UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

ACADEMIC WRITING AND PUBLISHING

Writing a Thesis

Rozhan M. Idrus

First Printing January 2010 Rozhan M. Idrus All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission of author/s or publisher. ISBN: 9 789675 417931 Correspondence: Rozhan M. Idrus School of Distance Education Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang Email: rozhan@usm.my Edited by: Madam Julie Chuah Suan Choo USM, Penang Published in Malaysia Designed & printed by: Institute of Postgraduate Studies Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia Tel: +604-653 3888 Fax: +604-6532940 Email: helpdesk_ips@notes.usm.my Website:www.ips.usm.my

Professional and Personal Development For Postgraduates Writing a Thesis: A Personal Journey
Objectives of the Course To provide a guideline on the structure of a thesis for you to customise To present tips and pointers for writing consideration To present a glimpse of questions that can be asked in a viva voce

Learning Outcomes Produce a thesis with the elements for your own area of research

Synopsis This module on the writing of a thesis is presented to you as a general guide inyour writing process. A thesis in a certain area of research is subjected to the inherent features of that area and this general module should be able to assist in constructing the desired structure. This module not only present the basic customisable structure of a thesis, but has also included tips, pointers, list of relevant questions as well as questions that can be asked in a viva voce. These elements should provide a good ground for your task to write your thesis. Your supervisor is perhaps the most important person in your life during your postgraduate studies. Your supervisor is not only supervise but is knowledgeable in the area of research and you should have a good professional relationship so that your postgraduate stint will be an enjoyable experience. Key: Tips Tips for you in the writing of your thesis Pointer for you to consider in your writing Questions that can be asked in a viva voce Question for you to react to or think about.

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CONTENTS
Introduction Why research? Objectives of research Is research difficult? Importance of research Preliminary Organisers Front end Abstract Introduction Structure of introduction Problem statement Research question Research hypothesis Types of hypothesis Variables Literature Review Strategies for presenting literature review Theoretical and conceptual frameworks Page 1 1 3 4 5 6 6 6 9 10 12 13 14 15 16 18 20 21

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Materials and Methods Research methods Research methodology Types of research Structure of the materials and methods Results Discussion Summary and Conclusion Retrospective Organisers Bibliography or References Appendices References

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INTRODUCTION According to the Chambers dictionary (Chambers, undated), research is defined as detailed and careful investigation into some subject or area of study with the aim of discovering and applying new facts or information. However, the concept of research exists in many forms such as causal research, formal and informal research. A thesis is a result of a formal research as formal research is the endeavor to investigate and gather original data and/or observations and draw new findings and conclusions based on a statement of purpose/problem. This type of research where there exists an element of 'newness' is also called primary research. Why research? Why do we do research? The process of doing research is as simple as finding out how you would make pickled onions. First you need to ascertain what kind of pickle you need and then look for information to do it. You will need the necessary ingredients and you will have to follow the procedures to obtain the desired outcome. However, you will not get a degree for doing so unless you conduct a formal research such as, say, the medicinal values of pickles worldwide. The academic values of doing research are; Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic. Therefore the conceptualisation, execution and deliberation of the research is highly structured and not a haphazard activity. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. The first thing that we can ask is, 'What's the problem?', as the research is your attempt to find the answers. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The information might be collected from different sources like experience, human beings, books, journals, nature, and so forth. In other words, the research requires a wide knowledge base.
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A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through research is it possible to make progress in a field, challenge old paradigms, introduce innovation and apply new models. Research is done with the help of studies, experiments, observations, analysis, comparisons and reasoning. It seeks predictions of events and explanations, relationships and theories for them. All these are achieved though real evidence gathered in the research.

At a glance, why are you doing your research?

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Objectives of Research In a nutshell, your research must have direction and a clear indication of where you are going. The prime objectives of research are (Rajasekar et al, 2006); to discover new facts to verify and test important facts to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and non-scientific problems to find solutions to scientific, non-scientific and social problems, and to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.

At a glance, what are the objectives of your proposed research?

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Is Research Difficult? Doing research can be a scary thing to some people as they can see that it takes many years to complete. A research can be difficult if it is not approached in an organised manner. Naturally, there are the inherent demands of conducting a research but the nuts and bolts are very clear; there are theses that can be referred to and numerous resources that can be accessed. Let us demystify the challenges of a research so that it is not viewed as a source of difficulty. Nonetheless, research efforts can be a challenge if the researcher(s); is/are ill-prepared and not in a mindset to do hard work has/have the wrong perceptions about what research is - thinking it is something simple and only involves questionnaires has/have difficulty in formulating a research question. do not read widely enough - and our reading culture is very weak when a lot of reading is a necessity in research does/do not know how to use the Web or other resources for research (or CDROMs and the library as well!)

At a glance, what could be your difficulty of conducting your research?

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Importance of Research A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or an industry or a government organisation or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible solution. Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and applications of them. Research provides the basis for many government policies. For example, research on the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government to prepare a budget. It leads to the identification and characterisation of new materials, new living things, new stars, etc. Only through research can inventions be made; for example, new and novel phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through research. Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and seek solutions to social problems. Thesis What is a thesis? "A thesis makes an original contribution to knowledge through research, puts forward a clear and consistent argument, and convinces the reader of its validity through logic, analysis and evidence." A proposition laid down or stated as a theme to be discussed and proved, or to be maintained against attack. A complete and coherent story in which each chapter is an integral part. A model for a set of relationships. This model will be described using words, figures and tables. A platform for communicating your contribution to scholarship. A platform for communicating your passion for a subject. Your evidence that you should be awarded your degree. (From: Anderson and Poole. Thesis and assignment writing. Brisbane: John Wiley and Sons, 1994) From the definition and features of a thesis, we can see that a master or doctoral research is a highly structured academic activity that requires planning, execution, analyses and reporting.
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PRELIMINARY ORGANISERS The objectives of the preliminary organiser in the thesis is to; Establish and lay out the initial segment of the thesis Present the abstract of the thesis Front end This is a standard feature of a thesis and is mostly customised to the respective areas of research. Typically, in a thesis, the structure of the front end would consist of: Title Page Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Tables, Figures and Plates List of Symbols Abstract The abstract is like the heart, or a resume of your thesis, as it presents a comprehensive summary of the contents of the thesis. Although the abstract appears early in the thesis, it should be written towards the end of your thesis, as it constitutes a distillation of the thesis and is self-contained. More often than not, the abstract is the last piece to be written. Writing the abstract is an art in itself, but it can be studied as it has a style and specific format that you must conform to. A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative. How would you know if your abstract is well written? If your Abstract was the only part of the thesis that could be accessed, would you be happy with the information presented for the reader?

Tips

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Since the abstract is a summary of the thesis, it will also adhere to the sequence of the research that will be presented in a cohesive manner. To assist you to do this, we shall synchronise the format of the abstract with the content of the thesis as detailed: From thesis Abstract Introduction Purpose of study Details state clearly purpose of study concise description of the problem(s) addressed state basic design of study research setting respondents/samples your method of solving analyses answer to questions result of research implications/what does it mean? Write your content based on your research

Methods

Experimental design Major findings Interpretation -

Results Discussion

The abstract is also written in a certain style, that is, straight to the point past tense in the abstract single paragraph passive, third person construction use of numbers where appropriate

However, the abstract should NOT: - contain any references/citations - contain abbreviations - contain any illustrations, figure, etc. - be over the limit in terms of length

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Finally, upon the completion of your abstract, check again that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what is written in the thesis. Ensure that all the information appearing in the abstract actually appears in the body of the thesis. In our experience, the information in the abstract contradicts the data in the methodology section, such as the number of respondents and the duration of study. In a viva voce A well written abstract will assist you in the defense of your thesis. Questions that can be asked by an examiner that relates to the abstract are: - Why did you do this research? - In one sentence, what is your thesis? - Summarise your key findings It is not uncommon that an Abstract has to be re-written if it does not meet the standard of an acceptable thesis abstract. NOTES:

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INTRODUCTION The objectives of the introduction in the thesis are to: Establish and lay out the context of the research being reported. State the purpose of the research in the form of the hypothesis, question, or problem that was investigated or experimented. Explain the rational and approaches undertaken and, whenever possible, the possible outcomes your research can elucidate. We can simplify the contents that should be included in the introduction by asking the relevant questions in relation to your research, such as: Relevant questions (suggestive) - What did we know about it before you did this research? - What were you researching? - Why was it an important question in the research? - Why did you do this study? - How will this research advance our knowledge? Content in the introduction

This should give you a picture of what you should include in the introduction. Tips How would you know it your introduction is well written? The introduction is well written if it provides a statement of something sufficiently interesting to motivate your reader to read the rest of the thesis; it is an important/interesting/captivating scientific problem that your research either solves or addresses. You should draw the reader and examiner in or hold their hands and make them want to read the rest of the thesis.

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Structure of the introduction Obviously, there must be a certain structure to present the introduction. If you can imagine going to a movie or reading a novel, you will see the characters, the scenario and the plot of the movie or book being introduced to you. There is a structure to it so that you can follow the movie/book and understand the ensuing chapters or scenes to come.

Fig. 1 A hailer

In the case of your thesis, we can visualise the introduction as a 'hailer', as shown in Figure 1. We have seen a hailer before, as it is usually used to make announcements to large crowds, especially during a festival or sports day in schools. The purpose is to publicise your intentions 'loudly' to a crowd. We can use this metaphor for the introduction. A good strategy for your introduction is to start with the specific purpose of the research. This is then followed by the scientific context in which you are translating the purpose into the questions your research addresses. Once the scientific context is decided, you will then have an overview of the level and type of general information that should be included in the introduction. After this is achieved, what is written is the 'reverse' of the order; starting with the general information and followed by the purpose and ensuing statements. Typically, in a thesis, the structure of the introduction (also written as Chapter One) would look like the following: Introduction Background of the study Problem statement Objectives of the study Research questions Significance of the study Limitations of the study Definition of terms
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IThe structure given is only suggestive and not definitive. In most cases, it is an inherent feature of the areas of research. You can identify the structure when you refer to the theses that have been written in your area of research. Some sources of identification of research problems are the following: - Theory of one's own interest - Unexplored areas - Discussion with experts - Recent trends - Technological changes - Daily problems

Tips

In a viva voce A well written introduction will assist you in the defense of your thesis. Questions that can be asked by an examiner that relates to the introduction are: What is original about your work/research? Where is the novelty of your research? What topics overlap in your area of research? Why have you conducted your research in this way? It is not uncommon that an Abstract has to be re-written if it does not meet the standard of an acceptable introduction to your research topic.

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Problem statement When you have decided to conduct a research, it means you are finding feedback or answers to a certain issue that has been a bother to you, figuratively speaking. In other words, your research will need a problem statement; the problem provides the context for the research study and typically generates the relevant questions which the research hopes to answer. In a viva voce, it would be almost a certainty that the examiner will ask, "What is the problem?" that led you to do your research. You really need to be able to clearly answer that question. It will not look good if you do not know why you are embarking on your own research. Technically, the problem statement is not a 'problem' per se, but it is a description of issues or events that sometimes do not function well as per our normal assumption. Thus, we "face" a "problem", such as how to attract more and more new students to enroll in a school or why trained teachers are not using technology in their classrooms. Your research question will depend on your field of study; hence you have to study the pertinent characteristics of research questions in your research area. We can simplify the considerations that should be included in writing the problem statement by asking the relevant questions in relation to your research that is, by adopting the 5W technique as such: 5W Who What When Why Where Issue Who is affected? What are the conditions? What is the impact? When does it occur? Why does the issue occur? Why is it crucial? Where does the issue occur? Your problem statement

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At a glance, what is your problem statement?

Research questions The problem statement is a great start and provides the impetus for a research study. In order to operationalise the research into an experimental endeavour that can be studied scientifically, the problem statement must be transformed into specific research questions for which the data are intended to supply an answer. In fact, it helps to clarify what to expect as the findings of the research. Hence, your research question now becomes the most critical part of your research proposal; it defines the proposal, it guides your arguments and inquiry, and it provokes the interests of the examiner.

Tips

What constitutes a good research question/s? - A well-written research question is very focused and specific. The key attributes are: (i) specificity; (ii) originality or novelty; and (iii) general relevance to a broad scientific community. - Bottom line is, are we asking the questions we want to study? What are your research questions?

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Remember that a 'strong' research question should pass the "so what" test without any problems. Keep this in mind so that the answer to your research question will have an implication, otherwise, 'so what?' Research hypothesis As a natural progression, your well-thought-out and focused research question naturally leads directly into your hypotheses. What predictions would you make about the phenomenon you are examining? This will be the foundation of your application; we develop hypotheses which our study seeks to prove or disprove. What is a Research Hypothesis? A research hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem expressed in the form of a clearly stated relation between independent (cause) and dependent (effect) variables. Hypotheses are built around a more general research problem (Siniscalco & Auriat, 2005). Another definition of research hypothesis is given as, "a more specific prediction about the nature and direction of the relationship between two variables" (The ResearchAssistant, undated). In order to construct a research hypothesis, there are guidelines so that it reflects the research questions put forward earlier. Educational research hypotheses should have the following characteristics (Siniscalco & Auriat, 2005): Describe clearly, and provide identification of the most important variables in operational terms. Specify expected relationships among independent, dependent, and control variables. Present a statement in a form that is testable with available research methods. Be value free in the sense that they exclude the personal biases of the researcher.

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Tips

Notes on hypothesis ... - A hypothesis is NOT a must in all social research studies - Quantitative studies often do have hypotheses - One can have one or more than one hypothesis

Perhaps, at this juncture, you may ask, 'What is the difference between a research problem and a research hypothesis?' Since a problem and a hypothesis are two separate issues, there must be a difference. A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which a hypothesis is derived. A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas a hypothesis can be tested and verified (The Hypothesis, undated) Types of hypotheses There are two types of hypotheses: the alternative hypothesis and the null hypothesis. Remember that a hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. Simply put, the alternative hypothesis is a hypothesis that supports your prediction and is frequently the actual desired conclusion of your research. The alternative hypothesis is designated the notation, HA or H1. Conversely, the null hypothesis is a hypothesis that does not support your prediction or one that describes all the other possible outcomes with respect to the hypothesised relationship. The null hypothesis is designated the notation, Ho or H0. However, we give special consideration to the null hypothesis as detailed by Prasad et al. (2001) as follows: This is due to the fact that the null hypothesis relates to the statement being tested, whereas the alternative hypothesis relates to the statement to be accepted if / when the null is rejected. The final conclusion, once the test has been carried out, is always given in terms of the null hypothesis. We either "reject H0 in favor of H1" or "do not reject H0"; we never conclude "reject H1", or even "accept H1".
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If we conclude "do not reject H0", this does not necessarily mean that the null hypothesis is true, it only suggests that there is not sufficient evidence against H0 in favor of H1; rejecting the null hypothesis then, suggests that the alternative hypothesis may be true. What are your research hypotheses?

Variables We have arrived at another important element in your study as you won't be able to do very much in your research unless you know how to talk about variables. What is a variable? A variable is any entity that can take on different values. What does that really mean in your research? Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person's country can be assigned a value (Variables, undated). At a glance, what are the variables of your research?

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According to Siniscalco & Auriat (2005), there are five main types of variables: Dependent variables - variables that the researcher is trying to explain (for example, student achievement). Independent or explanatory variables - variables that cause, or explain, a change in the dependent variable. Control variables - variables that are used to test for a spurious relationship between dependent and independent variables. That is, to test whether an observed relationship between dependent and independent variables may be explained by the presence of another variable. Continuous variables - variables that take all values within a particular range. Discrete variables - variables that take a number of specific values.

Remember that a researcher must determine which variable needs to be manipulated to generate quantifiable results.

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LITERATURE REVIEW The objectives of the literature review section in the thesis are to: Present an overview of scholarly literature related to your topic of research. Provide a synthesis of ideas, problems, and questions related to your thesis. Relate the existing research to your proposed research. Before you commence the study in your chosen area of research, it would be interesting to find out the 'history' related to your study. Although you are searching for the history, it has to relate to the area of research that you are tackling. The literature review is NOT a collection of references. Most students do this and will end up having to either remove the redundant references or include the relevant ones. The review that one should construct usually has an organisational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. When you are reading a reference paper, the information found in the paper should be analysed, synthesised and summarised for the purpose of supporting your research work. As a result, it might lead to new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. It might reveal the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the area of research, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant. More importantly, the literatures also provide a solid background for a research thesis investigation as comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential, especially in a doctoral research. Analysing a book or an article that you read for your research: - Has the author formulated a problem/issue? - Is it clearly defined? Is its significance clearly established? - Could the problem have been approached more effectively from another perspective? - What is the author's research orientation? - What is the author's theoretical framework? (Adapted from Dena Taylor, Health Sciences Writing Centre, University of Toronto; http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review) You can access the full version from the url given. Tips
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We can simplify the contents that should be included in the literature review section by asking the relevant questions in relation to your research: Relevant question (suggestive) - Was my review sufficiently comprehensive? - Did I cover 'landmark' studies? - Did I highlight gaps in the knowledge related to my research? - Did I reveal the weaknesses of past research? - Did I show what has to be done to progress and provide direction to my research? How would you know it your literature review is well written? - If you have organised the review skilfully you will have led the reader to the conclusion that the absolutely best next study to be done in the area is the one you are proposing. (Cone and Foster 1996, p.104) In a viva voce A well written literature review will assist you in the defense of your thesis. Questions that can be asked by an examiner that relates to your literature review are: What is the current state of the art in current research? Who are the main `players' in your area of research? Which are the three most important papers in your area? What are the recent major developments in your studies? It is not uncommon that the literature review has to be amended if it does not meet the standard of an acceptable literature review to your research topic.
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Content in the literature review

Tips

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Strategies for Presenting the Literature Review Generally, the literature review in a thesis seems to be more of a collection of articles that was not cleverly organised in a coherent manner. This makes it difficult for the reader/examiner to be led in a specific direction as you build up the case for your research. You need to build your literature review selectively in your area and consider the issues and/or themes that connect the articles together for your case. To assist you to come up with an overall organisational framework for your literature review, consider the following framework for organising your articles and references into a review: Chronological - you could construct your review according to the timeline of events in your area of research. Trend - you could construct your review around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. Thematic - you could construct your review based on a certain theme of the proposed area. Methodological - you could construct your review based on the methodological scope of the research topic.

As the researcher, you are more knowledgeable with your area of interest and can put forth your own framework for your literature review, as long as there is an identifiable organisation. It would also be a good idea to include sub-headings to highlight the area of focus in the review. At a glance, what is the overall organisational framework of your review?

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Remember that a literature review is NOT a bibliography. Only the literature that is relevant that you have used to substantiate your research is included in your literature review. You may have done a lot of reading related to your research topic, but not all are necessarily relevant and should not be included in the review. Nonetheless, you are aware of their existence and this may work to your advantage during your defense. Theoretical and conceptual framework The literature review should lead to the next step in the formation of your thesis (still in the literature review chapter), and that is the theoretical and conceptual framework of your research. Almost all research studies in social and behavioral sciences regardless of disciplines/programmes require a rationale or base for conducting research. This rationale/base is often called theoretical framework (Radhakrishna et al, 2007). What is a theory? A theory is a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena (Merriam). Hence, theories are constructed models of reality. In other words, a theory makes generalisations about observations and consists of an interrelated, coherent set of ideas and models. At a glance, what is the theory or observables of your proposed research?

TA theoretical framework of the study is a structure that can hold or support a theory of a research work. According to Sekaran (2000), a theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how one theorises or makes logical sense of the relationships among several factors that have been identified as important to the problem.
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It presents the theory which explains why the problem under study exists. Why do we need this framework? We need this framework because (Khan, undated): It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the study. It can provide him with a general framework for data analysis. It is essential in preparing a research proposal using descriptive and experimental methods. Usually, a theoretical framework visually tells the big picture (research) of the study, identifies literature review categories and directs research objectives. A typical theoretical framework provides a schematic description of relationships between and among independent, dependent, moderator, control, and extraneous variables so that a reader can easily comprehend the theorised relationships (Figure 2) (Radhakrishna et al, 2007). Cause Independent variables Moderator variables Control variables Fig. 2 Relationship between variables (from Radhakrishna et al, 2007) Intervening variables Dependent variables Effect

After the formulation of your theoretical framework, you have to develop the conceptual framework of the study. While the theoretical framework is the theory on which the study is based, the conceptual framework is the operationalisation of the theory.

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At this stage, you should be able to construct the theoretical framework for your research. Discuss your framework with your supervisor.

It is a researcher's own position on the problem and gives direction to the study. It may be an adaptation of a model used in a previous study, with modifications to suit the proposed research inquiry. Besides showing the direction of the study, through the conceptual framework, you are able to show the relationships of the different constructs that you want to investigate (Khan, undated). Once the conceptual framework has been determined, the researcher's next challenge is to determine what research methods to employ to best answer the research problem through the proposed framework. Please refer to your own area of research for the appropriate use of theoretical framework, conceptual framework and research framework. This is more of an inherent feature of the respective disciplines and areas of research. In a viva voce A well written framework will assist you in the defense of your thesis. Questions that can be asked by an examiner that relates to your framework are: What other independent variables can there be? What paradigm/s are you challenging? Your framework schematic is confusing! It is not uncommon that the framework has to be amended if it does not meet the standard of an acceptable framework to your research topic.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS The objectives of the materials and method section in the thesis are to: Explain clearly how the study was conducted. Elucidate how the experiment was structured (controls, variables, sampling, validity). Present how the experimental procedures were carried out. Present the analyses and statistical procedures in the study. Research Methods Research methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, and so forth, used in research. All the methods used by a researcher in a research study are termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments (Rajasekar et al, 2006). Research Methodology Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of research. The study of research methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing methods, materials, scientific tools and training in techniques relevant for the problem chosen (Rajasekar et al, 2006).

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We can simplify the contents that should be included in the method section by asking relevant questions in relation to your research: Relevant question (suggestive) Describe the samples used in the study. Describe the site where your field study was conducted. Describe your experimental design clearly. Describe the protocol for your study in sufficient detail. Describe how the data were summarised and analysed. Types of Research Research can be broadly classified into two main classes, namely, the fundamental or basic research and applied research. To differentiate applied research and basic research Sekaran (2006:8) states, "Research done with the intention of applying the results of the finding to solve specific problem currently being experienced in the organisation is called applied research. Research done chiefly to enhance the understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in organisation setting, and seek a method of solving them is called basic or pure research". The basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here a process is expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality. It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words. Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation. Content in the method section

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The qualitative versus quantitative approach to the classification of research activities classifies all research studies into six categories, namely, 1. Historical research 2. Qualitative research 3. Descriptive research 4. Correlational research 5. Causal-comparative research 6. Experimental Research (http://www.mnstate.edu/wasson/ed603/ed603lesson2.htm) Figure 3 shows the diagram for classifying the six types of research.

Fig. 3 Classifying six research types (http://www.mnstate.edu/wasson/ed603/ResearchTypes.JPG)

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You should be able to identify the type of research that fits your study. You might be able to find more relevant details in operationalising your research.

In a viva voce A well written materials and methods will assist you in the defense of your thesis. Questions that can asked by an examiner that relates to your materials and methods are: How have you evaluated your work? How do you know your algorithms are correct? Why have you done it this way? Justify your approach. It is not uncommon that the materials and methods have to be amended if it does not meet the standard of an acceptable literature review to your research topic.

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Structure of the Materials and Methods The content or parts in this chapter is highly dependent on your discipline and area of research. For this purpose you will need to synthesise the components of your research area and decide the structure of this section. Typically, in a thesis, the structure of the materials and methods would consist of issues concerning (Kastens, undated): Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your results. Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment. Description of your materials, procedure, theory. Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots. Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity. Description of your analystical methods, including reference to any specialised statistical software.

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RESULTS The objectives of the results section in the thesis are to: Present the key results without interpretation. Present the actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and graphs. Present sufficient details so that others can draw their own inferences and construct their own explanations. After painstakingly executing your research and gathering information via your various instruments, you should have 'tons' of results for your analytical pleasure. Remember that the results have both text and illustrative materials. The Tables and Figures must be referenced in the text portion of the results with the key result(s) being highlighted in each. It would be advisable to present the results in an innovative and captivating manner (appropriately) to maximise the impact of the results obtained. There are many techniques that can be utilised to present your results such as: Graphical Techniques: - Bar chart, Trend chart - Pie chart - X-Y graphs - Pareto analysis Tables: - Tabulations - Cross-Tabulations Statistical Techniques: - Histograms - Regression - Correlation Multivariate data analysis - Principal Component Analysis - Factor Analysis - Discriminant Analysis - Cluster Analysis - Canonical Correlation

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Hypothesis Testing - t-tests, z-tests - chi-squared - Hypothesis Testing- z-Test - Hypothesis Testing - t-Test 1 Sample " Hypothesis Testing - t-Test 2 Sample " Hypothesis Testing - t-Test Paired " Hypothesis Testing - One Proportion " Hypothesis Testing - Two Proportion " Hypothesis Testing - Anova 1 Factor " Hypothesis Testing - Anova 2 Factor " Hypothesis Testing - Chi-Squared GOF " Hypothesis Testing - Chi-Squared TOI " McNemar Test " Chi-Squared 1 Sample Variance " Chi-Squared 2 Sample Variance

Advance Modelling: " Stepwise Regression " Design of Experiments " Analysis of variance

In a viva voce A well written result will assist you in the defense of your thesis. Questions that can be asked by an examiner that relates to your results are: What do your results mean? What is the implication of your work? What does it change? It is not uncommon that the results have to be amended if it does not meet the standard of an acceptable literature review to your research topic. Notes:

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DISCUSSION The objectives of the discussion section in the thesis are to: - Interpret your findings based on the research results. - Explain new understanding based on your results. - Connect your research questions or hypotheses to the new knowledge. Your discussion must have structure and it would be useful for you to construct a guide so that the deliberations will have a flow and structure providing a very clear creation of new knowledge from your findings. There are fundamental questions that need to be answered and highlighted in the discussion such as: - Do your results provide answers to your testable hypotheses? If so, how do you interpret your findings? - Do your findings agree with what others have shown? If not, do they suggest an alternative explanation or perhaps an unforeseen design flaw in your experiment (or theirs?) - Given your conclusions, what is our new understanding of the problem you investigated and outlined in the Introduction? - If warranted, what would be the next step in your study, e.g., what experiments would you do next? (http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWstrategy.html#di scussion) There are so many ways to discuss the results from your research, the most pertinent being related to your statement of purpose and the ensuing questions or hypotheses. However, you must add value to your finding by not limiting to your findings alone but you can also deliberate on the reinterpretation of others' findings in light of yours. That would be fantastic. In order to expand the horizon of your discussion, you can refer to the following list (Kastens et al, undated):

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- What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and temporal variations). - What are the relationships, trends and generalisations among the results? - What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalisations? - What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns, resulting in predictions? - Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work? - Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction - what is the relationship of the present results to the original question? - What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions in earth sciences, ecology, environmental policy, etc....? - Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible explanations for results. Be careful to consider all of these rather than simply pushing your favorite one. - Avoid bandwagons: A special case of the above. Avoid jumping a currently fashionable point of view unless your results strongly support them. - What are the things we now know or understand that we didn't know or understand before the present work? - Include the evidence or line of reasoning supporting each interpretation. - What is the significance of the present results? Why should we care? (http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/sen_sem/thesis org.html#Introduction)

Tips

How would you make the discussion interesting and captivating? - Your discussion can be/are often too long and verbose. It is possible to break up the discussion into logical segments by using subheads. It will add to the clarity and direction of your deliberations.

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In a viva voce A well written discussion will assist you in the defense of your thesis. Questions that can be asked by an examiner that relates to your discussion are: What is the major contribution of your findings? What was seriously wrong with past research? Which aspect of your thesis could be published? Who will benefit from your work? How can you practically deploy your discovery? It is not uncommon that the discussion has to be amended if it does not meet the standard of an acceptable literature review to your research topic. Notes:

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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The objectives of the summary and conclusion section in the thesis are to: - Present an overview of scholarly literature related to your topic of research. - Provide a synthesis of ideas, problems, and questions related to your thesis. - Relate the existing research to your proposed research. After spending a good two to three (or more) years on your masters or doctoral research, you have written a thesis to 'reveal' what you have been doing all that time. You have gone through the motion of the earlier chapters in the thesis and have now reached the summary and conclusion part of your thesis. This can be an intimidating endeavour as it is possible for a reader or examiner to go directly to the summary and conclusion section to get an overview of the research. This summary section is NOT a summary of the results. Students always make the mistake of repeating the research questions and the results in the summary section. In effect, you should provide a critical assessment of your research. The summary is entirely about your research and it would not be advisable to introduce new material in this section.

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We can simplify the contents that should be included in the summary and conclusion section by asking the relevant questions in relation to your research (Kastens et al, undated): Relevant question (suggestive) What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from your observations? If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to remember about your paper? Refer back to the problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying out this investigation, summarise new observations, new interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from the present work. Include the broader implications of your results. Do not repeat word for word the abstract, introduction or discussion. Does your work suggest any interesting further avenues? Are there ways in which your work could be improved by future workers? What are the practical implications of your work?
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Content in the summary & conclusion

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Tips

How could you tie the findings together in relation to your research? - Your introduction, research question, discussion and conclusion should bind together as a coherent overview of your research.

In a viva voce A well written summary and conclusion will assist you in the defense of your thesis. Questions that can be asked by an examiner that relates to your summary and conclusion are: Would your conclusion have any real effects or is it just for the sake of research? Who's going to actually pay attention to your findings? Your findings are within limitations .. could it really be implemented? It is not uncommon that the literature review has to be amended if it does not meet the standard of an acceptable literature review to your research topic.

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RETROSPECTIVE ORGANISER The objectives of the retrospective organiser section in the thesis are to: - present an end to the thesis with supporting materials utilised in the research. - provide access to important materials that would be too much to include in the main text. Bibliography or References A consistent method of citing references should be used. Methods vary between disciplines and candidates should refer to their supervisor(s) or to current published literature for guidance. More importantly, the references should be a primary source rather than secondary in nature. Technically, all ideas, concepts, texts, data that are not your own must be cited. The originality of your work is limited to what you have experimented upon as well as the results obtained. Your findings and arguments are indeed authentic but in the process there are parts of your thesis that referred to past research and findings. If you make a statement, back it up with your own data or a reference. Ensure that the references cited are also in the main text. The types of references that can be listed are from sources such as; - Books - Journal articles - Conference articles - Theses - Web sites You should be able to identify the resources utilised in your research and study the different forms.

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Appendices It is possible that there may be equally important materials that you are inclined to include in the main text, but fear it may provide a distraction to the flow of your arguments or presentation. These materials can be included in the appendix. Those typically included are: important and original computer programs, key articles, calculations, tables (other than those already in the main text). data files that are too large to be represented simply in the results chapters, and pictures or diagrams.

NOTES:

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REFERENCES Anderson and Poole (1994). Thesis and assignment writing. Brisbane: John Wiley and Sons. Chambers (undated). Retrieved from http://www.chambersharrap.co.uk/chambers/index.shtml Cone, J.D. and Foster, S. L. (1996) Dissertations and Theses from Start to Finish. American Psychological Association, Washington. (Learning, Language and Research Skills Library, Student Services - PR 100). http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtoc.html Literature reviews. Retrieved from http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/literature_review.html http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/theory Kastens, K., Pfirman, S., Stute, M., Hahn, B., Abbott, D. & Scholz, C., How to Write Your Thesis (undated). Retrieved from http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/sen_sem/thesis_org.html#Introduction Khan, R.E. (undated). Retrieved from http://journclasses.pbworks.com/f/theoretical+framework.ppt. Prasad, S., Rao, A. & Rehani, E. (2001). Developing hypotheses & research. Retrieved from http://www.public.asu.edu/~kroel/www500/hypothesis.pdf Rama B. Radhakrishna, R.B., Yoder, E.P. & Ewing, J.C. (2007). Strategies for Linking Theoretical Framework and Research Types, Proceedings of the 2007 AAAE Research Conference, 34, 692-694. Rajasekar, S., Philominathan, P. & Chinnathambi, V. (2006). Research Methods. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/6949151/Research-Methodology; http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0601009

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Sekaran, U. (2000). Research methods for business. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran, U. (2006). Research methods for business: A skill building approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Siniscalco, M.T. & Auriat, N. (2005). Questionnaire design. Quantitative research methods in educational planning. UNESCO. Retrieved from http://www.iiep.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Cap_Dev_Training/Training_Mate rials/Quality/Qu_Mod8.pdf The Hypothesis (undated). Retrieved from http://www.nmmu.ac.za/robert/reshypoth.htm TheResearchAssistant (undated). The relationship between the research question, hypotheses, specific aims, and long-term goals of the project. Retrieved from http://www.theresearchassistant.com/tutorial/2-1.asp Variables (undated). Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/variable.php

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