid risks to
air navigation from birds attracted to the ponds.
Anaerobic and facultative ponds would be rectangular with a length-to-breadth ratio of 23:1.
Facultative and maturation ponds would have greater length-to-breadth ratios (maximum 10:1).
A single inlet and outlet to each pond are sufficient and would be located in diagonally opposite
corners of the pond.
Any proposed WSP facility would have two or more series of ponds in parallel to allow a contin-
uous waste water treatment process even at times of maintenance. Each pond would have a
bypass for desludging operations.
The inlets to anaerobic and facultative ponds would discharge well below the liquid level to min-
imize short circuiting (especially in deep anaerobic ponds) and thus reduce the quantity of scum
which is especially important in facultative ponds.
Inlets to facultative and maturation ponds would also discharge below liquid level preferably at
mid-depth in order to reduce possibilities of short-circuiting. Outlets of all ponds would be pro-
tected against the discharge of scum by the provision of scum guards.
Take-off levels for the effluent which is controlled by the scum guard depth would be as follows:
- Anaerobic ponds: 300mm
- Facultative ponds: 600mm
- Maturation ponds: 50mm
The bottom and slopes of a pond would be lined with 40cm of clay in order to avoid infiltration,
where HDPE lining will be considered as an alternative. The slopes from the top to 1m under
the water level would be protected with stone pitching or possibly concrete slabs.
5.2.2 Influent Design Parameters
Any proposed WSP facility would be designed for an influent with a BOD load of 40 g per capita
per day, and a faecal coliform load of 1108 per 100 ml. Individual industrial discharges can be
quantified separately using a BOD load of 6 kg/ha/d.
5.2.3 Effluent Quality Requirements
Any proposed WSP facility would meet required standards as presented in Error! Reference
source not found..
CHAPTER 6

Table 10: Standards for Effluent from Sewage Treatment Works
DISCHARGE BOD (mg/l) TSS (mg/l) E.Coli/100 ml
To Rivers < 25 < 50 < 5,000
Unrestricted Irrigation (WHO) < 25 < 50 < 1,000
5.2.4 Screening
Any proposed WSP facility would also include screening as first treatment unit. The design crite-
ria of such screening units would be:
- Material of coarse screens Stainless Steel
- Width of spaces between bars for coarse screens 75 150mm
- Width of bars for coarse screen 20mm
- Width of spaces between bars for medium screens 18 50mm
- Width of bars for medium screens 10 12mm
- Velocity of flow at maximum flow 0.9m/s
- Velocity of flow at minimum flow 0.3m/s
5.2.5 Anaerobic Ponds
Any proposed anaerobic ponds would have a pond depth of 34m and would be designed on
the basis of a volumetric BOD loading rate of 300 g/m3*d. Retention time would be 5 days with
a BOD reduction of 5570%.
5.2.6 Facultative Ponds
Any proposed facultative ponds would have a pond depth greater than 2m and would be de-
signed on the basis of a surface BOD loading of 100400 kg BOD/ha*d. Operating depth of liq-
uid would be from 11.5m. BOD reduction would be 7080%.
5.2.7 Maturation Ponds
Any proposed maturation ponds would have a depth of 11.5m. These ponds would be used
mainly for pathogen removal.
Faecal coliform removal can be modelled by first order kinetics. DMWSW provides values for
the first-order rate constant at various temperatures.

CHAPTER 7

6 6 E EC CO ON NO OM MI IC C C CR RI IT TE ER RI IA A
6.1 SELECTION OF PIPELINE MATERIALS
Selection of pipeline materials for water supply considers the following factors:
- Costs of materials supply
- Costs of construction and installation
- Economic working life and costs of replacement
- Maintenance costs (including economic costs of leakage)
Selection of pipe materials is also based on the function of the pipe, especially as pressure
mains. Consequently, the Consultant recommends the following:
- Pressure mains of all diameters, and primary mains of DN 350 and greater, will be ei-
ther Ductile Iron (DI) or Steel pipes, and selected according to the lowest cost of sup-
ply, construction and installation.
- Primary mains of DN 300 and smaller, and tertiary or secondary network of all diame-
ters, will be either uPVC or HDPE pipes, and selected according to total cost of owner-
ship including: (1) the costs of replacement for an economic working life of 20 years for
uPVC pipes, 30 years for HDPE pipes with socketed joints, and 40 years for HDPE
pipes with fusion welded joints; and (2) annual failure rates and repair costs which are
twice as much for uPVC pipes than for HDPE pipes.
6.2 ECONOMIC LIFE AND MAINTENANCE COSTS
The economic working life and annual maintenance costs of Project components (other than
pipelines) will be based on the criteria of Error! Reference source not found..
Table 11: Economic Working Life and Annual Maintenance Costs
Component or Asset Economic Life

(years)
Annual
Maintenance Cost
(% of capital cost)
1 Civil works (concrete) 40 1.5%
2 Civil Works (wood, steel aluminium) 20 2.5%
3 Pipe Works 40 1.5%
4 Electrical and Mechanical Works 15 5%
5 Tools, plant and equipment 7 5%
6 Vehicles 5 10%
7 Roads and Earthworks 40 2%
8 Intake and Treatment Works 40 1.5%
9 Boreholes 20 2%

CHAPTER 7

6.3 ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF PROJECT
The Project would provide the following economic benefits for Project towns:
- expansion of water supply and sanitation services,
- elimination of intermittent provision and rationing of water service,
- quality improvement of water supplied,
- reduction of water pollution levels.
The improved hygienic and environmental conditions that result from increasing the coverage,
quality and reliability of water and sanitation services translate into better quality of life. Better
hygienic conditions lead to decreased infant mortality and reduced incidence of water-borne
diseases. Improved environmental conditions also contribute to enhance tourism activities and
other water uses, and increase recreational activities.
From an institutional point of view, Project benefits are obtained from greater economic efficien-
cy in sector service operations. These benefits include improved operational and financial per-
formance of participating utilities, reduced financial transfers from the public sector to water utili-
ties, and a temporary but significant generation of jobs for unskilled workers.

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