SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

Definitions
Techniques/Chemistry Building Blocks
Mixture: anything that can be separated into more than one simpler substance by physical change Elements: cant be broken down physically or chemically Compounds: can be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means only Heterogeneous: mixtures in different states Homogeneous: mixtures in the same state Immiscible: liquids that form layers do not mix with each other Miscible: liquids that are soluble in each other Isotopes: elements with the same # of protons but different # of neutrons the atomic # is the same but the mass # is different Isomers: molecules with the same formula but different structural formula Mass #: A sum of protons + neutrons Atomic #: Z - # of protons and electrons Electronegativity: electron-attracting power of an element Sublimation: transition of a substance from the solid phase to the gas phase without passing through the liquid phase. It separates solids from solids Law of Conservation of Matter: matter cannot be destroyed nor created; only converted from one form to another Law of Conservation of Mass: during a chemical reaction there is no change in mass

Bonding Theory
Cations: positively charged ions Anions: negatively charged ions Polyatomic Ions: ions that include two or more elements Non-polar: when the bonding pairs of electrons are shared equally between two atoms; two atoms of equal Electronegativity simultaneously attracting a pair of electrons Polar: formed between elements with different electronegativities Valence Electrons: electrons in the outer, unfilled shells. These are involved in bonding.

Acid-Base Theory/Quantities
Mole: the amount of substance containing 6.02 x 1023 particles Amphoteric: substances that can act as an acid or base 2H2O H3O+ + OHIonisation: the formation of ions in solution Strong Acid: an acid that completely ionises Weak Acid: an acid that partially ionises Strong Base: readily produces OH- (hydroxide ions) Weak Base: does not readily produce OH- (hydroxide ions) Alkali: a soluble metal hydroxide Alkaline: basic Indicators: a substance, which will tell by colour if a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral Dissociation: when salts dissolve in water Concentrated Solution: have a large amount of solvent and a small amount of solute Dilute solution: have a small amount of solvent and a large amount of solute Neutralisation: the reaction between an acid and a base

Redox & Electrochemistry

Oxidation: a gain in oxygen; loss of electrons; increase in oxidation number

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

Reduction: a loss in oxygen; gain of electrons; decrease in oxidation number Oxidation Numbers: numbers assigned to different elements in redox equations to simplify the understanding of the process Oxidising Agents: are themselves reduced Reducing Agents: are themselves oxidised Galvanic Cells: create an electric current from spontaneously occurring redox reactions Electrolytic Cells: require electricity to drive redox reactions that do not happen simultaneously Redox Reactions: electron transfer reactions

Organic Chemistry
Octane Number: measure of the ignition quality of gas (gasoline or petrol) Catalytic Cracking: the process of converting larger and less useful alkanes molecules into smaller, more useful ones. Catalytic cracking is done at a lower temperature than thermal cracking, in the presence of a catalyst Isomerisation: the conversion of a compound into an isomer of itself Catalytic Reforming: a chemical process that changes the shape of the hydrocarbon molecules using a catalyst to speed up the reaction Substitution Reactions: the replacing of one atom by another atom Addition Reactions: a reaction in which one molecule bonds covalently with another molecule without losing any other atoms Hydrocarbons: chemical compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen bonds

Polymers
Polymer: a naturally occurring or synthetic compound consisting of large molecules made up of a linked series of repeated simple monomers Monomer: a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer Repeating Unit: the result of a monomer, which has been polymerized into a long chain/the simplest structural entity of a polymer chain Ions: charged atom Molecule: group of atoms joined together Electrolyte: liquid that conducts electricity Homologous Series: a group of organic compounds having a similar functional group Functional Group: an atom or group of atoms that gives an organic molecule its specific property Thermoplastics: melt easily when heated eg. Polystyrene Thermosetting: char when heated eg. Bakelite Hydrophobic: substances that do not dissolve in water eg. Oil and sulfur. They are generally nonpolar and include hydrocarbons, metallic substances and elements. Hydrophilic: substances that dissolve easily in water eg. Sodium chloride and glucose. They usually contain polar or ionic groups that are attracted to either of the polar ends of water molecules Cross-links: covalent bonds that form between polymer chains if the number of cross-links is small, an elastomer will result. If the number is large, a hard flexible thermosetting polymer will be produced. Isotactic: a linear polymer with the side branches arranged on the same side. Due to greater effect of dispersion forces, such polymers can pack together closely, producing a substance, which has a high density and is rigid and tough with a high softening temperature Actactic: when branches occur at irregular points on both sides of the chain. The chains of molecules cannot get as close together and a low density substance is formed Fractional Distillation: a manufacturing process that separates the different components in a chemical mixture according to their different boiling points. The liquid is raised to boiling and vapours pass through a tubular column where temperature is gradually lowered along its length. Components with a higher boiling point are collected. Gasoline, kerosene and naphtha are fractions separated from

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

crude oil using fractional distillation. Diagram:

Wine Making: Wine can be produced by fermentation and distillation. Fermenting sugar with yeast, which contains enzymes, and limewater, then incubating the substance can breakdown the yeast into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Then through fractional distillation, heating the substance above 78o, ethanol can be extracted.

Note:
1. Metal oxides tend to react with water to form basic solutions of the metal hydroxide 2. Non-metal oxides tend to form acidic oxides 3. Concentrated H2SO4 does not conduct electricity dilute H2SO4 does 4. The presence of H3O+ ions is indicative of an acidic solution 5. The presence of OH- ions is indicative of an alkaline/basic solution 6. Water Amphiprotic substance Proton Acceptor: Proton Donor: H2O + H+ H3O+ 2H2O H3O+ + OH-

7. Inert electrodes carbon graphite or platinum 8. As molecular size increases, dispersion forces increase, therefore boiling point increases 9. Benzene is the basis for aromatic chemistry 10. All nitrates are soluble 11. Ethanoic acid acetic acid 12. Metals lose electrons, non-metals gain electrons 13. CH3COOH + H2O = CH3COO- + H3O+ 14. Polar substances element that has the higher electronegativity pulls the electrons in. 15. Zinc is used to galvanise steel 16. Sulfurous acid H2SO3 17. Diprotic (acts as a base and acid) eg. H2SO4 NH4NO3 H2SO4 + NH4 (NH4)2SO4 HNO3 + NH3

Planar

Linear

V-shaped

Trigonal Planar

Tetrahedral

TECHNIQUES OF CHEMISTRY
Types of mixtures: SOLID-SOLID ores LIQUID-SOLID sand & water LIQUID-LIQUID(miscible) ethanol and water; (immiscible) oil and water Separation Techniques: HETEROGENEOUS: Filtration (liquids from suspensions)

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

Separating funnel (2 immiscible liquids) Decantation (solid from liquid) HOMOGENOUS: Crystallisation (dissolved solid in liquid) Sublimation (solids from solids) Evaporation (dissolved solid from a liquid) Fractional Distillation (liquids in liquids with different boiling points) Chromatography (separates pigments from dyes)

TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Metallic Character: Across: decreases (attraction force of nucleus increases with increasing number of protons) Down: increases (electrons are less attracted to the nucleus, they are shielded by the increasing # of shells Atomic Size: Across:decreases (the attraction force of the nucleus increases with the increasing # of protons, and so pulls the electrons closer) Down: increases (increasing # of electron shells) Reactivity: Highest in the middle, lowest at the ends/Most reactive Fluorine Electronegativity: Across:increases (fluorine is the most electronegative element. The further away an element is placed from fluorine in the periodic table, the less electronegative it is) Down: decreases (increasing inner shells shield outer shell electrons from the nucleus)

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Combination: A + B AB AB A + B substance + O2 CO2 + H2O AB + CD AC + BD (forms an insoluble substance) AB + C AC + B Decomposition/Dissociation: Combustion: Precipitation: Displacement:

Neutralisation: acid + base salt + water 1. acid + metal salt + hydrogen 2. acid + metal carbonate salt + H2O + CO2 3. acid + metal oxide salt + water 4. acid + metal hydroxide salt + water

BONDING THEORY
MELTING POINT H L Covalent Molecular

CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILDS H Metallic Bonding L CONDUCTIVITY IN MOLTEN STATE H Ionic Bonding L Covalent Metals &

Network

METALLIC BONDING
Metals

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

Definition:

positively charged cations in a sea of electrons

Properties of metals and non-metals Metals: lustrous, conduct heat and electricity, malleable, high melting point and boiling point, solids @ room temperature except mercury Non-metals: dull, non-conductors, brittle, low density and low melting and boiling points

IONIC BONDING

Non-metals &

Metals Definition: the bonding between metals and non-metals Ionic bonding involves one atom (metal) that is willing to give up its electrons for stability Properties 1. Ionic compounds are crystalline solids. Positive and negative ions attract one another and build a giant structure IONIC LATTICE

2. Ionic compounds are hard to melt. High MPt attraction between +ve and ve ions are strong 3. Most ionic compounds are soluble in water. Water gets in between ions to separate them 4. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or when dissolved. +ve and ve ions are able to
carry current when they are free to move

COVALENT BONDING
Non-metals Definition: the sharing of pairs of electrons between non-metals and non-metals

Non-metals &

Properties 1. Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. The chemical bonds between atoms are strong, but the forces between molecules are weak. They take a little energy to overcome

2. They do not conduct electricity. All electrons are held in bonds. There are *no ions 3. They tend to dissolve in water acids are exceptions 4. They tend to dissolve in covalent solvents. Solubility is dependent (mainly) on polarity. Covalent
compounds are generally non-polar. As covalent compounds and solvents are both non-polar in general they will dissolve

5. They are very stable. The covalent bond is a strong bond.

Two types of covalent compounds: Covalent molecular: atoms joined to make discreet units called molecules Properties Non-conductors unless a reaction occurs with water to produce ions Low melting and boiling points Soft solids, liquids or gases

Covalent network:
Eg. Silicon dioxide Or carbon as graphite Or carbon as diamond

atoms joined to make a continuous network; no molecules

Properties Non-conductors when solid or molten electrons localised in covalent bonds or on the atoms Very high melting points strong covalent bonding extending throughout the lattice Hard atoms strongly bound in the lattice Brittle distortion breaks covalent bonds

SECONDARY BONDING THE BONDING BETWEEN MOLECULES

Three types: 1. Dispersion forces (the weakest type of intermolecular attraction) Electrons in one atom can be attracted to the positively charged nucleus of another Depends on

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

a) b)

number of electrons in the atom. More electrons, greater attraction shape of the molecule. Closer the molecules, stronger the attraction

2. Dipole-dipole interactions Attraction between the positive end of a polar molecule with the negative end of another 3. Hydrogen bonding - FON No electrons surrounding the hydrogen the nucleus is unshielded allowing the negative end of another molecule to get much closer

ACID-BASE THEORY ACIDS

Substances that always contain hydrogen, that is released in solution To act as an acid another substance must be presented to accept the proton HCl + H2O Cl- + H3O+ Weak Acids Citric Acid Acetic Acid (vinegar) Lactic Acid (Organic acids) IONISATION Strong Acids H2SO4 HCl HNO3 H3PO4 (Mineral acids)

*proton donors

Properties 1. Most common acids dissolve in water. Water is an able acceptor of protons and therefore ionisations occurs 2. Solutions of acids conduct electricity. Ions are formed 3. Solutions of acids have many properties in common. All contain H3O+ ions (hydronium ions) Structures of IMPORTANT acids Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Hydrochloric acid HCl Acetic Acid CH3COOH

BASES (Alkalis)
acceptors Bases neturalise acids to form salts Properties 1. Affect indicators 2. Slippery feel 3. React with oxides of non-metals non-metal oxides are acidic 4. Forms hydroxide ions (OH-) 5. Eg. NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

*proton

pH CALCULATIONS
0 13 RED PURPLE pH = -log <H3O+> - concentration +pOH = 14 pOH = -log <OH-> pH 1 14 2 3 ACIDIC 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 BASIC 12 NEUTRAL

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

SALTS
Ionic compounds Soluble salts dissolve in water DISSOCIATION 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl (neutralisation reactions) solution containing required ions are mixed + Na2CO3 CuCO3 + 2Na+ + SO42Preparation of Salts 1. Direct combination: 2. Soluble salt preparation: 3. Insoluble salt preparation: eg. To prepare CuCO3 CuSO4

THE MOLE CONCEPT

Relative Atomic Mass The weight of 1 mole of particles H = 1.01g Cu = 63.55g (PERIODIC TABLE)

Calculating NUMBER OF MOLES N (moles) = m (mass in g)/M (molar mass in g/mol) N = # of particles/6.02 x 1023 Empirical Formula the simplest whole number ratio of atoms (or ions) in a compound (ionic and covalent network formulae are always empirical) Pg. 60

Molecular Formula the actual number and kind of atoms in a molecule

Pg. 61

Percentage composition Pg. 57

STOICHIOMETRY
Reacting Mole Ratios The Calculation 1. A balanced equation 2. Number of moles of the known 3. Mole ratio unknown/known 4. Number of moles of the unknown

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

Example: Calculate the mass of CO2 formed when 6.0 g of carbon is burnt in excess oxygen. 1. Equation: C + O2 = CO2 2. Moles of known: mass of C = 6.0g, therefore # of moles (n) = 6/12 = 0.5mol 3. Ratio: unknown/known = 1/1 4. Moles of unknown: m = n x M, 0.5 x 44 (12 + 16 + 16) = 22g Concentration mol/L M = Molarity C = n/v OR

C = (m/M)/V(L) occur

REDOX REDUCTION & OXIDATION

concurrently Common oxidising agents O2 O2ClOH2O2 NO3MnO4Cl2, Br2 H+ CrO72ClH2O NO2 Mn2+ Cl-, BrH2 Cr3+ Common reducing agents Alkali metal M+ M CO CO2 SO32SO42Fe2+ Fe3+ H2S S H2O2 O2 II2

Balancing Redox Equation 1. Balance the atoms involved 2. Balance oxygen by adding H2O 3. Balance Hydrogen by adding H+ 4. Balance the charge by adding e-s

GALVANIC CELLS
Salt Bridge: Ion balance

Chemical to Electrical

ELECTROLYTIC CELL Electrical to Chemical

Electrolytic cells are used for: 1. Extracting Al 2. Purify metals 3. Electroplate 4. Make chemicals Factors affecting electrolysis 1. Concentration of electrolyte Dilute NaCl Anode: 2H2O 4H+ + O2 + 4eCathode: 2H2O + 2e- H2 + 2OH-

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

Concentrated NaCl Moletn NaCl

Anode: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2eCathode: 2H2O + 2e- H2 + 2OHAnode: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2eCathode: Na2+ + e- Na

2. Nature of electrolyte CuCl (inert electrodes carbon graphite or platinum) Anode: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2eCathode Cu2+ + 2e- Cu 3. Nature of electrodes Active electrodes (metal) CuSO4 electrolyte Anode: (impure Cu) Cu Cu2+ + 2eCathode: (pure Cu) Cu2+ + 2e- Cu Electroplating

Difference & Similarities between Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells Galvanic Cells Electrolytic Cells Chemical to electrical Electrical to chemical Anode (negative), cathode (positive) Anode (positive), cathode (negative) Voltmeter Battery cell More reactive metal oxidises @ the Half-cells not separated anode

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Photosynthesis Respiration 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H1206 + 6O2 C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Characteristics: 1. each member has similar chemical properties 2. physical properties change with increasing chain length - melting point/boiling point increase as chain length increases - solubility decreases

ALKANES

CnH2n+2

saturated (only C-H, C-C bonds) and therefore contains the most # of hydrogens per molecule General formula: Methane, ethane, propane, pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, nonane, decane

Physical Properties 1. insoluble in water, soluble organic (non-polar) solvents 2. low melting and boiling points 3. unreactive 4. do not react with concentrated acids/alkalis, strong oxidising agents, bromine (although they will if heated or in bright light Substitution reaction: Combustion: CH4 + Br2 CH3Br + HBr CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

ALKENES

CnH2n

unsaturated contain one C=C double bond

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

Physical Properties insoluble in water, soluble in non-polar solvents low melting and boiling points Chemical Properties Combustion: due to higher ratio of carbon to hydrogen, alkenes burn with a luminous, smoky flame, indicative of incomplete combustion Addition of Bromine: C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2 DECOLOURISES Addition of bromine water to an alkene will result in decolourisation of the bromine water/ No reaction will occur with alkanes Addition of Hydrogen: C2H4 + H2 (Ni catalyst) C2H6 This is prevalent in the production of margarine: Addition of Water: Vegetable oil + nH2 (Ni catalyst)

Fat

Reaction with Acids:

Reaction with H2SO4:

ALKYNES

CnH2n-2
same as alkenes

Unsaturated; contains a triple bond

Physical Properties:

Chemical Properties Addition of Bromine: C2H3 + Br2 C2H2Br2 C2H2Br2 + Br2 C2H2Br4 Addition of HCl: Combustion: alkynes burn with a smoky, luminous flame. In pure oxygen combustion occurs C2H2 + 5/2O2 2CO2 + H2O

ALCOHOLS CnH2n+1OH
Preparation: 1. Fermentation of sugar: C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 2. Ethene with water: C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH 3. Reduction of alcohol with sodium: CH3OH + Na H2 + CH3ONa Physical Properties: Methanol propenol are completely soluble in water Butanol , solubility in water decreases All soluble in organic solvents As chain length increases, so does boiling point Chemical Properties: Combustion clean burning: *Oxidation: o In air:
2-

C2H5OH + 3O2

2CO2 + 3H2O

C2H5OH + O2 CH3COOH (vinegar/acetic acid) + H2O

o With acidified Cr2O7 : C2H5OH (Cr2O72-/H+) CH3COOH orange to green

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Organic Acids weak only partially ionise

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

R-COOH Carboxyl Group The first in series: Methanoic acid HCOOH acid C3H7COOH

Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

Propanoic acid C2H5COOH

Butanoic

Carboxylic acids are weak electrolytes They neutralise bases, react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates Sharp taste, characteristic odour o Eg. Citrus fruits citric acid (ascorbic acid); rhubarb oxalic acid; vinegar - ethanoic acid (acetic acid) CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O 2HCOOH + Na2CO3 2HCOONa + CO2 + H2O

Ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide: Methanoic acid + sodium carbonate:

ESTERS
Esters are prepared when an alcohol and a carboxylic acid are heated, under reflux, in the presences of a catalyst (conc. H2SO4)

Esters are named after the ALCOHOL ACID Ethanol Methanoic acid 1Ethanoic acid propanol

alcohol acid ESTER Ethyl methanoate Propyl ethanoate

Esterification is a condensation reaction because H2O is also produced Esters have a fruity odour Esterification examples: Methanol and butanoic acid CH3OH + C3H7COOH (H2SO4 cat, reflux) CH3OOCC3H7 + H2O

Ethanol and methanoic acid

1-propanol and methanoic acid

Ethanol and propanoic acid CH3CH2OH + CH3CH2COOH (H2SO4 cat, reflux) CH3CH2OOCCH3CH2 + H2O

POLYMERS & CLEANING AGENTS

Plastics: can be moulded Elastomers: stretchy Adhesives: cement by forming more bonds

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

Fibres: threadlike and can be woven Cross-links: covalent bonds that form between polymer chains if the number of cross-links is small, an elastomer will result. If the number is large, a hard flexible thermosetting polymer will be produced. Natural fibres: Proteins hair, wool, silk N Carbohydrates linen, cotton, and hemp ANIMAL PLANT Monomer: Amino acids composed of C, H, O, Monomer: glucose C6H12O6

Synthetic Fibres: Rayon cellulose monomer but cellulose is rearranged by humans Other synthetics nylon, polyesters, polyvinyl chloride Polymerisation - the linking together of monomers to form a polymer chain 1. Addition polymerisation: occurs when monomer molecules link without the loss of atoms. The monomer usually has at least one carbon-carbon double bond per molecule monomers (usually alkanes) add to form long chains Eg. Polyethene

2. Condensation polymerisation: occurs when one or more compounds (such as water) are produced as the monomer molecules link Eg. Polyester diol + diacid polyester

Nylon diamine + diacid - polyamide

Soaps/Saponification Fats/oils that contain triglyceride, their ester linkages, are hydrolysed in water to form glycerol and carboxylic acids. Sodium hydroxide is then added to neutralise the acids to form three soap molecules. Ionic hydrophilic head (-COO-Na+), hydrocarbon tail hydrophobic, have the general formula RCOO-Na+

Detergents The hydrocarbon tail must be joined to an ionic head in the manufacture of detergents The ionic heads are either a sulfate ion or a sulfonate ion obtained from sulfuric acid (catalyst) How soaps and detergents work When soaps and detergents dissolve in water, surfactant ions are produced in solution The sodium ion has no function in the cleaning process Hydrocarbons are insoluble in water but soluble in oils or grease, whereas ionic compounds are usually soluble in water but insoluble in oil or grease since surfactant molecules contain both a hydrophilic and hydrophobic part, they dissolve in both

SACE Stage 1 Yr 11 Chemistry End of Year Exam Notes

Detergents The hydrocarbon tails mix with the particle of grease and surround it The ionic head stays in the water The particle of grease comes off the surface and remains suspended in the water, forming a grease micelle If excess detergent is added to the water, the detergent molecules will arrange themselves so that their non-polar tails point toward each other, leaving their polar heads facing out toward the water Heating the water and stirring it helps loosen grease and dirt particles from the surface being cleaned Detergents form a lather with water which helps to hold suspended particles of grease and dirt Bleaches HClO hypochlorous acid Oxidation bleach Whiten paper, peppercorns, clothing Kill germs Household bleach contains sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) that acts as disinfectants, bleaches and deodorises Cotton, paper all bleached by HClO