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A.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of the study was to assume that you have been assigned the construction of a Dam Project. Being the Project Manager of a Dam Project; I was required to: A. Prepare a Proposal for Design and Construction of the Project. B. Select team the team for the Project and explain how you will manage the team.

B.

METHODOLOGY FOR RESEARCH

I have been working on Dam and hydropower projects for the last four years as a Consulting Engineer. I have been involved in the preparation of proposals, designing and construction supervision of such projects. Therefore, I have used my own knowledge and experience for this assignment.

C.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Importance of the Dams in our Country

Pakistan is facing severe shortage of water for agriculture. Due to heavy sediment inflows, all the three major storages (Tarbela, Mangla, Chashma) are already losing their capacities. Therefore, there is urgent need not only to conserve the capacity of existing storages but also to build new storage facilities for which there is great potential. Pakistan is also energy deficient country and in desperate need for additional generation of power. With the passage of time, the available quantity of water will keep on decreasing. Only timely corrective measures could help mitigate the progressive loss in capacity due to natural phenomenon, otherwise, Pakistan would face severe water crisis. Therefore, to offset the increasing loss of existing water storage capacity and to meet additional water requirements construction of several storages would be required. By the year 2010 the three existing major storages would lose about 6 MAF (7400 MCM) capacity which is 33% of their original capacity as given in table below. This would virtually mean loss of one mega storage project. The present storage capacity of the existing storages is only 11% of the total available surface water and there is a potential for development of 65 MAF (80,000 MCM) of storages, whereas on the average about 35 MAF (43,000 MCM) of water escapes annually into sea. Part of the escapages need to be used for sustainable irrigated agriculture which supports about 70% of the population of Pakistan.

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Original Reservoir Mangla Tarbela Chashma Total Gross Capacity 5.88 MAF (7,260 MCM) in 1967 11.62 MAF (14,340 MCM) in 1974 0.87 MAF (1,070 MCM) in 1971 18.37 MAF (22,670 MCM)

Capacity Loss (MAF) 2002 1.16 (20%) 2.93 (25%) 0.37 (43%) 4.46 (24%) 2010 (Projected) 1.60 (27%) 3.95 (34%) 0.48 (55%) 6.03 (33%)

To save and utilize the available water, construction of additional storage facilities is essential. Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) has planned a Water Resources and Hydropower Development Programme Vision2025. The programme is aimed to meet water and power demand, with the short term (year 2001 to 2006 Phase-I), medium term (year 2006 to 2011 Phase-II) and long term strategy (year 2011 onwards Phase-III). This programme on implementation would provide additional storage and hydel power to the system, which is essentially required to cope with food and energy requirements of the increasing population of Pakistan and to ultimately achieve sustained economic development.

Responsibilities of the Project Manager in any Project

A project manager is the person who has the overall responsibility for the successful planning and execution of any project. The project manager must possess a combination of skills including an ability to ask penetrating questions, detect unstated assumptions, resolve interpersonal conflicts as well as more systematic management skills. Key amongst his/her duties is the recognition that risk directly impacts the likelihood of success and that this risk must be both formally and informally measured throughout the lifetime of the project. Risk arises primarily from uncertainty and the successful project manager is the one who focuses upon this as the main concern. Most of the issues that impact a project arise in one way or another from risk. A good project manager can reduce risk significantly, often by adhering to a policy of open communication, ensuring that every significant participant has an opportunity to express opinions and concerns. It follows from the above that a project manager is one who is responsible for making decisions both small and large, in such a way that risk is controlled and

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uncertainty minimised. Every decision taken by the project manager should be taken in such a way that it directly benefits the project. The responsibilities of the Project Manager can be summarized as follows: Leadership of the project team Establish a spirit of collaboration and teamwork. Using inputs from the team, express and communicate a vision for the team. Assist the other members of the team in resolving problems. Keep the team focused on both weekly progress and the final objectives. Keep the team motivated. Help the individual members to make a contribution consistent with their skill level and work style. Coordinates the activity of project room setup and key collection/distribution with Glenn Molzer. Management of the project and team contributions Prepare the project plan in collaboration with the team members. Establish the project schedule. Identify both formal and informal team roles for each member of the team. Schedule team meetings. Make certain the team meets the schedule for deliverables and task milestones. Make certain that the team conducts the peer reviews on schedule. Organize the team presentations: mid-term and end-of-term. Submits the team roles and a one page description of the project by the end of the 2nd week of the semester to the MISM administration for the MISM website. Submits all deliverables including whitepaper, office supplies, project books, etc to MISM administration on completion of project. Communications Routine, e.g. weekly, meetings with the advisors. Establish regular communications with the client. Organize visits to the client site, as needed. Ensure that team communications get to each team member

Impacts of Large Dams on Environment

Construction of large dams is not considered as environment friendly. They effect the natural environment in many ways. Few of their effects on environment are given below: By constructing huge structures and reservoirs, the stability of the strata is disturbed due to unequal loading, which may be a cause of earthquake as well.

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By diverting and stoppage of the natural stream, all fish and other aquatic life in upstream is disturbed. By restricting the flow of stream, consistent water flow in the downstream areas is not available, which can effect the downstream Population in case of a flood. The Flora and Fauna in the downstream areas is affected. Due to water storage in reservoir, the wildlife and biodiversity in the periphery of the reservoir is affected and forced to migrate. A large number of people is disturbed and have to be relocated due to the reservoir. Verify often, people are not being paid as well. Example of Mangla and Ghazi Barotha where most of the people have not been paid their compensations. Relocation of the people has associated cultural and social loses as well. The archeological and historical sites in area are also damaged. A large number of trees are cutted during the construction and forests are also lost in the reservoir. During the construction activities, a noise and dust is created at all locations. Land inundation - creation of a reservoir will inundate frequently good land. These factors lead to loss of productivity. Beauty - areas of beauty will be destroyed. Silt - retention of silt from the lower valley which would normally enrich the land. River Regime - a period of dry river bed below the dam will occur. Effects of Storage on Quality of Water. The Weather pattern of the area may also change as a result of such human induced changes.

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D.

THE STUDY

PART A: PREPARATION OF PROPOSAL FOR DAM

The proposal developed is based on the assumption that it is for a large dam and I am working as the Project Manager of Project Consultants. These settings may not be valid for small dams where Consultants are not hired. The proposal for a Dam Project will comprise of the following three parts: 1. 2. 3. 4. Feasibility Stage. Design Stage Preparations of Tender Documents Construction of the Dam.

1. Feasibility Stage
During this stage of the project, all such studies will be carried out which are required to determine weather the project is feasible or not, both in terms of financial as well as technical aspects. These studies include: Identification of the Available sources of water in the area (rivers, streams). The available sources of water in the area will checked for the quantity of water that may be available for the proposed project. Hydrological data of the streams with maximum and minimum flow and weather pattern of the area will studied. The previous record of floods will be collected and analyzed as well. Identification and size of the catchment area for the reservoir will be checked. The characteristics of the catchment area will also be studied in detail. Selection of Probable sites for Dam construction. Data will be collected for all alternate sites for the dam construction. For this purpose, reconnaissance and topographical surveys will also be carried out. Potential size of the storage reservoir will also be determined depending upon the quantity of water that may be available from stream flows and natural precipitations.

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Identification of the potential areas for irrigation supplies. The areas which will require irrigation supplies from the proposed dam and reservoir will be determined. Potential for Hydro Power Generation will be explored. The head available for drop of water for hydro power generation will also be determined. Preliminary geological investigations will be carried out to determine the soil strata available at various depths. Geotechnical Investigations will be carried out for identification of the soil strata and its properties. Identification of potential types of material to be used in construction. Gradation envelopes for the required material to be used in the formation of embankments will be developed. Identification of possible sources and queries for the materials to be used at site. If any material is not available near to the site, the cost of importing such material will also be determined. Initial Assessment of the Possible Environmental Impacts of the Project. Initial survey will also be carried out to determine the areas and number of people to be dislocated from the construction of the dam. Cost estimates for all Project Alternative sites will be developed. These estimates along with the technical aspects, will decide the selection of the best suitable site for dam construction. To calculate the EIRR (Economic Internal rate of Return) for all Project Alternatives. After carrying out all above mentioned studies, the project planning report will be submitted to the Client.

2. Design Stage
During the detailed design stage of the project, the activities can be categorized in following two classes. 1. Detailed Investigation Studies & Data Collection 2. Analysis of collected data and the Design of Various Components.

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1. Detailed Investigation Studies & Data Collection Following studies will be carried out to update the already done feasibility studies of the Project. Detailed Topographic studies of the identified site will be carried out to determine the physical features of the area, elevations of all important locations etc. Hydrological data will be collected and analyzed. The maximum and minimum flows in each season will be determined for the stream or river. This will provide a good estimate of water available for storage in the reservoir. All probable alternate sites identified at the feasibility stage will be analyzed for their technical advantages and disadvantages, their future impacts and economic aspects (EIRR) and then Selection of the best site for Dam and Reservoir will be made.. Detailed Geotechnical Investigations will be carried out for soil strata to determine its various strength parameters (Internal friction angle, coefficient of cohesion et).These parameters be used during the design of foundations. Geological Mapping of the site will be carried out. During this process, the soil strata available at various depths below the natural ground will be identified and their properties will also be determined. Detailed surveys will be carried out for Selection of best suitable sites for Spillways and Power House. Detailed Investigations of the Potential Impacts on Environment and preparation of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report. In the EIA report, all potential impacts of the construction of the dam on environment will be discussed and analyzed. At the end of the report, suitable mitigation measures will also be proposed to minimize the potential impacts of the dam on environment. Detailed data collection for number of people effected from the construction of dam and preparation of Resettlement Action Plan (RAP).

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This will include selection of probable sites where the people have to be relocated and new colonies to be built.

2. Analysis of Data and Design of all Components After analyzing the data collected in the first phase of design stage, the following activities will be carried out. Calculation of the dead and live loads for embankments and structures. Design of foundations using high tech software. The embankment in case of an earth dam consists of various zones. The central zone being the impervious zone. Each zone is to be designed individually to avoid any chances of seepage through the embankment. Seepage & Slope stability analysis for embankments will be carried out. Analysis for factor of safety against overturning, shear and other potential failures of the embankments. Model Studies for Spillways and other important structures will be carried out. Proto type models will be made for structures and they will be tested under actual loading conditions to check the adequacy of design under normal loading conditions. Design of the Spillways structure and its foundation will be finalized after model studies. Design of Intake Structure and Tunnels will be carried out. Design of Power house structure for maximum utilization of the head. Design and selection of Turbines and other E & M components. Design and selection of various instrumentation including the selection of peizometers for taking the under ground water level readings. Design of the infra structure facilities for all project staff.

3. Preparations of Tender Documents & BOQS

During this stage of the project, the following activities will be carried out.

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After the finalization of the design of all components of the projects, Construction Drawings, Longitudinal Profiles, X-Sections will be prepared for all components. Bill of Quantities (BOQs) will be prepared (giving a reasonable estimate of all project quantities) which will serve as a basis for competition among the Contractors. The estimated cost of the Project will be finalized. Project Specifications will be finalized, which will contain, General Conditions of the Contract, Technical Provisions and Special Provisions. These are meant to ensure the quality of work during the construction stage. Tender will be floated in newspapers. All potential contenders will be short listed. Based on previous experience, technical expertise, financial resources and lowest rate offered, the Contractor will be finalized.

4. Construction of the Dam

During this stage, following activities will be carried out. During this stage of the Project, the construction of the various components of the Project will be undertaken by the Contractor. The Consultants team will ensure that all construction work is being carried in strict accordance with the Project Specifications and relevant Internal Standards (ACI, ASTM, AASHTO etc). Design Review of the various components will be carried as and when problems arise during the construction. All efforts will be made for the timely completion of the project while maintaining the quality of work.

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PART

B:

RESPONSIBILITIES & SELECTION

OF OF

THE THE

PROJECT FOR

MANAGER PROJECT:

TEAM

Responsibilities of Project Manager Being the Project Manager for the Engineering Consultants of a Dam Project, I will be responsible for successful completion of the project within the stipulated time while maintaining the quality of work as required in project specifications. In addition to the responsibilities of the Project Manager mentioned in the Literature Review part of this report, my main responsibilities will be the following: Selection of a well qualified, experienced, competent and dedicated team for designing and construction supervision of the Project. To supervise the selected team for all of their work and to provide necessary guidance to them. To collaborate with the Client and the Contractor for smooth running of the Project. To monitor the quality of works for various components of the Project. To remain impartial and deal all issues with out any bias to both Contractor and Client. To help the Contractor in solving all site oriented problems for smooth running of the Project. To conduct Progress review meetings with Client and Contractor for solution of problems and monitoring of the progress. Ensure that satisfactory working conditions / environment is provided to all staff in the Field Office and at Site.

Selection of the Team The organization chart of my team is given at the end of this report as annexure A. I will now describe the job description for few important members of my team.

1. Head Design Section

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The responsibilities of the design head and his section has already been discussed in detail in the proposal section for the dam.

2. Head RAP & EIA Studies

He will be a key member of my team. His first responsibility wil be to determine the impacts of the dam construction on environment and prepare the Environmental Impact Assessment Report. The EIA report will contain the information about the legislation available in the country regarding the control of environmental degradation caused by the construction of large projects. It will also contain the national (National environmental Quality Standards) and other relevant international standards for various emissions. These standards will serve as comparisons when the site data is collected. The actual readings taken from site for various emissions and water quality are included and then compared with the standard values. If the actual values are greater then the limits, suitable mitigation measures are proposed at the end of report for controlling these levels. His second task will be to make various team for data collection regarding the areas effected from the construction of dam and the number of people to be disturbed and their economic conditions. After conduction such survey, he will prepare and suggest compensation package for the effectees.

3. Head Health, Safety & Environment

The main responsibility of the Head HSE will be to ensure the safety of all persons working in the project area. It includes both Consultants and Contractors staff. Following are the main functions of Head HSE:

Prepare check list for House Keeping and environmental condition of contractor premises.

Issue Quarterly Schedule for Inspection. Conduct Inspections/ follow-up inspections for House Keeping and

Environmental conditions of Contractor premises.

Prepare reports for discrepancies and distribute as required. Conduct follow up inspections to ensure implementation of inspection results.

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Maintain Records.

He will achieve this object through the following approach:

Prepare Checklist for safety items & conduct the inspections

-

General Items for work site / contractors staff housing compound. Safety & loss prevention Inspection (All-offices) Safety & loss prevention Inspection (All-Vehicles) Maintain Safety Record of individual contractor / JV components.

Issue schedules for Safety & Loss prevention inspections for work sites. Conduct Safety & loss prevention inspections / meetings at site. Produce Monthly and Quarterly reports on Safety & Loss prevention matters. Develop and implement Safety & Loss Prevention procedures. Inspect and verify Operators certificates and Drivers licenses. Obtain reports from Contractors on Available Safety Equipments at site and Residential compounds.

4. Chief Contracts & Claims

He will play a very important role first during the preparation of the Tender Documents and specifications for the Project. Then during the award of the work to the Contractor, he will also play an effective and decisive role. During the construction stage of the dam, he will deal all contractual issues and analyze all claims submitted by the Contractor for any extra payments.

5. Chief Resident Engineer (construction Supervision)

Chief Resident Engineer (CRE) will be directly responsible for monitoring the construction activities at site with help of his team members. His duties include: Monitoring of works includes all Contracts for Project.

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Close coordination with Deputy Chief Resident Engineer (DCRE) and Resident Engineer (REs) and support section Heads such as Survey, Geology, Laboratory etc. backed by team of field/ office staff Scheduling, Contracts, and Measurement & Claims. To get updates from DCRE about activities in their respective sections and to ensure timely response to all the correspondence / status of progress submissions and to take appropriate actions and to resolve day to day

problems at the earliest. Close coordination with the Project Manager, of each Contract and Design Team for timely resolution of various design issues and design modifications, clarifications of ambiguities in Contract document,

construction drawings and intimation of such decisions to the Contractors. Close coordination with Project Manager regarding progress monitoring for timely completion of works in conformity with the Contract Documents. Participation in the periodic meetings with the Employer and with the Contractors, convened by the PM. Participation in all internal meetings of Consultants called by the PM. In the absence of PM or his other preoccupation, CRE is to perform his duties. Develop System for review and issuance of Construction drawings to the Contractor. Manage review and approval of shop drawings. Participate in preparation of Project Completion Report. Ensure that satisfactory working conditions / environment is provided to all staff in the Field Office and at Site.

Deputy

Chief

Resident

Engineer

DCRE

(construction

Supervision)
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Periodic meetings and liaison with REs of Consultant, PMs of Contractors and their staff members to ensure that construction activities on the projects are being executed in accordance with requirements of contract documents. Monitoring and review of contractors programme of works and its periodic update. Review of draft letters from all residencies and section heads before sending to CRE. Preparation of draft letters on important issues marked by PM for action. Review of shop drawings and method statements before forwarding them to CRE. Liaison with Client for close coordination with construction supervision team. Checking of contractors Monthly Statement and Interim Payment Certificates prepared by measurement section. Maintaining the status of daily correspondence and pursuance to relevant sections for timely action on all matters. Providing input to Chief Reports for Monthly, Quarterly and Yearly Progress Reports. Liaison with Heads of Claim and Contract Sections regarding contractors claims, variation orders and other contractual matters. Provide assistance to PM and CRE in all aspects related to construction supervision.

Head Quality Assurance & Control

Scope of Work

Quality assurance and control section has been entrusted the responsibility for conducting the inspection of work in all stages of progress with a focus on quality assurance for all activities of Civil, Mechanical and Electrical jobs which are being executed under different contracts for Project with the assistance of the Consultants site staff. Through series of planned actions i.e. inspections, tests, observations it will be ensured that intent of design and specifications is implemented and process of product identification and traceability was completed
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for every major item. This function may be extended to the other disciplines of the project in due course of time and subject to availability of required resources.
Devolvement of Quality Assurance Plan

The quality assurance shall include:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. A list of all items that are subject to quality assurance. The required special inspection and testing. The type and frequency of special inspection. The frequency and distribution of testing and special inspection reports. The structural observation to be performed. The frequency and distribution of observation reports. The inspection schedules and reports. Internal Quality Audits and reports. Recording of Non-Compliance by contractor and generation of reports.

Functions of the Head Quality Assurance 1. 2. 3. Acknowledgment of awareness of the requirements contained in the quality assurance plan. Acknowledgment that control will be exercised to obtain conformance with the construction documents. Production of procedures for exercising control within QA&C section organization, the method and frequency of reporting, and distribution of reports. Identification and qualification of the persons exercising such control and their position in the organization i.e. job descriptions of the QA&C section staff.

4.

PREVENTIVE ACTION REQUIREMENT (PAR) Preventive actions are identified to eliminate the causes of potential noncompliance in order to prevent their occurrences, employees of Consultants can report problems requiring prevention with regard to quality specifications, procedures, product, services, safety & loss prevention, etc to QA&C section which will coordinate for the solution. General Focus of QA&C section will be encompassing the entire activities of the Project, specifically the construction works being under taken by different Contractors. Therefore, discrepancies revealed during inspection/or reported otherwise will be conveyed under the heading of PAR (Preventive Action Required) to the respective Contractors. A

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ceaseless effort shall be made by QA&C section for follow up ensuring the rectification process completion. CORRECTIVE ACTION REQUIREMENT (CAR)

Corrective actions are essential to alleviate the causes of non-conformities in order to prevent their recurrences. If any item identified & reported under PAR (Preventive Action Requirement) is not rectified then the CAR will be initiated, which is a stronger & severe form for highlighting discrepancies. The CAR process will be utilized to convey to The Client and The Engineer about slackness on the part of Contractors in implementing the rectification works for the discrepancies indicated through PAR-system. The Quality Control Section of all operating contractors will be responsible for providing feedback about the rectification work to the QA&C section.

Conduct short courses for Consultants Staff on QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CONTROL with emphasize on Project Management.

Functions of Individual Resident Engineers (REs)

All individual section heads (RE Embankments, RE Spillways, RE Instrumentation, RE Infrastructure, RE Mechanical & Electrical Works, RE Powerhouse, Head Geology, Head Survey, Chief Planning & Measurements etc) will ensure the quality of works undertaken by the Contractor in their residencies as per quality assurance plan of the project.

Dam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about structures for water impoundment. For other uses, see Dam (disambiguation).

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Hoover Dam, a concrete arch-gravity dam in Black Canyon of the Colorado River. Lake Mead in the background is impounded by the dam.

Glen Canyon Dam

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. Hydropower and pumped-storage hydroelectricity are often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations.

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Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Types of dams

2.1 By structure

2.1.1 Arch dams 2.1.2 Gravity dams 2.1.3 Arch-gravity dams 2.1.4 Barrages 2.1.5 Embankment dams

o o
2.2 By size 2.3 By use

2.1.5.1 Rock-fill dams 2.1.5.2 Concrete-face rock-fill dams 2.1.5.3 Earth-fill dams 2.1.5.4 Asphalt-concrete core

2.3.1 Saddle dam 2.3.2 Weir 2.3.3 Check dam 2.3.4 Dry dam 2.3.5 Diversionary dam 2.3.6 Underground dam 2.3.7 Tailings dam

2.4 By material

2.4.1 Steel dams 2.4.2 Timber dams

2.5 Other types

2.5.1 Cofferdams 2.5.2 Beaver dams

3 Construction elements

o o

3.1 Power generation plant 3.2 Spillways

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4 Dam creation

o o o

4.1 Common purposes 4.2 Location 4.3 Impact assessment

4.3.1 Environmental impact 4.3.2 Human social impact 4.3.3 Economics

5 Dam failure 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links

[edit]History

The Roman dam at Cornalvo in Spain has been in use for almost two millennia.

Grand Anicut dam on river Kaveri in Tamil Nadu, South India (19th century on 1st-2nd century foundation)

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English,[1] and before that, fromMiddle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities.[2] Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East.

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Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphratesrivers, and could be quite unpredictable. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured a 4.5 m (15 ft) high and 1 m (3 ft 3 in) wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m (160 ft) wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.[3][4] The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km (16 mi) south of Cairo, was 102 m (335 ft) long at its base and 87 m (285 ft) wide. The structure was built around 2800[5] or 2600 B.C.[6] as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards.[5][6] By the mid-late third century BC, an intricate water-management system withinDholavira in modern day India, was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.[7] Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale".[8] Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season.[9]Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built,[8] such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date,[10] and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was theSubiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m (160 ft) remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.[11] Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams.[12] Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams,[13] arch dams,[14] buttress dams[15] and multiple arch buttress dams,[16] all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as theBridge of Valerian in Iran.[17] Eflatun Pnar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It's thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13 century BC. The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m (980 ft) long, 4.5 m (15 ft) high and 20 m (66 ft) wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD[18] and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use.[19] The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals.[20] Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 B.C. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu

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(state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km (62 mi) in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.[21] In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful,[22] which could raise water 50 cubits in height for thewater supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known.[23] Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineerscalled the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of theIslamic world.[23] Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill.[24] In the 10th century, AlMuqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m (3,000 ft) long,[25]and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city.[26] Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.[25] In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch. For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam. French engineer Benot Fourneyron developed the first successful water turbine in 1832. The era of large dams was initiated after Hoover Dam was completed on the Colorado River near Las Vegas in 1936. By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m (49 ft) high.[27]

[edit]Types

of dams

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

[edit]By

structure

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as timber dams, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

[edit]Arch dams

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Gordon Dam, Tasmania is an arch dam.

Main article: Arch dam In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantileverand arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. Thenormal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock.[28] The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

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Daniel-Johnson Dam, Quebec, is a multiple-arch buttress dam.

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constantangle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constantangle arch dam. A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream. The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Qubec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

[edit]Gravity dams
This unreferenced section requires citations to ensureverifiability.

The Grand Coulee Dam is an example of a solid gravity dam.

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam.[29] The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the

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dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that gravity wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam. Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension. Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy. The designer also ensures that the toe of the dam is sunk deep enough in the earth that it does not slide forward. For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength. When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical. Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. This is called "zoning". The core of the dam is zoned depending on the availability of locally available materials, foundation conditions and the material attributes. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Gravity dams can also be classified as "overflow" (spillway) and "non-overflow." Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Itaipu Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

Arch-gravity dams

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The Hoover Dam is an example of an arch-gravity dam.

Main article: Arch-gravity dam

This section requires expansion.

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. [edit]Barrages

The Koshi Barrage

Main article: Barrage dams A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load. They are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems. Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the [30] tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages. [edit]Embankment dams Main article: Embankment dam Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like the gravity dams made from concrete.

[edit]Rock-fill dams

The Gathright Dam in Virginia is a rock-fillembankment dam.

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Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a large percentage of large particles hence the term rockfill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry,concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as acomposite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

[edit]Concrete-face rock-fill dams

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, [31] the design has become popular. Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) [32] tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008.

[edit]Earth-fill dams
Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it. Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km (31 mi) northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 485 ft (148 m) above the river bed and a reservoir size of 2 95 sq mi (250 km ) makes it the largest earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 9,000 feet (2,700 metres) long with a maximum height of 465 feet (142 metres). The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 200 million cubic

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yards (152.8 million cu. Meters) which makes it the largest man made structure in the world, except for the Great Chinese Wall which consumed somewhat more material. Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

[edit]Asphalt-concrete core
A third type of embankment dam is built with asphalt concrete core. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plastic material that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of [33] the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions. [edit]By

size

International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large [34] dams as higher than 15 meters andmajor dams as over 150 meters in height. The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 meters high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic [30] meters. The tallest dam in the world is the 300-meter-high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan. [edit]By
[35]

use

[edit]Saddle dam A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding. [edit]Weir Main article: Weir A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement. [edit]Check dam Main article: Check dam A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

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[edit]Dry dam Main article: Dry dam A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream. [edit]Diversionary dam Main article: Diversionary dam A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production. [edit]Underground dam Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Damin Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, [36] Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan. There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong as floods will wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The [37] stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body or by means of a drain pipe. [edit]Tailings dam A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the [38] tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt. There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A

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centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill [39][40] is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side. Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for [40] stability and environmental purposes as well. [edit]By

material

[edit]Steel dams Main article: Steel dam

Red Ridge steel dam, b. 1905, Michigan.

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the turn of the 19th-20th Century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams. [edit]Timber dams

A timber crib dam in Michigan, photographed in 1978.

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is

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plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank. Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks. [edit]Other

types

[edit]Cofferdams Main article: Cofferdam

A cofferdam during the construction oflocks at the Montgomery Point Lock and Dam.

A cofferdam is a (usually temporary) barrier constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam may be demolished or removed. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water allowing a dry work environment below the surface. Upon completion the cofferdam is usually deconstructed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. [edit]Beaver dams Main article: Beaver dam Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter. [edit]Construction [edit]Power

elements

generation plant

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Hydraulic turbine and electrical generator.

Main article: Hydroelectricity As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, [41] and over 63% of renewable energy. Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about [41] 50% of world use of this type of power. Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbineand generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. (For example see Dinorwic Power Station.)

Hydroelectric dam in cross section.

[edit]Spillways

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Spillway on Llyn Brianne dam,Wales soon after first fill.

Main article: Spillway A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: Aservice spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. Anauxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and washed away in the event of a large flood. Fusegate elements are independent free-standing block set side by side on the spillway which work without any remote control. They allow to increase the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir most of the time allowing overspilling for the common floods. The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889"). Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve. [edit]Dam

creation
purposes
Example

[edit]Common Function

Power

Hydroelectric power is a major source of electricity in the world. Many countries

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generation

that have rivers with adequate water flow, that can be dammed for power generation purposes. For example, the Itaipu Dam on the Paran River in South America generates 14 GW and supplied 93% of the energy consumed by Paraguay and 20% of that consumed byBrazil as of 2005.

Many urban areas of the world are supplied with water abstracted from rivers pent up behind low dams or weirs. Examples include London - with water from Water supply the River Thames and Chester with water taken from the River Dee. Other major sources include deep upland reservoirs contained by high dams across deep valleys such as the Claerwenseries of dams and reservoirs.

Dams are often used to control and stabilize water flow, often Stabilize water [42] for agricultural purposes and irrigation. Others such as the Berg Strait dam flow / can help to stabilize or restore the water levels of inland lakes and seas, in this irrigation [43] case the Aral Sea.

Flood prevention

Dams such as the Blackwater dam of Webster, New Hampshire and the Delta [44] Works are created with flood control in mind.

Land reclamation

Dams (often called dykes or levees in this context) are used to prevent ingress of water to an area that would otherwise be submerged, allowing its reclamation for human use.

Water diversion

A typically small dam used to divert water for irrigation, power generation, or other uses, with usually no other function. Occasionally, they are used to divert water to another drainage or reservoir to increase flow there and improve water use in that particular area. See: diversion dam.

Navigation

Dams create deep reservoirs and can also vary the flow of water downstream. This can in return affect upstream and downstream navigation by altering the river's depth. Deeper water increases or creates freedom of movement for water vessels. Large dams can serve this purpose but most often weirs and locks are used.

Recreation and aquatic

Dams built for any of the above purposes may find themselves displaced by time of their original uses. Nevertheless the local community may have come to enjoy the reservoir for recreational and aesthetic reasons. Often the reservoir will be

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beauty

placid and surrounded by greenery, and convey to visitors a natural sense of rest and relaxation.

[edit]Location

Location

The discharge of Takato Dam

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable. Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include: permeability of the surrounding rock or soil earthquake faults landslides and slope stability water table peak flood flows reservoir silting environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder) impacts on human habitations compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

[edit]Impact

assessment

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area - whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater). [edit]Environmental impact

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Wood and garbage accumulated because of a dam

Main article: Environmental impacts of reservoirs Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar erosion. Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching thespawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research. A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake. Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table. [edit]Human social impact The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the [45] villagers if they did not cooperate. For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for hydropower generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant

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ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40-80 million people worldwide have been [47] physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction. [edit]Economics Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessment, and are large scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variation of rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low water years. Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative [citation needed] energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power. [edit]Dam

[46]

failure

Main article: Dam failure

The reservoir emptying through the failedTeton Dam.

International special sign for works and installations containing dangerous forces

Dam failures are generally catastrophic if the structure is breached or significantly damaged. Routine deformation monitoring and monitoring of seepage from drains in and around larger dams is useful to anticipate any problems and permit remedial action to be taken before structural failure occurs. Most dams incorporate mechanisms to permit the reservoir to be lowered or even drained in the event of such problems. Another solution can be rock grouting- pressure pumping portland cement slurry into weak fractured rock.

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During an armed conflict, a dam is to be considered as an "installation containing dangerous forces" due to the massive impact of a possible destruction on the civilian population and the environment. As such, it is protected by the rules of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and shall not be made the object of attack if that may cause severe losses among the civilian population. To facilitate the identification, a protective sign consisting of three bright orange circles placed on the same axis is defined by the rules of IHL. The main causes of dam failure include inadequate spillway capacity, piping through the embankment, foundation or abutments, spillway design error (South Fork Dam), geological instability caused by changes to water levels during filling or poor surveying (Vajont Dam,Malpasset, Testalinden Creek Dam), poor maintenance, especially of outlet pipes (Lawn Lake Dam, Val di Stava Dam collapse), extreme rainfall (Shakidor Dam), and human, computer or design error (Buffalo Creek Flood, Dale Dike Reservoir, Taum Sauk pumped storage plant). A notable case of deliberate dam failure (prior to the above ruling) was the Royal Air Force 'Dambusters' raid on Germany in World War II (codenamed "Operation Chastise"), in which three German dams were selected to be breached in order to have an impact on German infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from the Ruhr and Eder rivers. This raid later became the basis for several films. Since 2007, the Dutch IJkdijk foundation is developing, with an open innovation model and early warning system for levee/dike failures. As a part of the development effort, full scale dikes are destroyed in the IJkdijk fieldlab. The destruction process is monitored by sensor networks from an international group of companies and scientific institutions.

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