1. Identify importance of water as a solvent 2.

Analyse the relationship between the solubility of substances in water and the polar nature of the water molecule Most ionic substances dissolve in water. Water dissolves nutrients from soil and carries them in solution to living cells. It also carries waste products away. Water is also a good solvent due to its polarity. The solvent properties of water are vital in biology, because many biochemical reactions take place only within aqueous solutions (e.g., reactions in the cytoplasm and blood). In addition, water is used to transport biological molecules. When an ionic or polar compound enters water, it is surrounded by water molecules. The relatively small size of water molecules typically allows many water molecules to surround one molecule of solute. The partially negative dipoles of the water are attracted to positively charged components of the solute, and vice versa for the positive dipoles. In general, ionic and polar substances such as acids, alcohols, and salts are easily soluble in water, and nonpolar substances such as fats and oils are not. Nonpolar molecules stay together in water because it is energetically more favorable for the water molecules to hydrogen bond to each other than to engage in van der Waals interactions with nonpolar molecules. An example of an ionic solute is table salt; the sodium chloride, NaCl, separates into Na+ cations and Cl- anions, each being surrounded by water molecules. The ions are then easily transported away from their crystalline lattice into solution. An example of a nonionic solute is table sugar. The water dipoles hydrogen bond to the dipolar regions of the sugar molecule and allow it to be carried away into solution. Water's solvency is why the water that we use is rarely pure; it usually has several minerals dissolved in it. 3. Constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw material in metabolism As water is an important solvent, important molecules such as glucose, oxygen and carbon dioxide and ions such as sodium, calcium and chloride are able to be dissolved and pass in and out of the semi-permeable membranes of cells through diffusion and osmosis. Water itself is

extremely important in living organisms as processes such as transpiration require water. Water is also essential for life. Water is the major constituent of almost all life forms. Most animals and plants contain more than 60% water by volume. When you water a plant, it sucks up the water through capillary action. Then the water travels from the roots through tubes called xylem vessels. Water reaches the leaves of the plant and escapes through small holes called stomata, which open when the plant needs to cool down. This process is called transpiration and is similar to how people (and some animals) sweat. 4. A habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial habitats Water conducts heat more easily than any liquid except mercury. Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance. Because water has a high specific heat, it can absorb large amounts of heat energy before it begins to get hot. It also means that water releases heat energy slowly when situations cause it to cool. Water's high specific heat allows for the moderation of the Earth's climate and helps organisms regulate their body temperature more effectively. 5. The wide distribution and importance of water on Earth is a consequence of its molecular structure and hydrogen bonding Water molecules are the only substance on Earth that exist in all three physical states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Incorporated in the changes of state are massive amounts of heat exchange. This feature plays an important role in the redistribution of heat energy in the Earth's atmosphere. In terms of heat being transferred into the atmosphere, approximately 3/4's of this process is accomplished by the evaporation and condensation of water. 6. Lewis dot diagrams of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide

7. Compare molecular structure of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, the differences in their molecular shapes and in their melting and boiling points Molecule Molecular structure Molecular shapes Melting point (oC) Water H2O Bent 0 Boiling Point (oC) 100

Ammonia NH3

Trigonal pyramid

-78

-33

Hydrogen Sulfide H2S

Bent

-86

-60

8. Describe the hydrogen bonding between molecules Notice that in each of these molecules:

The hydrogen is attached directly to one of the most electronegative elements, causing the hydrogen to acquire a significant amount of positive charge.

Each of the elements to which the hydrogen is attached is not only significantly negative, but also has at least one "active" lone pair.

Consider two water molecules coming close together.

The + hydrogen is pair that it is almost a co-ordinate (dative far, but the than an ordinary dipole-dipole interaction.

so strongly attracted to the lone as if you were beginning to form covalent) bond. It doesn't go that attraction is significantly stronger

Hydrogen bonds have about a tenth of the strength of an average covalent bond, and are being constantly broken and reformed in liquid water. Notice that each water molecule can potentially form four hydrogen bonds with surrounding water molecules. There are exactly the right numbers of + hydrogens and lone pairs so that every one of them can be involved in hydrogen bonding. This is why the boiling point of water is higher than that of ammonia or hydrogen fluoride. In the case of ammonia, the amount of hydrogen bonding is limited by the fact that each nitrogen only has one lone pair. In a group of ammonia molecules, there aren't enough lone pairs to go around to satisfy all the hydrogens. In hydrogen fluoride, the problem is a shortage of hydrogens. In water, there are exactly the right number of each. Water could be considered as the "perfect" hydrogen bonded system. 9. Identify the water molecule as a polar molecule Water is a heteroatomic molecule meaning the electron pairs are shared unevenly. The shared electrons tend to stay closer to the oxygen atom rather than the hydrogen atoms therefore, water is a polar molecule because there is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated in space. 10. Describe the attractive forces between polar molecules as dipole-dipole forces Polar molecules have a positive and negative end so they attract each other forming dipole-dipole attractions and the electrostatic attraction is stronger than non polar attractions.

The water molecule forms an angle, with hydrogen atoms at the tips and oxygen at the vertex. Since oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, the side of the molecule with the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge. A molecule with such a charge difference is called a dipole. The charge differences cause water molecules to be attracted to each other (the relatively positive areas being attracted to the relatively negative areas) and to other polar molecules. This attraction is known as hydrogen bonding. This relatively weak (relative to the covalent bonds within the water molecule itself) attraction results in physical properties such as a relatively high boiling point, because a lot of heat energy is necessary to break the hydrogen bonds between molecules. The extra bonding between water molecules also gives liquid water a large specific heat capacity. 11. Explain surface tension, viscosity and boiling and melting points in terms of its intermolecular forces The strong hydrogen bonds give water a high cohesiveness and, consequently, surface tension. This is evident when small quantities of water are put onto a nonsoluble surface and the water stays together as drops. This feature is important when water is carried through xylem up stems in plants; the strong intermolecular attractions hold the water column together, and prevent tension caused by transpiration pull. Other liquids with lower surface tension would have a higher tendency to "rip", forming vacuum or air pockets and rendering the xylem vessel inoperative. The hydrogen bond between water molecules that we talked about in the first section is the reason behind two of water's unique properties: cohesion and adhesion. Cohesion refers to the fact that water sticks to itself very easily. Adhesion means that water also sticks very well to other things, which is why it spreads out in a thin film on certain surfaces, like glass. When water comes into contact with these surfaces, the adhesive forces are stronger than the cohesive forces. Instead of sticking together in a ball, it spreads out. Water also has a high level of surface tension. This means that the molecules on the surface of the water are not surrounded by similar molecules on all sides, so they're being pulled only by cohesion from other molecules deep inside. These molecules cohere to each other strongly but

adhere to the other medium weakly. Surface tension makes these water drops round so they cover the smallest possible surface area. Capillary action is also a result of surface tension. As we mentioned, this happens in plants when they "suck up" water. The water adheres to the inside of the plant's tubes, but the surface tension attempts to flatten it out. This makes the water rise and cohere to itself again, a process that continues until enough water builds up to make gravity begin pulling it back down. The thermal properties of water are also linked to its hydrogen bonds. Water has a very high specific heat capacity, which is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise its temperature by one degree Celsius. The energy required to raise the temperature of water by one degree Celsius is 4.2 joules per gram. Water also has a high heat of vaporization, which means that it can take a lot of heat without its temperature rising much. This plays a huge part in the climate, because it means that oceans take a long time to warm up.

12. Explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changes when the following types of chemicals interact with water: a soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride, a soluble molecular compound such as sucrose When an ionic substance dissolves in water, water molecules cluster around the separated ions. This process is called hydration. Water frequently attaches to positive ions by co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonds. It bonds to negative ions using hydrogen bonds.

The diagram shows the potential hydrogen bonds formed to a chloride ion, Cl-. Although the lone pairs in the chloride ion are at the 3-level and wouldn't normally be active enough to form hydrogen bonds, in this case they are made more attractive by the full negative charge on the chlorine.

However complicated the negative ion, there will always be lone pairs that the hydrogen atoms from the water molecules can hydrogen bond to.