MFIC Module 2

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001
Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture
Islamic Online University
http://www.islamiconlineuniversity.com
MFIC Module Two

STUDENT STUDY GUIDE LINES Required Reading
Read chapter two of The Moral Foundations of Islamic Culture (found in this file).
Study Guide Lines

The purpose of the following guidelines is to help the student prepare himself/herself for the multiple-choice examination at the end of the second module. A. From the readings of the second chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Identify the primary reason for the failure of Muslims to meet the challenge of Western Civilizaion. 2. Distinguish between cultural Islaam and Islaamic culture. 3. Discuss the position of local customs in Islaamic law. 4. Explain the origins of cultural practices mentioned in the chapter and the correct Islaamic position in relationship to them. 5. Define mysticism and identify its origin and the route it took to appear among Muslims. 6. Understand the meanings of the Sufi terminology mentioned in the text as well as the key figures discussed, like Abdul-Qaadir al-Jeelaanee. 7. Clearly explain the correct position regarding the schools of Islaamic law. 8. Distinguish between Shareeah and Fiqh. 9. Discuss the original meaning of the term fundamentalism and what it has come to mean in the Western media. 10. Identify some of the main figures of the Muslim Renaissance and their ideas. 11. Discuss the main features of the most prominent Islaamic movements of the 20th century as well as their founders. In order to insure that the student has grasped the above-mentioned points, he/she should write 200 word essays on each of the points, before attempting the module test. These should not be submitted.
The MORAL Foundations of
Islamic Culture
[ Part 2 of 4 ] by
Dr. Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips
CHAPTER TWO
Cultural Islaam: Traditionalism

lthough the West recognizes Islaam as the only civilization capable of opposing its dominance, the Muslim world today is incapable of meeting the challenge. Western civilization has succeeded in completely dominating the Muslim world and what little opposition that exists is systematically being stamped out. Consequently, Islaamic civilization is not being presented to the world as an alternative to Western civilization. The important role that Allaah ascribed to the Muslim Nation is not being fulfilled. Allaah states in the Quraan: You are the best nation extracted from among humankind because you command good, prohibit evil and you believe in Allaah.1 The main reason for the current failure of Muslims to meet the challenge is due to the adulteration of Islaamic teachings throughout the Muslim world today. Islaamic practices have become so mixed with a variety of local customs and traditions that the average Muslim is unable to distinguish between what is Islaam and what is, in fact, local culture. The Islaam being practiced in much of the Muslim world today may be referred to as Cultural Islaam or Folk Islaam (as Christian missionaries like to refer to it). The main feature of this version of Islaam is the blind following of local traditions. The existing cultures are generally a product of practices handed down from earlier generations. Some cultural practices are based on authentic Islaamic traditions, while many are not. However, the cultural Muslim is unable to distinguish between the two. All traditions are identified as Islamic and any attempt to exclude any aspect of the cultural traditions is met with stiff resistance. Although it is well known to all Muslims that Islaam is based on the Quraan and the Sunnah,2 when cultural Muslims are advised to follow instructions from the Quraan or the Sunnah they immediately
Soorah Aal Imraan (3): 10. The recorded life-style of Prophet Muhammad consisting of his verbal instructions, his actions and actions of others approved by him.
2
make excuses why they cannot. The excuses usually consist of statements to the effect that Islaam was not practiced that way in their village or country. Cultural Muslims are brainwashed with this response. Whenever they questioned a practice while growing up, their parents would scold them for questioning their traditions saying, If it was good enough for our forefathers, it is good enough for you. Or, Do you think our forefathers were all wrong? This response is very similar to that of the Makkan pagans when a similar invitation was given to them. God states in the Quraan:
) (
If you tell them, Come to what Allaah has revealed and to the Messenger, they will reply, What we found our parents doing is sufficient for us. Even though their parents knew nothing, nor were they rightly guided. Soorah al-Maaidah (5): 104. In order for Muslims to re-establish Islaamic civilization and promote its ideals to the world as an alternative to Western culture, the inherited excess baggage of cultural Islaam must be eliminated. Only pure unadulterated Islaam can stand in the face of Western civilizations cultural onslaught. There are four basic sources for un-Islamic traditions in Cultural Islaam: Pre-Islaamic practices, adopted practices, religious innovation and factionalism. 1. Pre-Islamic Practices When Islaam spread to various parts of the world, people who embraced the faith brought into Islaam with them some of their preIslamic traditions. Islamic law did not prohibit all of the practices of the people whom it governed. A special category of law called urf made allowances for local customs. Consequently, local traditions were permitted as long as they did not contradict clear commandments in the religion. The amount of un-Islamic customs which were carried into Islaam by the new converts depended on the degree to which they learned Islaam and the knowledge of those who invited them to Islaam. The more ignorant they were of Islamic teachings, the easier it was for them to
continue in their pre-Islamic habits. Likewise, those who taught the new converts would tolerate un-Islamic habits which they were ignorant of. For example, the red wedding dress of most Pakistani and Indian Muslims is identical to the Hindu wedding dress. There is no specified color for the wedding dress according to Islamic law. It could be any color, as long as it was not an imitation of the religious ceremonies of other religions. Consequently, white commonly used by Christians and red by Hindus should not be used. These inherited practices might seem innocent and harmless in themselves. However, there are other inherited practices that are quite harmful physically as well as spiritually. For example, the pharaonic circumcision of females (genital mutilation) as practiced in East Africa, the Sudan and Egypt among Muslims and non-Muslim tribes of that region is another example of inherited un-Islamic practices. It is harmful to women in that infections from it can lead to sterility and even death. And even under hospital supervision, it robs the woman of some if not all of her right to enjoy a basic part of her marriage. Furthermore, under the feminist attack, some women reject Islaam under the mistaken impression that it condones this form of oppressive disfigurement of women. Another example can be found in the inherited Hindu-European customs of dowry, wherein the family of the bride gives wealth and gifts to the groom. This has resulted in the phenomenon of bride-burning among Hindus in India. In response to this, the Indian government officially outlawed dowry. However, hundreds of Hindu women continue to be set on fire by their husbands annually in India as a result of their families not giving the gifts they promised at the time of marriage. Woman burnt to death
Dhaka. A greedy husband burned to death his young
wife at Shikpara in the city following a feud over dowry, police said. They said Zahir Mia poured kerosene over the body of his wife Shahnaj (20) and set fire to her on Sunday. She died at Dhaka Medical College Hospital yesterday.
3
Gulf News, 28.2.98, p. 18, vol. 20, no. 139.
In Islaam the mahr (dowry), is supposed to be given by the male to the female as a symbol of his preparedness to look after her. However in the Indian subcontinent, most Muslims have retained the Hindu practice of giving the dowry to the husband. As a result, the vicious criminal act of bride-burning, though less frequent, can be found among Muslims of that region also.
Domestic violence on rise in Pakistan

At least 300 women are burnt to death every year- report Islamabad (Reuters) A report by the private Progressive Womens Association said that domestic violence in Pakistan was largely ignored and that proper legislation was needed to fight a rise in crimes against women. According to the associations findings, bride-burning every year accounts for the violent death of at least 300 women, perpetrated most often by the victims husbands or husbands families, said association Hashmi official Shamoon In most of the cases the husbands or husbands families report to the police that the burning was an accident caused by an exploding stove and thus no prosecution takes place. The report gives graphic details and pictures of at least 12 women who were doused in kerosene and burnt by their close relatives and whose legal cases were pursued by the association but
4
with
most
ending without any punishment to the suspects.
In Southern Egypt, the custom among Muslims is that a widowed woman should not remarry. Some Southern Egyptians feel so strongly about this custom that they are prepared to commit murder in its defense.
Gulf News, 28.08.99, p. 18.
Son held for killing mother

Qena, Egypt. A 22-year-old son beheaded and dismembered his
widowed mother when he found out that she had secretly remarried, breaking with tradition in Southern Egypt, police here said yesterday. Salah Ahmad Hassan, helped by one of his uncles, forced Samria Salam, 35, into the village cemetery in Naqada, a hamlet north of the southern resort of Luxor, where they strangled, beheaded and dismembered the woman, police said. They said the woman was pregnant. Hassan and Samrias brother were detained for questioning and admitted their crime.
5
The origin of this tradition can be found in ancient Egyptian mythology concerning the goddess Isis. According to the myths, Seth desired his sister, Isis, so much that he killed her husband, Osiris6 in order to marry her. However, Isis refused to marry Seth and hid her son Horus until he came of age and revenged his fathers death by killing his uncle, Seth. The cult of Isis began in Lower Egypt and spread throughout the whole country.7 Prohibiting widows from remarriage is fundamentally against Islamic teachings, which encourages marriage of widows and divorcees. In fact, most of Prophet Muhammads wives were widows. 2. Adopted Practices Sometimes people borrowed practices from neighboring unIslamic states. For example, the celebration of the Prophets birthday which was introduced almost 400 years after the time of the Prophet in the Fatimid Shiite state in Egypt. This celebration is in imitation of Christmas among Christians. During the Mawlid celebrations, music is
5
Gulf News, 3.5.98, vol. 20, no. 202, p. 8. The god of fertility and the personification of the dead king. This dual role was combined with the Egyptian dogma of divine kingship: the king at death became Osiris, god of the underworld; the dead kings son, the living king, was identified with Horus, god of the sky. (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 8, p. 1026) 7 Because she protected her son, she became the goddess of protection, as a mourner for her husband, she became the principal deity in all rites connected with the dead; as enchantress, she cured the sick and brought the dead to life; and as mother, she was herself a life-giver. (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 6, p. 408)
6
often played and accompanied by dancing. Poems are sung in praise of the Prophet (r) often containing verses in which some of Allaahs attributes are given to the Prophet (r). For example, the most popular poem for Mawlids is that of Qaseedah al-Burda (The Ode of the Cloak) is filled with shirk. Another example can be found in the practice of building tombs over graves. This tradition has become so popular that mausoleums like the Taj Mahal8 have become modern cultural symbols of Islaam. The evil of such a practice has been to turn some graves into places of worship. Shrines can be found all over the Muslim world and the masses of ignorant Muslims flock to them to perform worship in their vicinity and to ask favors from the dead. A classical example is that of the shrine of Shaykh Mueen ud-Deen Chishti (d.1236), in Ajmer, Rajasthan state, northwestern India.9 This shrine is the center of pilgrimage for Muslims in the Indian subcontinent. While devotees (including Hindus) visit the white marble tomb complex in Ajmer throughout the year, the chief occasion for pilgrimage is the anniversary of Mueen ad-Deens death, a festival known as the urs.10 The goal of pilgrimage is the mausoleum of Mueen ud-Deen. Once the pilgrims reach the inner sanctum of the shrine, they bow low and kiss the tomb. Prayers are offered in thanksgiving for favors received, and petitions made for favors required. The prayers are in the form of oaths to give offerings to the shrine if prayers are answered. Devotees tie strings to the pierced-marble screens that surround parts of the mausoleum. These strings are removed when the prayers have been answered and offerings submitted. The devotees scatter red rose-petals over the tomb, and the privileged are given petals which have been lying there to keep as tabarruk or to eat. Pilgrims also spend time circumambulating the mausoleum, and sitting in its vicinity in passive and receptive silence to absorb the spiritual presence of the saint.11
Built by Moghul emperor, Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal in Agra, India, in 1649. The entire complex took 20,000 workmen employed daily for 22 years to complete, at a cost of 40 million rupees. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 2, p. 513. 9 The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 1, p. 183. 10 Urs was originally used for marriage festivities, as opposed to nikaah, the marriage ceremony. However, it was later used to refer to the ceremonies observed at the anniversary of the death of any celebrated saint. Dictionary of Islam, p. 655. 11 The Shrine and Cult of Muin al-din Chishti of Ajmer, pp. 117-120.
Under colonial influence Christian religious practices like wedding and engagement rings spread among Muslims. Today, most Muslims believe that it is a part of Islamic tradition. However, as was demonstrated in the marriage of Princess Diana which was televised internationally, the wedding ring is a symbol of trinitarian belief. 3. Religious Innovation [ Sufism ] Mysticism12 is defined as an experience of union with God and the belief that mans main goal lies in seeking that union. The origins of mysticism can be found in the writings of ancient Greek philosophers like that of Platos Symposium in which mention is made of various ladders of ascent, composed of steep and hard steps, whereby a union of the soul with God is finally attained.13 A parallel concept can also be found in Hinduisms identification of Atman (human soul) with Brahman (the impersonal Absolute), the realization of which is the ultimate goal or release from existence and rebirth.14 The mystic tradition kept alive in monastic Christianity began to find expression among Muslims from about 8th century CE, a century after the borders of the Islamic state had expanded to include Egypt and Syria and its major centers of monasticism.15 A group of Muslims who were not satisfied with what the Shareeah (Islamic Law) had to offer, developed a parallel system which they named the Tareeqah (the way). Just as the ultimate goal of the Hindu was unity with the world soul and of the Christian mystic union with God; the ultimate goal of this movement became Fanaa, the dissolution of the ego, and Wusool, the meeting and unification of the human soul with Allaah in this life. A
From the Greek Mystes meaning one initiated into the mysteries. The term is derived from the Greek mystery religions whose initiates bore the name mystes (Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion, p.374). 13 Colliers Encyclopedia, vol.17, p.114. 14 Dictionary of Religions, p.68. 15 The authors of treatises on Muslim mysticism have often compared the annihilation of Sufism with Buddhist Nirvana; but according to others this comparison is entirely inadequate as the Buddhist idea of annihilation is independent of the idea of God and includes the idea of transmigration of souls, to which Nirvana puts an end. In Muslim mysticism on the other hand, there is not question of the passing of soul upon death into another body and the notion of a personal and all-present God is throughout predominant. The origin of the Muslim conception of Fanaa has rather to be sought in Christianity from which it seems to be borrowed. This conception simply means the annihilation of the individual human will before the will of God, an idea which forms the center of all Christian mysticism. (Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam, p.98)
12
10
series of preliminary stages and states which had to be attained were defined. They were called Maqaamaat (stations) and Haalaat (states). A system of spiritual exercises was also designed for the initiate in order to bring about this meeting. These exercises of Thikr 16 often involved head and body movements and sometimes even dance, as in the case of whirling dervishes. All of these practices were attributed to the Prophet (r) through chains of narration in order to validate them, but there does not exist any authentic support for them in any of the classical books of Hadeeth. A multiplicity of systems evolved, and orders, similar to those among Christian monks, appeared named after their founders, like the Qaadiri, Chishti, Nakhshabandi, and Teejaani orders. Along with that, volumes of legends and fairy tales were spun around the founders and the outstanding personalities of these orders. And, just as Christian and Hindu monks chose special isolated structures (i.e. monasteries) in which to house their communities, the Sufi orders developed similar housing schemes called Zaawiyahs (lit. corners). In time, a body of heretic creeds developed out of the mystic union-with-God belief, For example, most orders claimed that Allaah could be seen when the state of Wusool (arrival) was achieved. Yet when Aaishah asked the Prophet (r) if he saw Allaah during Miraaj (ascension) he replied that he had not.17 Prophet Moosaa was also shown that neither he nor any man could withstand seeing Allaah in this life by Allaah revealing some of His being to a mountain which crumbled to dust during the revelation.18 Some Sufi adepts claimed that when the state of Wusool was attained, the mundane obligations of Shareeah like five times daily Salaah, were no longer obligatory. Most of them prescribed that prayers to Allaah could be sent through the Prophet (r) or through the so-called saints; many also began the practice of making Tawaaf,19 animal sacrifices and other acts of worship around the shrines and tombs of the saints. Tawaaf can be observed today around the grave of Zaynab and Sayyid al-Badawi in Egypt, around the tomb of Muhammad Ahmad (The Mahdi) in Sudan, and around the Dargahs of countless saints and
16
Thikr , which normally means the remembrance of God, in mystic circles, is used to refer to the continuous repetition of Gods names and attributes. 17 Sahih Muslim, vol.1, pp.111-112, nos.337, 339 and p.113, no.341. 18 Soorah al-Araaf 7:143. 19 Walking around an object of religious devotion.
11
holy men in India and Pakistan, like that of Mueen ad-Deen Chisti in Ajmeer. Music was introduced in most mystic circles and drugs like marijuana found its way into others as a means of heightening the pseudospiritual experience which they all sought. Such was the legacy of the latter generation of Sufis which had been built on the false premise that union of the human soul with Allaah was attainable. The early generation of pious individuals, like Abdul-Qaadir al-Jeelaani, and others to whom some orders were attributed, clearly understood the importance of distinguishing between the Creator and the created. The two could never become one, as One was Divine and Eternal, while the other was human and finite. Perhaps the greatest harm resulting from mysticism is the introduction of intermediaries between God and humankind. Those who claimed the status of having become one with Allaah were elevated to sainthood and were either directly addressed in prayers or used as intercessors to God. 4. Religious Fanaticism or Factionalism There are four main schools of Islamic jurisprudence (mathhabs)20 followed by the majority of Muslims today. In modern times they have become rallying points for the defenders of cultural Islaam. In order to understand the divisive role played by the schools of Islamic law one must first understand what is meant by the term Islamic law itself. The Arabic terms Fiqh and Shareeah have both been loosely translated into English as Islamic Law, however these terms are not synonymous either in the Arabic language or to the Muslim scholar. Shareeah, literally means a waterhole where animals gather daily to drink, or the straight path as in the Quranic verse: Then We put you on a straight path (Shareeah) in your affairs, so follow it and do not follow the desires of those who have no knowledge. 45:18 Islamically, Shareeah refers to the sum total of Islamic laws which were revealed to Prophet Muhammad (r) and recorded in the Quraan as well
20
The names of the schools are Hanafee, Shaafiee, Maalikee and Hambalee.
12
as deducible from the Prophets divinely guided lifestyle called the sunnah. Fiqh literally means, the true understanding of what is intended. An example of this usage can be found in the Prophet Muhammads statement: To whomsoever Allaah wishes good, He gives the Fiqh (true understanding) of the religion. 21 Technically, however, Fiqh refers to the science of deducing Islamic laws from evidence found in the sources of Islamic law. The main tool of Fiqh is Ijtihaad (reasoned ruling) which operates through Ijmaa (consensus) and Qiyaas (deduction by analogy). By extension, the term Fiqh has also come to mean the body of deduced Islamic laws. The Distinction From the previous two definitions, the following three differences may be deduced: 1. Shareeah is the body of revealed laws found in both the Quraan and the sunnah, while Fiqh is the a body of laws deduced from Shareeah to cover specific situations not directly treated in Shareeah law. 2. Shareeah is fixed and unchangeable, whereas Fiqh changes according to the circumstances under which it is applied. 3. The laws of Shareeah are, for the most part, general: they lay down basic principles. In contrast, the laws of Fiqh tend to be specific: they demonstrate how the basic principles of Shareeah should be applied in given circumstances.22 The significance of the distinction between Fiqh and Shareeah lies in the relevance of Islamic law to all times. Most people find it hard to understand how laws revealed 1,400 years ago could be relevant to human society today. Especially when they consider the laws of Europe in the Dark and Middle Ages and the feudal societies which have since been abolished. Islamic laws address the basic instincts of human beings and their relationships which God, other humans and the world in which they live. Human nature, in the Islamic view, has not changed, nor will it ever change. Changes in technology have not made human beings morally superior. In fact modern societies are far more corrupt than those of the
21 22
Sahih Al Bukhari, vol.4, pp.223-4, no.346 and Sahih Muslim, vol.3, p.1061, no.4720. The Evolution of Fiqh, pp. 1-2.
13
past. Furthermore, modern technology should not be looked at as being superior in all respects to the past, because there are technologies of the ancients that continue to defy modern knowledge until today. For example, the mummification processes used by the ancient Egyptians and the building of their pyramids, or the ability of ancient Mayans of Central America to polish pieces of metal into mirrors using only the crudest implements of their times. Consequently, the laws outlined in revelation remain as pertinent to humans today as it did at the time of their revelation. The Fiqh component of Islamic law adds the necessary flexibility for the application of the divine laws to all new circumstances. The Islamic Renaissance All the mathhabs contributed in different degrees to the development of Fiqh and no single mathhab can properly be claimed to represent Islaam or Islaamic law in its totality. All of the schools have been important instruments for the clarification and application of the Shareeah. In fact, the only infallible mathhab which deserves to be followed without question is that of Prophet Muhammad (r) himself. Only his interpretations of the Shareeah can rightly be considered divinely guided and meant to be followed until the last day of this world. All other mathhabs are a product of human effort, and are therefore subject to human error. Or as Imaam ash-Shaafiee, founder of the Shaafiee mathhab, so wisely put it, There isnt any of us who hasnt had a saying or action of Allaahs Messenger (r) elude him or slip his mind. So, no matter what rulings I have made or fundamental principles I have established, there will be in them things contrary to the way of Allaahs Messenger (r). However, the correct ruling is according to what the Messenger of Allaah (r) said, and that is my true ruling.23 Evolution of the Mathhabs In the era of the Righteous Caliphs, the Fiqh principle of ijmaa (decisions by unanimity) evolved and ijtihaad (reasoned rulings) became an independent principle of Fiqh under the name of Qiyaas. The mathhab during this period was, in reality, that of each of the Righteous Caliphs, since the final say in legal matters rested with them. However, all
23
Collected by al-Haakim, Ibn Asaakir, Taareekh Dimishq, vol. 15, sec. 1, p. 3.
14
legal decisions were subject to alteration on the basis of recorded statements or practices of the Prophet (r), i.e. hadeeths. During the Umayyad dynasty (661-750 CE) there was a shift from caliphate to monarchy and the caliph/king was no longer the head of the mathhab. Scholars among the companions of the Prophet (r) and their students left the centers of the Islaamic state and dispersed in the outer lying provinces. This led to an increase in ijtihaad as ijmaa became increasingly difficult to achieve. During this period students of Fiqh freely and frequently changed teachers and exchanged legal opinions. In the first hundred years of the Abbaaside dynasty (750-850 CE) many mathhabs flourished and though they were becoming distinct entities, they maintained the characteristic of flexibility in making and accepting legal rulings with existed in the previous period. Besides the current four, the Awzaaee, Laythee, Thawree, Thaahiree and Jareeree mathhabs were among the well-known mathhabs of this period. Following the death of the major scholars the mathhabs rigidity began to set in. During the latter period of the Abbaaside dynasty, between the year 950 CE and the sacking of Baghdad (1258 CE), court debates (called Munaatharaat) between scholars of different mathhabs for the entertainment of the caliphs and their entourage became popular. This spawned competitiveness and dogmatism, since the loss of a debate not only meant the loss of monetary reward from the caliph but it also meant the loss of personal prestige and that of ones mathhab. Consequently, the principle of defending ones mathhab right or wrong came to be considered a virtue. As a result, mathhab sectarianism and fanaticism became rampant among the court scholars. In time, the spirit of rivalry largely generated by these debates spread to the masses, and mathhab factionalism became widespread.24 Four Madh-habs During this stage, the number of major mathhabs dwindled to four; three major and one minor. In other words, the mathhabs of great Imaams like al-Awzaaee, Sufyaan ath-Thawree, Ibn Abee Laylaa, Aboo Thawr and al-Layth ibn Sad had all disappeared leaving only the mathhabs of Aboo Haneefah, Maalik, ash-Shaafiee and Ahmad ibn Hambal. In time, these schools of Islamic legal thought became so
24
al-Madkhal, pp.147-57.
15
predominant that the common people soon forgot that any other schools ever existed. Furthermore, each of these schools took on a dynamic of its own and their followers started the practice of naming themselves after their respective mathhabs. For example, al-Husayin ibn Masoud alBaghawee, author of the Fiqh classic, Sharh as-Sunnah, was commonly referred to as al-Husayn ibn Masoud al-Baghawee ash-Shaafiee after the Shaafiee mathhab. Emergence of Taqleed25 The six centuries starting with the sacking of Baghdad in 1258 CE and the execution of the last Abbaasid caliph, al-Mustasim, and ending around the middle of the nineteenth century of the Christian era may be referred to as the Muslim Dark Ages. It represents the rise of the Ottoman Empire, founded in 1299 CE by the Turkish leader Uthmaan I, until its decline under the attacks of European colonialism. Scholars of this period left all forms of Ijtihaad and unanimously issued a legal ruling which was intended to close the door of Ijtihaad permanently. They reasoned that all possible issues had already been raised and addressed, and there was therefore no need for further Ijtihaad.26 With this step, a new concept of mathhab arose, namely that one of the four mathhabs had to be followed for ones Islaam to be valid. In time this concept became firmly embedded among the masses as well as the scholars of Fiqh. Consequently, the religion of Islaam itself became restricted within the confines of the four existing mathhabs; Hanafee, Maalikee, Shaafiee and Hambalee. These schools of law came to be considered divinely ordained manifestations of Islaam. It was claimed that all of them were completely correct, equal and representative of true Islaam, yet there were innumerable differences among them. In fact there were scholars in this period who interpreted some Hadeeths in such a way as to prove that the Prophet (r) himself had predicted the appearance of the Imaams and their mathhabs. Consequently, any attempt to go beyond these canonical mathhabs was considered heretical and anyone who refused to follow one of them was classified an apostate. The hyper conservative scholars of this stage even went so far as to rule that whoever was caught transferring from one mathhab to another was liable
25
The blind following of a Madh-hab. Muhammad Husein adh-Dhahabee, ash-Shareeah al-Islaameeyah, (Egypt: Daar alKutub al-Hadeeth, 2nd ed.1968), p.12.
26
16
to punishment at the discretion of the local judge. A ruling was also made in the Hanafee mathhab prohibiting the marriage of a Hanafee to a Shaafiee.27 And even the second most important pillar of Islaam, Salaah, was not spared the effects of mathhab fanaticism. The followers of the various mathhabs began to refuse to pray behind Imaams from other mathhabs. This resulted in the building of separate prayer niches in the masjids28 of communities where more than one mathhab. Even the most holy masjid, al-Masjid al-Haraam of Makkah, which represents the unity of Muslims and the religion of Islaam, was affected. Separate prayer niches were set up around the Kabah: one for an Imaam from each of the schools. And when the time for Salaah came, an Imaam from one of the mathhabs would lead a congregation of followers from his mathhab in prayer; then another Imaam from one of the other mathhabs would lead his congregation of followers and so on. Separate places of prayer for each of the mathhab remained around the Kabah until the first quarter of the twentieth century when Abdul-Azeez ibn Saoud and his army conquered Makkah in 1924 and united all worshippers behind a single Imaam regardless of his or their mathhabs. During this period some books on the fundamentals of Fiqh (Usool al-Fiqh) were written. In these works, the correct method of making Ijtihaad was outlined and the conditions for its application were clearly defined. However, the conditions which were laid down by these scholars were so strict that they excluded not only the scholars of their time but also many of the earlier scholars who had made Ijtihaad. There were also a few books which were written on comparative Fiqh during this period. As in the previous period, the opinions of the mathhab and their proofs were collected and criticized in these books. The authors then defined as most accurate those opinions which were held by their particular mathhab. Toward the end of this period, an attempt was made to codify Islamic law under the auspices of the Ottoman caliphs. A panel of seven top ranking scholars of Fiqh was formed and entrusted with the job. It was completed in 1876 CE and enforced as law by the Sultan throughout the Ottoman empire under the title Majallah al-Ahkaam al-Aadilah (The
27
Muhammad Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee, Sifah Salaah an-Nabee, (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islaamee ninth ed. 1972), p.51. 28 Masjid (plural Masaajid), the Muslim house of worship.
17
Just Codes).29 However, even this seemingly noble attempt was affected my mathhab fanaticism. All of the scholars on the committee were appointed from the Hanafee mathhab. Consequently, the resulting code totally ignored the contribution of the other mathhabs to Fiqh. With the expeditions of Columbus (1492) and Vasco de Gama in th the 15 century, Western European states began to capture the routes and sources of international trade. Subsequently, Muslim East Asian states were absorbed by European imperialism beginning with Java which fell to the Dutch in 1684. After Transylvania and Hungary fell from Ottoman hands to Austria in 1699 and the defeat of the Ottomans by Russia in the Russo Turkish war of 1768-74, the European territories of the Ottoman empire were soon lost, one after another.30 This process culminated in the total dissolution of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War and its division into colonies and protectorates. Consequently, European law codes replaced Islamic laws throughout the Muslim world. Although European colonialism was officially ended some years ago, Islamic law has remained in disuse in all Muslim countries with the exception of Saudi Arabia which has codified Islamic law according to the Hambalee mathhab, Pakistan to a large degree according to the Hanafee mathhab and Iran which has recently done so according to the Jafaree mathhab.31 Reformers In spite of the general decay described above, there existed throughout this period a number of outstanding scholars who opposed Taqleed and dared to raise the banner of Ijtihaad. They called for a return to the roots of the religion, to the true sources of Islamic law and to reliance on these foundations above all else. Foremost among them was Ahmad ibn Taymeeyah (1263-1328 CE). Because of his challenge of the status quo, many of his contemporaries declared him an apostate and had the authorities jail him repeatedly. Ibn Taymeeyah was, however, one of the greatest scholars of his time. Initially, he had studied Fiqh according to the Hambalee mathhab, but did not restrict himself to it. He studied
29
Anwar Ahmed Qadri, Islamic Jurisprudence in the Modern World, (Lahore, Pakistan: Ashraf, First edition 1963) p.65. 30 Islamic Jurisprudence in the Modern World, p.85. 31 The Fiqh mathhab of the Ithnaa Ashreeyah (Twelver) Shiite sect falsely attributed to Imaam Jafar as-Saadiq (d.765 CE).
18
the sources of Islamic law in depth and mastered all the Islamic sciences which were known at that time. Ibn Taymeeyahs students were among the greatest Islamic scholars of their time and carried on to the next generation the banner of Ijtihaad and a return to the pure sources of Islaam which he had raised. Among them was Ibn Qayyim (1292-1350), a great scholar in the fields of Fiqh and Hadeeth, adh-Dhahabee (12741348), a master in the science of Hadeeth criticism and Ibn Katheer (1302-1373), a master in Tafseer, History and Hadeeth. Another noteworthy reformer was the great scholar Ahmad ibn Abdur-Raheem better known as Shah Waliullaah Dihlawee (1703-1762 CE). He was born in the Indian sub-continent where Taqleed was, perhaps, most rampant. After he had mastered the various Islamic sciences and Hanafee Fiqh, he called for the re-opening of the door of Ijtihaad and the re-unification of the schools of Fiqh. In his efforts to reexamine Islamic principles and to find out on what authority the legal schools based their regulations, Shah Waliullaah rejuvenated the study of Hadeeth. Although he did not go so far as to reject the existing Fiqh schools, nevertheless he taught that everyone was free to choose a particular decision different from that taken by the school to which he belonged himself, if he was convinced that the case was better confirmed by Hadeeth.32 Muhammad ibn Alee ash-Shawkaanee (1757-1835 CE) born near the town of Shawkaan in Yemen, was also among the reformers of this period. Ash-Shawkaanee studied Fiqh according to the Zaydee mathhab 33 and became one of its outstanding scholars. He then went into an indepth study of the science of Hadeeth and subsequently became the most famous scholar of Hadeeth of his time. At this point he freed himself from the confines of the mathhab and began making independent Ijtihaad. He wrote a number of works in Fiqh and its fundamentals in which issues studied from the points of view of all the mathhabs were concluded with solutions based solely on the most accurate proofs and the most convincing arguments. Imaam ash-Shawkaanee took the position that Taqleed was Haraam and wrote a number of books on the topic,
32
A.J. Arberry, Religion in the Middle East (Cambridge University Press, 1969reprinted 1981) vol.2, pp.128-9. 33 One of the major Shiite Madh-habs of Fiqh (see pp.60-65).
19
consequently, he also came under attack from most of the scholars of his time.34
The Islamic Renaissance In the nineteenth century, Muslim intellectuals openly rebelled against Cultural Islaam. Their revolt produced two major philosophical trends: modernism and fundamentalism. 1) Modernism was the Westernized-Muslim response to Cultural Islaam. It was noted for its so-called rationalist approach. The modernist reaction sought to modify Islamic teachings in order to make it conform with Western culture. 2) The orthodox response mathhab fanaticism could be termed Fundamentalism, meaning a return to the fundamentals of Islamic thought and civilization. It was a call to the Quraan and Sunnah as the guiding light in Muslim affairs. Modernism The leader of this trend was Jamaal ad-Deen al-Afghaanee (18391897 CE) who travelled throughout the Muslim world calling for reform and Pan-Islamism. Jamaal ad-Deen travelled to India, Makkah, and Constantinople, settling finally in Egypt. He called for free political, religious and scientific thought and denounced Taqleed and state corruption. Jamaal ad-Deen taught these ideas at the University of alAzhar35 and influenced many who studied under him. Unfortunately, some of Jamal ad-Deens ideas were extreme. For example, he elevated the human mind and its logical deductions to a level equal to that of Divine Revelation. His intentions also became suspect due to his involvement with the Masonic movement which was at that time establishing new branches in the Middle-East.36 Muhammad Abdu (1849-1905 CE) was among Afghaanees most famous students. Under the influence of Afghaanee and Ibn Taymeeyahs thought, the banner of Ijtihaad was again raised high by Muhammad
34
Muhammad ibn Alee ash-Shawkaanee, Nayl al-Awtaar, vol.1, pp.3-6. The oldest and most famous Islamic University in the Muslim world. It was first established in Egypt by the Faatimid Shiite state in the year 361 AH/972 CE. 36 Muhammad Muhammad Husain, al-lttijaahaat al-Wataneeyah fee al-Adab al-Arabee al-Muaasir, vol.1, p.153. See also Religion in the Middle East, vol.2, p.37.
35
20
Abduh, and Taqleed and its supporters were systematically attacked. Afghanee had taught a revival of each Muslim nation internally as part of a general pan-Islamic movement in which the reviving nations were to cooperate. Shaykh Abduh concentrated his efforts on Egypt itself, and stressed immediate moral reforms, enlightened education, and careful reinterpretation of religious doctrine. But, the effects of Afghaanees extremist views caused Muhammad Abduh to lean toward extreme modernism, and he also eventually deviated in some of his interpretations and legal rulings. For example, in his Tafseer of the Quraan, Abduh apologetically explained away all of the miracles attributed to the prophets directly and performed by God through the forces of nature. To him the flocks of birds which dropped clay pebbles on the Yemenite army of Abrahah and his elephant during their attack on the Kabah, mentioned in the Quraan, were simply airborne microbes which spread disease among them. Likewise, he made a Fatwaa allowing Muslims to be involved in business transactions involving interest. He based this ruling on the Fiqh principle that dire necessity makes the forbidden allowable The fallacy of his ruling lay in the fact that Fiqh specially defines dire necessity as involving matters of life and death or loss of limb, and this was simply not the case where business transactions are concerned. Muhammad Abduhs main student, Muhammad Rasheed Ridaa (d. 1935), carried on his mentors attack on Taqleed, but rejected most of his teachers excesses. However, other students of Muhammad Abduh became the nucleus of the extreme modernist movement and deviated in many areas even more than their teacher. For example, his student Qaasim Ameen (d. 1908) was the first to make a vehement attack on polygamy, the simplicity of Islamic divorce and the use of the veil. In India, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) proposed an overall program of Muslim revival on the basis of full co-operation with the British Colonialist administration. He sought to interpret Islaam according to the Liberal nineteenth-century worldview most prominently presented in British culture. According to that worldview the primary source of truth was natural-scientific inquiry, and the trend of human life was by nature an ever-expanding awareness of such scientific truth which would actualize human potentialities for good. The good life meant, above all, human prosperity and individual freedom. Ahmad Khan taught that Islaam was essentially the spirit of the Quraan, without later additions. In the spirit of the Quraan he found an appeal to recognition of
21
the natural world, an earthy sense of human well-being, and a strong activism. He called his doctrine by an Arabized English term, nechariyyah, naturalism, and offered it as a reform platform within Islam. However, his new theology was not widely received, and the ulamaa effectively tore apart his arguments. His stress on the practical reasonableness of Islaam was generally acceptable among the well to do Muslims. Consequently, they supported his foundation of the Anglo-Mohammedan Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875. The college taught on one hand the Muslim religion and on the other hand the modern European arts and sciences, the latter in English. Graduates of the college would be qualified to serve in British business firms or in the British governmental apparatus, while, in theory, remaining good Muslims.37 Aligarh University later became a hot bed for communism and Islamic elements have remained weak on campus until the present. The well-to-do Muslims also accepted Ahmad Khans political lead, which was to try to forge a special alliance between the British and the Muslim upper classes, founded on implicit loyalty to the British regime as the provider of Modern good order and enlightenment to India. Some of his disciples worked out a less radical justification for such a policy, interpreting Islaam, as basically Liberal; but seeing in the Islaam of the classical Abbaaside caliphate, with its cultural openness and its fostering of science, a sufficient model for their present departure. They declared that science and progress had come to the West from Islaam to begin with; that in the ages of Sufism, Islaam declined from its pristine progressiveness; and that what they must now do was recapture, as apprentices to the West, what Islam had meantime lost.38 Movements In the beginning of the twentieth century movements and groups arose calling to the return of Islamic rule in Muslim lands and to the reformation of Muslim beliefs and practices. Among the political movements were those of Hasaan al-Bannaa (d. 1949), founder of the Ikhwaan Muslimoon movement in Egypt and Sayyid, Abul-Alaa Mawdudi (1903-1979), founder of the Jamaat Islami movement in India.
37 38
Ibid., pp.334-336. Ibid., pp.334-336.
22
Both of these movements called for the establishment of an Islamic state to replace the existing colonial or neo-colonial administrations. Consequently, they both came into conflict with the rulers of their areas. One of the members of the Ikhwaan, Jamaal Abdun-Naasir, seized control of the government and systematically rounded up members of the movement and tortured and executed many of them in order to crush it. The Ikhwaan was then forced underground, and became a secret society which developed a structure similar to communist cells in order to continue to operate. Oaths of allegiance were required of all members and the call Islamic State evolved into a recruitment drive for members. Very little efforts were made to correct beliefs and practices as collecting members became the chief priority. Controversial issues of beliefs and practices were seen as divisive and, as such, were deliberately avoided. Their members who fled to the West to avoid persecution and further their academic studies set up student organizations like F.O.S.I.S. and M.S.A. and I.S.N.A. through which members continued to be recruited. Another movement arose in India during this period which prided itself in being totally apolitical. Maulana Muhammad Ilyas founded, what came to be known as the Tabligh Movement. Its main focus was on bringing Muslims back to the mosques which had become empty over the years of Colonial rule. In order to appeal to the general masses, its founder combined the practices of the major sufi sects of the continent in its inner teachings Travel to different locations to invite Muslims was added to its outer practices. Its apolitical stance has enabled it to spread to all corners of the Muslim world without resistance from Muslim or non-Muslim governments. However, very little effort is made to correct the beliefs and practices of its members and its main text, Tablighi Nisab, is filled with inauthentic material. The tradition of Taqleed remained alive in all of these movements as avoiding it facilitated recruitment of followers. Parallel to the previously mentioned movements, another set of movements evolved from the tradition of the earlier reformers who opposed Taqleed and called to a return to the Quraan and Sunnah as they were understood by the Prophets companions and the early generations of righteous scholars. These groups are generally referred to as the Salafee movements. In Egypt the Ansaar us-Sunnah movement was founded by Shaykh Haamid al-Fiqhee, Abdur-Rahmaan al-Wakeel and Abdur-Razzaaq Hamzah and in India the Ahli Hadith movement was
23
formally established by Shaykh Thanaaullaah al-Amritsaree. The Salafee groups focused on the correction of Muslim beliefs and practices as a prerequisite for change. They opposed the factionalist attitudes which developed in the political movements as well as a negative attitude towards knowledge and innovated practices which had developed in the Tabligh movement. In the second half of the twentieth century the great Hadeeth scholar of our era, Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee, picked up the banner of Islamic Revival in Syria as did Shaykh Ibn Baaz and Shaykh Ibn Uthaymeen in Saudi Arabia. In Yemen, one of Shaykh NaasirudDeens students, Shaykh Muqbil ibn Haadee continued the call to reform of beliefs and practices. The ugly head of Hizbiyyah (factionalism), which had plagued Muslims through the misinterpretation of the mathhabs, again reared its head in the political and apolitical movements of the twentieth century. These groups shared the common characteristic of fundamentally calling people to their organization and to avoid others. The have ameers to whom the followers pledge oaths of allegiance which should only be given to the true leader of all Muslims. They all contain bits and pieces of what Muslims need, however, they are lacking the most fundamental component which is Aqeedah (correct beliefs). Muslims do need to revive Islamic government and the caliphate and they do need to get Muslims back to the mosques. But the focus must be on aqeedah, first and foremost. Gathering for the sake of overthrowing foreign rule in Algeria in the Fifties did not bring Islamic rule into place because the communist elements among the Muslim forces hijacked the revolution. In Afghanistan Muslim groups came together to combat the threat of communism, but after Russian forces were expelled and the communist regime overthrown, the Muslim groups turned on each other. In Egypt the Ikhwaan have tried to resurface under a political cover, patiently trying to work its way in through the political process. However, the next generation of youths, due to their lack of knowledge and upbringing were no longer prepared to wait. As far as they were concerned, the Islamic revival was taking place in Iran, the Islaamic state was being established now. Many from the Ikhwaan gave oaths of allegiance to Khomeini as the caliph. New offshoots from the Ikhwaan appeared under the names of Takfeer wal-Hijrah, Jamaaatul-Jihaad, and al-Jamaaah al-Islaamiyyah with members prepared to seize power immediately. In these groups a philosophy of violence evolved which was justified by declaring all
24
Muslim rulers to be disbelievers as well as all those who worked in state institutions. The President of Egypt, Anwar Sadaat, was executed in the hope that Islamic rule could be forced upon the state. However, Sadats successor, Mubarak, was far more repressive against law-abiding members of the Ikhwaan than Sadat had ever been. The situation for Muslim activists became far worse as a result of the wave of violence unleashed by these new offshoots. Similarly in Syria, the Ikhwaan tried to take over the government by revolting in the cities of Hams and Hama, expecting the masses of Muslims of Syria to come to their aid. However, even though in the vast majority of the Syrians are Sunni Muslims, and the ruling class belonged to the extreme Shiite Nusayrite of Hafad Asaad, they controlled the artillery, tanks, and planes. The Sunni Muslims were the foot soldiers. Consequently, when Hafiz Asads armored battalions turned on the Ikhwaan in Hams and Hama they were swiftly wiped out. Furthermore, their cries for help to Iran, which had formerly considered the Nusayrites as apostates, outside the Shiite fold, went unheard. Instead Khomeini officially welcomed Hafiz Asad back into the Shiite fold as he slaughtered the Ikhwaan activists and raped their women. In Algeria, the F.I.S. movement sought to reestablish Islaam thought the democratic political process. However, the military government undermined it by canceling the elections and jailing the F.I.S. leadership. Consequently, as in Egypt before, the members went underground and its military wing began an urban guerilla struggle. In response, the government formed another group, the G.I.A. which committed atrocities in the name of the Islamic movement and alienated the masses from the legitimate struggle. Eventually, the F.I.S. was forced to renounce and abandon violent means in order to regain credibility among the masses. By not focusing on aqeedah the movement engaged in a battle they were ill-equipped to win and which has set the movement back many years. Fundamentalism During the last half of the twentieth century all Muslim groups and movements, whether political, apolitical or Salafee came to be labeled as fundamentalist by Western press. However, this label included the terrorist practices of extremist political groups like the P.L.O. and extremist religious groups like the Jihaad movement of Egypt.
25
All Muslim groups came to be perceived by Western eyes as terrorist and violent. In a television interviesw, Willi Claes, Secretary General of NATO, stated: Muslim fundamentalism is at least as dangerous as communism once was. Please do not underestimate this risk at the conclusion of this age it is a serious threat, because it represents terrorism, religious fanaticism and exploitation of social and economic justice.39 By definition, fundamentalism is a conservative Protestant theological movement based on belief in the verbal infallibility of the Bible. It developed in America in the late 19th century as a reaction against the theory of evolution and the historical study of the Bible (Higher Criticism). It opposed liberal attempts to reconcile the teachings of Christianity with the findings of science. According to this definition, every Muslim must be a fundamentalist, because all Muslims hold that the Quraan, the Muslim Scripture, is 100% the word of God. There are no Muslim scholars who question the Quraans authenticity, and it is unanimously agreed among Muslim scholars past and present that anyone who denies even a word of the Quraan has apostated from Islaam. The Solution The only solution to the current dilemma facing Muslims is to return to the true roots of Islamic civilization and culture. The way lies in rediscovering the correct sources of Islamic knowledge and the correct methodology of interpreting it. There is no other way. As Imaam Maalik said, The latter part of this nation will not be able to reform itself successfully except by using what reformed its early part. Prophet Muhammad (r) informed his followers that the Muslim nation would split up into 73 different sects, 72 of which lead to hell and only one leading to paradise. Then he clarified that the path to paradise was the path he was on and his companions were on. That is what is known as the way of the Salaf. However, this methodology or manhaj is one which is not isolationist; one which abandons and boycotts all who make any mistakes along the way. As Shaykh Naasirud-Deen himself stated in
39
Reported by Inter Press Service, 18 February 1995, quoted in Islamophobia a challenge for us all, p.9.
26
many of his lectures, abandonment (hajr ) is not to be practiced in these times as it will not achieve the goals it was originally intended for. In the past, isolation of one who practiced innovation served to bring him or her back into the fold as their deviation would appear obvious. However, in these times in which the mass of Muslims practice some form of deviation or another, boycotting only serves to isolate the few who are on the correct methodology. Consequently, the best method is that of patient advice and good treatment in order to open avenues for acceptance of change. As the Prophet (r) himself said, The religion consists essentially of good advice.
27

MFIC Module 2

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

MFIC Module 2

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

Islamic Online University

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

MFIC Module Two

Study Guide Lines

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

The MORAL Foundations of

Dr. Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

Cultural Islaam: Traditionalism

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

Gulf News, 28.2.98, p. 18, vol. 20, no. 139.

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

Domestic violence on rise in Pakistan

ending without any punishment to the suspects.

Gulf News, 28.08.99, p. 18.

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

Son held for killing mother

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

Collected by al-Haakim, Ibn Asaakir, Taareekh Dimishq, vol. 15, sec. 1, p. 3.

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

Ibid., pp.334-336. Ibid., pp.334-336.

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture

IOU (Islamic Online University) 2001

Moral Foundations of Islaamic Culture