B-GL-361-008-FP-003 1998

N a tio n a l D f e n s e D e f e n c e n a tio n a le
B-GL-361-008/FP-003
ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL VOLUME 8
DEMOLITIONS PART TWO ENGINEERS AND ASSAULT PIONEERS

WARNING ALTHOUGH NOT CLASSIFIED, THIS PUBLICATION, OR ANY PART OF IT, MAY BE EXEMPTED FROM DISCLOSURE TO THE PUBLIC UNDER THE ACCESS TO INFORMATION ACT. ALL ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION CONTAINED HEREIN MUST BE CLOSELY SCRUTINIZED TO ASCERTAIN WHETHER OR NOT THE PUBLICATION, OR ANY PART OF IT, MAY BE RELEASED. Issued on authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff
N a tio n a l D f e n s e D e f e n c e n a tio n a le
B-GL-361-008/FP-003
ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL VOLUME 8 DEMOLITIONS PART TWO ENGINEERS AND ASSAULT PIONEERS
WARNING ALTHOUGH NOT CLASSIFIED, THIS PUBLICATION, OR ANY PART OF IT, MAY BE EXEMPTED FROM DISCLOSURE TO THE PUBLIC UNDER THE ACCESS TO INFORMATION ACT. ALL ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION CONTAINED HEREIN MUST BE CLOSELY SCRUTINIZED TO ASCERTAIN WHETHER OR NOT THE PUBLICATION, OR ANY PART OF IT, MAY BE RELEASED.
Issued on Authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff

OPI: DAD 8 15 May 98
Demolitions
FOREWORD 1. B-GL-361-008/FP-003, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 8, Demolitions, Part Two, Engineers and Assault Pioneers, is issued on the authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff. 2. This publication is effective upon receipt and replaces B-GL-320-009/FP-001 Engineer Field Manual, Volume 9, Demolitions Part Two, (Bilingual) dated 30 September 95. 3. Suggestions for amendments shall be forwarded through normal channels to Chief of Land Staff, Attention: Director of Army Doctrine 8 (Protection)
1998 DND/MDN Canada
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WARNING MISUSE OF WEAPONS, AMMUNITION AND EXPLOSIVES
PURPOSE 1. This warning outlines Canadian Forces policy governing the use or misuse of weapons, ammunition and explosives. WEAPONS 2. Firing or attempting to fire locally manufactured weapons, obsolete service or foreign weapons, or weapons used for display, ceremonial or trophy purposes in museums, messes, parade grounds, armouries or such like areas is prohibited except when specially authorized by NDHQ. 3. Attention is also drawn to the following references which concern offences connected with the use or misuse of weapons: a. b. c. d. National Defence Act, Section 117; QR&O 103.59; Criminal Code of Canada, Sections 82 to 106; and A-SJ-100-001/AS-000, Security Orders for the Department of National Defence, Volume 1, Chapter 30.
AMMUNITION AND EXPLOSIVES 4. Tampering with or use of service and commercial ammunition or explosives for other than their designed purpose is prohibited. 5. Except as prescribed in paragraph 6, the modification, breakdown or sectioning of live ammunition for experimental, instructional or any other purpose, or manufacture of explosives is forbidden; this prohibition includes: a. unauthorized interchange of fuses or primers or both;
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b.
experiments with blank ammunition to alter the powder charge or to introduce any other substance into the cartridge case or into the weapon with the approved cartridge; experiments involving the use of altered propelling charges or bursting charges with ammunition of any type; the use of any non-service or obsolete ammunition; the use of foreign ammunition other than that received through normal supply channels or supplied in accordance with NATO Standardization agreements; the manufacture and use of locally fabricated explosive training devices, battle simulators, saluting charges, etc; any alteration to design of ammunition or explosive devices; deviations from authorized drills for use of ammunition or explosive devices; and rendering live ammunition inert for use as museum or instructional items.
c.
d. e.
f.
g. h.
j.
6.
The prohibition in paragraph 5 does not apply to: a. authorized experiments, modifications, etc, carried out by experimental, research, proof or inspection establishments; authorized breakdown, modification, repairs, proof-testing, etc, carried out as normal functions of a Canadian Forces Ammunition Depot or base ammunition facility; personnel employed at Canadian Forces School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering as instructors or trainees under supervision, when breaking down is carried out as part of a course training standard and in accordance with an approved course training plan; the use, in its designed role, of commercial pattern ammunition obtained by local purchase as specified in CFP 137 or as authorized by NDHQ in accordance with CFAO 36-19;
c.
d.
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e.
the use, in its designed role, of commercial pattern ammunition which is taken into service and catalogued; hand-loading small arms ammunition in accordance with CFAO 50-18; or other cases, when specifically authorized by NDHQ
f.
g.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD ....................................................................................................... I W A R N I N G MISUSE OF WEAPONS, AMMUNITION AND EXPLOSIVES.............................................................................II CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................1 ANNEX A - REFERENCES AND STANDARDIZATION AGREEMENTS .4 ANNEX B - INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (METRIC) IMPERIAL CONVERSION TABLES..........................................7 CHAPTER 2 OPERATIONAL DEMOLITIONS..............................................9 SECTION 1 DEMOLITIONS IN THE DIFFERENT PHASES OF WAR.......9 SECTION 2 RECONNAISSANCE.................................................................11 SECTION 3 CONTROL OF DEMOLITIONS ...............................................16 SECTION 4 RESERVED DEMOLITIONS....................................................22 ANNEX A - OBSTACLE RECCE REPORT ................................................29 ANNEX B - BRIDGE RECCE REPORT .......................................................31 ANNEX C - OBSTACLE TASK TABLE.......................................................34 ANNEX D - OBSTACLE FOLDER-GERMANY CF 765 (STANAG 2123) 37 ANNEX E - DEMOLITION ORDER (DND 913)..........................................39 CHAPTER 3 SERVICE DEMOLITION STORES AND EQUIPMENT ......41 SECTION 1 GENERAL..................................................................................41 SECTION 2 SHAPED CHARGES .................................................................45 SECTION 3 SPECIFIC TASK MILITARY EXPLOSIVES...........................57 SECTION 4 ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES AND EQUIPMENT ..............63 SECTION 5 MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT ...........................................70 ANNEX A - TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES .........................................................76 ANNEX B - MILITARY EXPLOSIVES LOGISTICAL DATA....................79 ANNEX C - COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVES AND ACCESSORIES ...........82 ANNEX D - IMPROVISED CHARGES ........................................................91 APPENDIX 1 - AMMONIUM NITRATE AND FUEL OIL (ANFO) ...........96 CHAPTER 4 ELECTRICAL PROCEDURES...............................................103 SECTION 1 SAFETY ...................................................................................103 SECTION 2 FIRING CIRCUITS ..................................................................108 SECTION 3 ELECTRICAL INITIATION ...................................................114 ANNEX A - INSTRUCTIONAL, TRAINING AND EXERCISE SAFETY DISTANCES .............................................................................125 ANNEX B - OPERATIONAL SAFETY DISTANCES................................127 CHAPTER 5 TYPICAL DEMOLITION TASKS..........................................129 SECTION 1 GENERAL................................................................................129 SECTION 2 ROAD SYSTEMS (LESS BRIDGES) .....................................132 SECTION 3 BRIDGES .................................................................................139 SECTION 4 RAILROADS, AIRFIELDS AND PORTS ..............................163 SECTION 5 PEACETIME PREPARED OBSTACLES ..............................167
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SECTION 6 DENIAL OPERATIONS.........................................................172 ANNEX A - METHODS OF ATTACK SIMPLY SUPPORTED BRIDGES179 ANNEX B - METHODS OF ATTACK CONTINUOUS BRIDGES ...........185 ANNEX C - PRIORITIES OF DENIAL OPERATIONS .............................193 CHAPTER 6 CHARGE CALCULATION AND PLACEMENT ................195 SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................195 SECTION 2 CUTTING CHARGES ............................................................201 SECTION 3 BREACHING CHARGES.......................................................223 SECTION 4 PIER FOOTING CHARGES ..................................................229 SECTION 5 BOREHOLE CHARGES.........................................................234 SECTION 6 MINED CHARGES.................................................................242 SECTION 7 CONCUSSION CHARGES ....................................................256 ANNEX A CUTTING CHARGE RECTANGULAR STEEL, CHARGE END CROSS SECTION FOR BLOCKS OF C4 .....260 ANNEX B CUTTING CHARGE REQUIRED FOR ROUND STEEL BAR AND STEEL WIRE ROPE IN BLOCKS OF C4......................262 ANNEX C CUTTING CHARGE RECTANGULAR TIMBER, \ CHARGE END CROSS SECTION FOR BLOCKS OF C4 .....264 ANNEX D CUTTING CHARGE FOR ROUND TIMBER IN BLOCKS OF C4 ..................................................................265 ANNEX E CUTTING CHARGE FOR MASONRY AND UNREINFORCED CONCRETE, CHARGE END CROSS SECTION FOR BLOCKS OF C4........................................................................267 ANNEX F CUTTING CHARGES FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS UP TO 22.5 CM, CHARGE END CROSS SECTION ..........................................269 ANNEX G CONCRETE STRIPPING CHARGE, PER METRE RUN......271 ANNEX H CONCRETE BREACHING CHARGE.....................................273 ANNEX I PIER FOOTING CHARGE IN BLOCKS OF C4 .....................275 ANNEX J GENERAL INFORMATION ON MAKING HOLES AND CUTTING CHANNELS IN PIERS, ABUTMENTS, ETC......335 ANNEX K BOREHOLE CHARGES IN TIMBER (C4).............................337 ANNEX L CRATERING AND DITCHING CHARGES IN BLOCKS OF C4338 ANNEX M BURIED CHARGES BEHIND ABUTMENTS SUMMARY OF CHARGES REQUIRED BASED ON DELIBERATE FORMULA ......................................................281 CHAPTER 7 CRATERING PROCEDURES AND RELATED SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ......................................................................283 CHAPTER 8 DEMOLITIONS IN PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENTS.....290 SECTION 1 DEMOLITIONS UNDER WATER ........................................290 SECTION 2 DEMOLITIONS IN SUB - FREEZING CONDITIONS........303 CHAPTER 9 BATTLE SIMULATION .........................................................307
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GENERAL ...................................................................................................307
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LIST OF FIGURES Fig 1B-1 Fig 1B-2 Fig 1B-3 Fig 1B-4 Fig 2-4-1 Fig 2A-1 Fig 2A-1 Fig 2B-1 Length equivalents .................................................................................7 Area equivalents.....................................................................................7 Volume equivalents................................................................................7 Weight equivalents.................................................................................8 Example reserved demolition site layout.............................................26 Obstacle Recce Report E120B (DND 2103) pages 1 and 2 ..............29 Obstacle Recce Report E120B (DND 2103) pages 3 and 4 ..............30 Bridge Demolition Recce Report E121B (DND 2107) pages 1 and 2 .........................................................................................................31 Fig 2B-1 Bridge Demolition Recce Report E121B (DND 2107) pages 3 and 4 .........................................................................................................32 Fig 2B-1 Bridge Demolition Recce Report E121B (DND 2107) pages 4, 5 and 6 .......................................................................................................33 Fig 2C-1 Obstacle Task Table (CF 682) front.....................................................34 Fig 2C-1 Obstacle Task Table (CF 682) back.....................................................35 Fig 2E-1 Demolition Order (DND 913) front .....................................................39 Fig 2E-1 Demolition Order (DND 913) back......................................................40 Fig 3-1-1 NATO interchangeability symbol ........................................................42 Fig 3-1-2 Summary of compatible demolition accessories .................................43 Fig 3-2-1 Shaped charge and target.....................................................................45 Fig 3-2-2 Shaped charge jet formation ................................................................46 Fig 3-2-3 Shaped charge penetration...................................................................46 Fig 3-2-4 Types of shaped charges......................................................................47 Fig 3-2-5 Conical shaped charge effectiveness ...................................................47 Fig 3-2-6 Methods of arming (with and without M1A4, adapter).......................48 Fig 3-2-7 Charge demolition, 15 lb, M2A4.........................................................49 Fig 3-2-8 Charge Demolition, 40 lb, M3A1........................................................49 Fig 3-2-9 Adapter, priming, M1A4 .....................................................................51 Fig 3-2-10 Use of M1A4 adapter ........................................................................51 Fig 3-2-11 Charge Demolition, No 14, 11 lb Mk1(Hayrick)...............................52 Fig 3-2-12 Methods of use-Charge Demolition, No, 14 (Hayrick) .....................53 Fig 3-2-13 Charge Demolition, No 14 (Hayrick), configuration.........................53 Fig 3-2-14 Charge Demolition, No 14 (Hayrick), configuration.........................53 Fig 3-2-15 Container Demolition, C126..............................................................55 Fig 3-2-17 Container Demolition, C126 and liner C1, schematic .......................55 Fig 3-2-16 Liner steel, C1 ...................................................................................55 Fig 3-3-1 Container, Trigran ...............................................................................57 Fig 3-3-2 Arming Detasheet................................................................................58 Fig 3-3-3 Uli knot................................................................................................58 Fig 3-3-4 Charge Assembly, Demolition, MK 138 (satchel charge)...................59
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Fig 3-3-5 Satchel charge explosive lead...............................................................59 Fig 3-3-6 Explosive training charge C2/C2A1.....................................................60 Fig 3-4-1 Typical electric detonator ....................................................................63 Fig 3-4-2 Igniter, time blasting fuse, electric, C2 (igniter electric) .....................64 Fig 3-4-3 Blasting machine, ZEB/C100S............................................................65 Fig 3-4-4 Ohmmeter, ZEB/WO...........................................................................67 Fig 3-5-1 Camouflet Set, MK 1...........................................................................70 Fig 3-5-2 Demolition ladder C2 ..........................................................................71 Fig 3-5-3 Safety belt............................................................................................72 Fig 3-5-4 AEV with Ladder ................................................................................73 Fig 3-5-5 Typical Bolt Gun .................................................................................73 Fig 3-5-6 Typical Fasteners.................................................................................73 Fig 3-5-7 BERFS in transit case..........................................................................75 Fig 3-5-8 BERFS transmitter...............................................................................75 Fig 3-5-9 BERFS receiver ...................................................................................75 Fig 3B-1 Military plastic explosives ...................................................................80 Fig 3B-2 Shaped charges.....................................................................................80 Fig 3B-3 Miscellaneous military explosives .......................................................81 Fig 3B-4 Military explosive accessories .............................................................81 Fig 3C-1 Explosive Density ................................................................................83 Fig 3D-1 Antitank mine prepared as an improvised charge ................................91 Fig 3D-2 Arming bombs as demolition charges..................................................92 Fig 3D-3 Improvised Bangalore torpedo (1.8 m iron pickets) ............................92 Fig 3D-4 Improvised antipersonnel pipe charge .................................................93 Fig 3D-5 Improvised directional mine ................................................................93 Fig 3D-6 Improvised shaped charge....................................................................94 Fig 3D-7 Platter charge .......................................................................................95 Fig 3D1-1 Ratio of PAN to fuel oil according to SG ..........................................98 Fig 3D1-2 Volume Measurement ........................................................................98 Fig 3D1-3 Weight Measurement (Using PAN with a SG of 0.8 gm/cm3)...........99 Fig 3D1-4 Timber mixing trough ......................................................................100 Fig 4-1-1 Joints in demolition cable ..................................................................105 Fig 4-1-2 Safety distances for field radio and radar equipment.........................106 Fig 4-1-3 Safety Distances from civilian radio, television or radar transmitters .......................................................................................................107 Fig 4-2-1 Trunkline ...........................................................................................108 Fig 4-2-2 Ring main ..........................................................................................109 Fig 4-2-3 Simple firing circuit...........................................................................110 Fig 4-2-4 Maximum firing circuit .....................................................................110 Fig 4-3-2 Closed circuit signal ..........................................................................115 Fig 4-3-1 Open circuit signal..............................................................................115 Fig 4-3-3 Shunt and ground signal ....................................................................115
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Fig 4-3-4 Connecting an electric detonator to demolition cable in a single detonator firing circuit ..................................................................118 Fig 4-3-5 Resistance of Copper Wire................................................................120 Fig 4-3-6 Connecting lead wires in a multi-detonator firing circuit..................121 Fig 4-3-7 Connecting detonators to demolition cable in multi-detonator firing circuit .............................................................................................122 Fig 4A-1 Instructional, training and exercise safety distances ..........................126 Fig 4B-1 Operational safety distances...............................................................128 Fig 5-2-1 Demolition of tunnel in hard ground or rock......................................137 Fig 5-3-1 Use of debris to delay rebridging. ......................................................139 Fig 5-3-2 No collapse mechanism .....................................................................140 Fig 5-3-3 Jammed collapse mechanism.............................................................141 Fig 5-3-4 Types of collapse mechanism............................................................141 Fig 5-3-5 Simply supported bridge spans..........................................................142 Fig 5-3-6 Identification of simply supported and continuous spans..................143 Fig 5-3-7 Simply supported categorization chart ..............................................144 Fig 5-3-8 Steel beam bridge typical cross-sections ............................................144 Fig 5-3-9 Steel truss bridges..............................................................................145 Fig 5-3-10 Mid-span cross-sections concrete bridges .......................................145 Fig 5-3-11 Simply supported, bowstring, normal..............................................146 Fig 5-3-12 Simply supported, bowstring, reinforced.........................................146 Fig 5-3-13 Type of arch bridge ..........................................................................146 Fig 5-3-14 Measurements of simply supported spans .......................................147 Fig 5-3-15 Lines of attack .................................................................................148 Fig 5-3-16 Required end clearance (ER) at supports for mid-span bottom attack .......................................................................................................149 Fig 5-3-17 Minimum length of section to be removed (LC) for a mid span attack .......................................................................................................152 Fig 5-3-18 Continuous bridge categorization chart ...........................................154 Fig 5-3-19 Cantilever bridge .............................................................................154 Fig 5-3-20 Cantilever and suspended span bridges ...........................................155 Fig 5-3-21 Continuous, steel beam, without short side span .............................155 Fig 5-3-22 Continuous, steel beam, with short side span ..................................155 Fig 5-3-23 Continuous, steel truss.....................................................................155 Fig 5-3-24 Typical portal bridge .......................................................................156 Fig 5-3-25 Typical arch bridge shapes ...............................................................156 Fig 5-3-26 Continuous, concrete arch, solid spandrel pinned footing ...............156 Fig 5-3-27 Continuous, concrete arch, open spandrel, pinned footing .............156 Fig 5-3-28 Continuous masonry arch ................................................................157 Fig 5-3-29 Measurements of continuous bridges ..............................................157 Fig 5-3-30 Minimum length of section to be removed for arch and pinned footing portal bridges.....................................................................159
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Fig 5-3-31 Swing span truss bridge...................................................................161 Fig 5-3-32 Double leaf bascule bridge ..............................................................161 Fig 5-3-34 Vertical lift bridge ............................................................................162 Fig 5-5-1 Demolition shafts...............................................................................167 Fig 5-5-2 Beam post obstacle ............................................................................169 Fig 5-5-3 Falling block obstacle........................................................................170 Fig 5-6-1 Demolition of dams ...........................................................................177 Fig 6-1-1. Explosive charge index......................................................................197 Fig 6-1-2. List of formula notations. ..................................................................199 Fig 6-1-3. Explosive Factors. ............................................................................200 Fig 6-2-1 Calculations - cutting charge for steel girder....................................203 Fig 6-2-2 Charge placement for steel girder........................................................204 Fig 6-2-3. Charge Placement for Steel ...............................................................205 Rail. .......................................................................................................205 Fig 6-2-4 Charge Placement for a Steel Wire Rope of ......................................207 Circumference Greater than 22.0 cm...................................................................207 Fig 6-2-5. Charge Placement for Steel Chains. ..................................................207 Fig 6-2-6 Saddle Charge....................................................................................208 Fig 6-2-7. Charge placement for timber piles underwater........................212 Fig 6-2-8. Charge placement for tree.................................................................212 felling. .......................................................................................................212 Fig 6-2-9. Line of Cut.........................................................................................216 Fig 6-2-10. Effect of a concrete stripping charge ..............................................219 Fig 6-2-11. Section of bridge at midspan showing placement of .......................221 concrete stripping charges. ..................................................................................221 Fig 6-3-1. Breaching charges for reinforced concrete obstacles and.................224 walls. .......................................................................................................224 Fig 6-3-3 Dragon's teeth prepared .....................................................................226 for destruction .....................................................................................................226 Fig 6-3-4 Breaching walls. ................................................................................226 Fig 6-3-5 Breaching reinforced concrete piers. .................................................227 Fig 6-3-4 Ear-muff charge.................................................................................228 Fig 6-4-1 Example masonry pier........................................................................230 Fig 6-4-2 Charge placement for ........................................................................231 pier on slope. .......................................................................................................231 Fig 6-4-3. Charge placement for pier on ............................................................232 level ground .......................................................................................................232 Fig 6-4-4 Charge placement for pier .................................................................232 standing in water .................................................................................................232 Fig 6-5-1. Borehole Charge Placement ..............................................................236 Fig 6-5-2. Volume of explosive per borehole.....................................................238 Fig 6-5-3 Sketch of borehole layout in concrete (end view at right) .................238
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Fig 6-5-4 Borehole layout in timber ..................................................................241 Fig 6-6-1 Calculation table for craters...............................................................243 Fig 6-6-2 Ditching with explosives ...................................................................246 Fig 6-6-3. Continuous mined charges - size of charge. ......................................247 Fig 6-6-4 Example for continuous mined charges and ......................................248 tamping in a culvert.............................................................................................248 Fig 6-6-5 Mined charges for blowing abutments and........................................252 retaining walls. ....................................................................................................252 Fig 6-6-6 Charge placement - continuous and small mined ..............................252 charges behind abutments. ..................................................................................252 Fig 6-6-7. Charge placement ..............................................................................254 for stump blasting................................................................................................254 Fig 6-6-8. Charge Size for Boulder Removal.....................................................254 Fig 6-6-9. Charge placement for ........................................................................255 boulder blasting. ..................................................................................................255 Fig 6-7-1 Values of K for concussion charges. .................................................258 Fig 6A-1 Cutting charge for rectangular steel charge end cross section ...........260 for blocks of C4...................................................................................................260 Fig 6B-1 Cutting charge required for round steel bar and steel wire.................263 rope in blocks of C4 ............................................................................................263 Fig 6C-1 Cutting charge for rectangular timber charge end cross section.........264 for blocks of C4...................................................................................................264 Fig 6D-1 Cutting charge for round timber in blocks of C4 ...............................265 Fig 6E-1 Cutting charge for masonry and unreinforced concrete charge end cross section for blocks of C4 .................................................................268 Fig 6F-1 Cutting charges for reinforced concrete beams and slabs up to..........270 22.5 cm charge end cross section ........................................................................270 Fig 6G-1 Concrete stripping charge per meter run ............................................271 Fig 6H-1 Concrete breaching charge in blocks of C4 per meter of material .....273 Fig 6I-1 Pier footing charges in Blocks of C4...................................................275 Fig 6J-1 General information on making holes and cutting channels in piers, abutments, etc. ...............................................................................336 Fig 6K-1 Borehole charges in timber (C4)........................................................337 Fig 6L-1 Cratering and ditching charges in blocks of C4..................................338 Fig 6M-1 Buried charges behind abutments - summary of charges required based on deliberate formula .....................................................................281 Fig 7-1 Camouflet procedure.............................................................................288 Fig 8-1-1 Blasting a channel through a sand bar using Bangalore torpedoes.....296 Fig 8-1-2 Typical shaped charge container .......................................................298 Fig 8-1-3 Initiating charges underwater ............................................................300 Fig 8-1-4 Underwater Dual Non-Electric Initiation Set ....................................301 Fig 8-1-5 Underwater dual electric initiation ....................................................301
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Fig 8-1-6 Dual initiation secured to detonating cord.........................................302 Fig 8-2-1 Sub-surface ice demolition charge placement. ..................................304 Fig 8-2-2 Hasty Sub-Surface Ice Charge Calculation Table .............................305 Fig 8-2-3 Surface Charge Hasty Calculation.....................................................306 Fig 9-1 Battle simulation safety distances .........................................................309 Fig 9-2 BERFS layout .......................................................................................310 Fig 9-3 Examples of ripple boards ....................................................................311 Fig 9-4 Safety Fuze Lengths..............................................................................312 Fig 9-5 Minimum distances between battle simulations ...................................312 Fig 9-6 Small arms circuit layout ......................................................................314 Fig 9-7 Mortar and artillery fire circuit layout ..................................................315 Fig 9-8 Linear barrage circuit layout.................................................................316 Fig 9-9 Smoke pot No 24 MK 2........................................................................317 Fig 9-10 Railway fusee......................................................................................318 Fig 9-11 Grenade, hand, smoke, HC, C1 Series.................................................319 Fig 9-12 Simple small nuclear simulator...........................................................320 Fig 9-13 Napalm layout.....................................................................................321
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Operational Demolitions
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION GENERAL 1-1. Demolition is defined as the destruction of structures, facilities, or materiel by the use of fire, water, explosives, mechanical or other destructive means. Explosive demolitions are used for both destructive and constructive purposes, including: a. b. clearing obstacles or obstructions and destroying fortifications; impeding the opposing force by destroying bridges, cratering roads and airfields, and creating other obstacles such as blowdown in defiles or structures in built-up areas; aiding in the preparation of field defences such as two-man battle trenches, artillery gun positions, hull-down positions for armour, and command posts; denying areas, facilities, equipment and supplies to the opposing force; preparing sites for general construction work; and quarry operations.
c.
d. e. f.
RESPONSIBILITIES 1-2. Simple demolition tasks that all arms soldiers shall be capable of completing are described in B-GL-320-009/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 9, Demolitions, Part One, All Arms, and include: a. b. c. d. using the Bangalore torpedo; using explosives to assist digging in; destroying vehicles and equipment; and destroying user blinds and misfired ammunition.
1-3. Engineers are responsible for executing the more technical demolition tasks requiring special skills, training and equipment; these tasks are usually authorized and controlled at the formation level and support the formation
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commanders plan. Assault Pioneers are responsible for executing close support demolition tasks such as minor demolitions, craters, abatis, and clearance of obstacles which support their unit commanders plan. In addition, engineers are responsible for providing basic demolition training and advice to the remainder of the Canadian Forces. AIM 1-4. The aim of this manual is to provide a reference for all ranks of field engineers and assault pioneers on demolition tasks not covered in B-GL-320-009/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 9, Demolitions, Part One, All Arms. It contains sufficient detail to be used both as a reference for instructors and as a field manual. This manual shall be used in conjunction with B-GL-320-009/FP-001, which explains the theory of explosives and basic demolition safety. SCOPE 1-5. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. This manual covers the following aspects of demolitions: operational employment of demolitions; demolition stores and equipment; electric initiation and safety procedures; typical demolition tasks; charge calculation and placement; denial operations; and ice and underwater demolitions.
REFERENCES 1-6. References and standardization agreements used for the writing of this publication are listed at Annex A to this chapter. Other manuals that contain aspects of demolitions that can be used in conjunction with this manual are also listed at Annex A to this chapter.
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UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 1-7. This manual uses metric (SI) units throughout. Conversion tables for metric to imperial units are at Annex B to this chapter. TERMINOLOGY 1-8. manual. A glossary of demolition terms used in provided at the end of this
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ANNEX A REFERENCES AND STANDARDIZATION AGREEMENTS 1A-1. The following publications are related to and should be used in conjunction with this publication: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. j. k. m. n. p. B-OL-303-002/FP-001, Staff Manual, Volume 2, Operational Staff Procedures, B-GL-303-002/JX-Z07, Operational Staff Procedures, Staff Duties in the Field, Volume 2, Supplement 7, Engineer Vocabulary, B-GL-304-003/TS-0A1, Operational Training, Volume 3, Part 1, Training Safety, B-GL-312-009/FP-001, Combat Service Support, Volume 9, Ammunition in the Field, B-GL-319-001/FT-001, Engineers in Battle, B-GL-319-002/FT-001, Engineer Regiment in Battle, B-GL-320-002/PT-001, Interim 3, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 2, Engineer and Assault Pioneer Field Pocket Book, B-GL-320-004/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 4, Basic Field Engineering, B-GL-320-007/PT-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 7, Field Defences and Obstacles, B-GL-320-008/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 8, Combat Diving, B-GL-320-009/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 9, Demolitions, Part 1, All Arms, B-GL-320-010/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 10, Mines and Booby Traps, Part 1, All Arms, B-CE-320-012/FP-004, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 12, Horizontal Construction, Part 4, Pits and Quarries,
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q. r. s.
C-09-008-002/FP-000, Ammunition and Explosives Procedural Manual, Destruction of Dud and Misfired Ammunition, C-09-153-001/TS-000, Explosives Safety Manual, Volume 1, Ammunition Depots and Fixed Ammunition Facilitie, and C-74-375 Series, Canadian Forces Technical Orders, Ammunition and Explosives Technical Information.
1A-2. The following Standardization Agreements and publications have been incorporated into this manual: a. b. c. d. e. AAP-19(B) NATO Combat Engineer Glossary, June 1993; ATP-52(A) NATO Land Force Combat Engineer Doctrine, June 1992; AEngr P-1 NATO Land Force Engineer Messages, Reports and Returns, January 1994; AOP-19 NATO Land Forces Explosives and Demolition Accessories Interchangeability Catalogue; STANAG 2017 Orders to the Demolition Guard Commander and Demolition Firing Party Commander, Edition 3 Amendment 3 (QSTAG 508); STANAG 2113 Denial of Military Equipment and Supplies to an Enemy Force; STANAG 2123 Obstacle Folder - Germany, Edition 2, Amendment 1; STANAG 2989 Transfer of Barriers, Edition 1, Amendment 3; and QAP 64 Demolitions, Explosives and Accessories Catalogue, May 1991.
f. g. h. j.
1A-3. The following foreign publications have been used as a reference for this manual: a. b. Military Engineering Volume II, Field Engineering, Pamphlet No. 4, Demolition, 1988; and FM 5-250 Explosives and Demolitions, June 1992.
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1A-4. The following civilian publications have been used as a reference for this manual: a. b. C-09-011-00/AB-000 C.I.L. Blaster's Handbook, 6th Edition, 1984; and Dupont Blaster's Handbook, 16th Edition, 1977.
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ANNEX B INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (METRIC) IMPERIAL CONVERSION TABLES Ser Unit Mile Kilometre (km) (d) 1.609 1 Metre (m) (e) 1609 1000 1 0.914 0.305 ----Yard
(yd)
Foot (ft) (g) 5280 3281 3.281 3 1 0.083 ---
Inch (in) (h) ----39.4 36 12 1 0.039
(a) (b) (c) 1 Mile 1 2 Kilo- 0.621 metre --3 Metre ----4 Yard ----5 Foot ------6 Inch --7 Milli- --metre Fig 1B-1 Length equivalents Ser Unit Square mile
(c) 1 0.4 --------2.6 1 ---------
(f) 1760 1094 1.094 1 0.333 -----
Millimetre (mm) (i) ----1000 914.4 305 25.4 1
Square kilometre (km2)

(d)
Square metre (m2)

(e) ----1 0.836 4047 10,000
Square yard (yd2)

(f) ----1.196 1 4840 11,960
Acre
Hectare
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6
(b) Square mile Square km Square m Square yd Acre Hectare
(g) 640 247 ----1 2.47
(h) 259 100 ----0.405 1
Fig 1B-2 Area equivalents Ser Unit Cubic inch (a) (b) (c) 1 Cubic inch 1 2 Cubic foot 1728 3 Cubic yard --4 Cubic metre --Fig 1B-3 Volume equivalents Cubic foot (d) --1
27 35.32
Cubic yard (e) --0.04 1 1.31
Cubic metre (f) --0.028 0.465 1
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Ser Unit Metric tonne (a) (b) (c) 1 1 Metric tonne 0.984 2 Short ton --3 Kilogram --4 Pound Fig 1B-4 Weight equivalents
Short ton (d) 1.016 1 -----
Kilogram (e) 1000 984 1 0.454
Pound (g) 2205 2000 2.205 1
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CHAPTER 2 OPERATIONAL DEMOLITIONS SECTION 1 DEMOLITIONS IN THE DIFFERENT PHASES OF WAR GENERAL 2-1-1. Fire and movement are decisive factors in all operations and obstacles are a decisive factor in movement. The barrier plan must be closely coordinated with all other tactical plans. Engineers are responsible for preparing for demolition, whereas formation commanders and staff are responsible, with engineer advice, for planning and for ordering demolitions. 2-1-2. The availablity of engineers, and time to prepare the many obstacles in a barrier plan are often limited. It is essential that formation commanders establish a strict priority for the targets chosen. The commander states the degree of damage or delay to be achieved for each target based upon the threat. This priority list is created so engineer effort is concentrated on the critical obstacles and the lower priority targets can be executed if more time, engineers and material become available. TYPES OF DEMOLITION TARGETS 2-1-3. To prepare and maintain demolitions until the last possible moment is not effective nor desirable. Demolitions are therefore classified as preliminary or reserved. Ideally, all demolition targets should be preliminary. However, the need to maintain routes for patrols or withdrawing forces, and to protect facilities of strategic importance such as refineries or power stations, requires that certain targets be designated as reserved targets. The designation of a reserved target is done by the Authorized Commander, who is the commander empowered to order the emplacing of the obstacles. DEMOLITIONS IN DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS 2-1-4. General. Although there are many uses of demolitions in war, their employment is likely to be of greater importance during the defensive battle. Demolitions impede the opposing force's mobility and force them to concentrate sufficiently to provide a worthwhile target. 2-1-5. Covering Force Battle. Covering forces are deployed forward of the main defensive area to protect the deployment of friendly forces, to delay the enemy, and to identify the main axis of their advance. Demolition obstacles are created to impede an enemy's mobility as it advances. Rather than concentrating
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obstacles in one particular area, engineers must develop them through the depth of the covering force area. Route denial is an integral part of delaying and withdrawal operations. Good control is necessary to ensure that parties progress at roughly the same rate and that a route remains clear for withdrawing forces. a. Delaying Operations. Demolition tasks in the delay are designed to assist a force to gain time by slowing the enemy advance. If necessary, the delaying force trades terrain for time and in principle, avoids becoming decisively engaged. Obstacles are constructed or improved to delay or disrupt the opposing force by the destruction or obstruction of routes and defiles. Withdrawal Operations. Demolition tasks in the withdrawal are designed to assist a force to disengage or break contact from an opposing force. Demolitions deny facilities and terrain to the opposing force including the destruction of roads, airfields, crossing sites, water and petroleum installations, supply dumps, etc. A strategic withdrawal may require the implementation of a scorched earth policy.
b.
2-1-6. Main Defensive Phase. The main defensive phase is preferably based on a natural obstacle such as a river or escarpment and reinforced by artificial obstacles. Obstacles sited in depth are desirable but not always possible. Demolitions are used mainly for the destruction of river bridges and routes through a barrier. Since the covering force must eventually withdraw through the barrier, the preparation of the barrier shall be carefully coordinated with their movement plan and some of the demolitions will be designated as reserved. 2-1-7 Countermove Phase. In the countermove phase, the tactical commander may reinforce, block, or counter-attack to contain and destroy the enemy. Counter-mobility obstacles will be required to assist in blocking opposing force penetrations and for flank protection. Demolitions may be used to strengthen the barriers along the enemy approaches and to recreate obstacles after successful breaching by the enemy. 2-1-8 Planning. The actual execution of the demolitions, occurs during the transition between the covering force phase and the main defensive phase. The barrier plan is based on zones normally specified on a geographical or area basis to support the tactical commander's plan. Barrier planning is covered in detail in B-GL-319-001/FT-001, Engineers in Battle.
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DEMOLITIONS IN OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS 2-1-9. General. Although the main employment of demolitions is defensive, they can be used during offensive operations. The amount of explosives and accessories that can be used is generally limited by the carrying capacity of the soldier or vehicles, or in some cases aircraft. Demolition tasks in the offence are likely to be minor in nature, or at least technically simple and are mainly used to: a. b. c. clear or breach obstacles in the advance; harass the enemy during a pursuit; and protect one or both flanks.
2-1-10. Clearing or Breaching of Obstacles. Obstacles impede the mobility of an advancing or attacking force. Procedures to cross or breach them requires team work and thorough rehearsals. Engineer reconnaissance parties shall move with the lead elements of an advancing force, while engineer resources move close behind to deal with obstacles as they are encountered. Engineers may require close protection by an infantry/armoured force. Obstacles that will have to be cleared, dismantled or filled during the advance or attack include minefields, abatis, roadblocks, craters, concrete or log post obstacles, fortifications, and building debris in urban areas. 2-1-11. Harassing the Enemy during a Pursuit. The use of demolitions in the pursuit are likely to be aimed at defiles on enemy withdrawal routes. They are completed by infiltration, deep and rapid penetration, helicopter assault, or by remotely delivered mines. 2-1-12. Flank Protection. Engineer demolition tasks in support of flank protection during an advance include the preparation of hasty obstacles for local protection and route denial tasks. Route denial tasks involve engineer parties moving down several routes and preparing obstacles on each route. SECTION 2 RECONNAISSANCE GENERAL 2-2-1. Demolition planning follows the same planning sequence as for other engineer tasks. Junior engineer officers and NCOs play an important part in the planning sequence. Detailed reconnaissance (recce) reports enable engineer commanders to make sound estimates of time, labour and resources to advise
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commanders and staffs during the preparation of tactical plans and the barrier plan. 2-2-2. The purpose of a demolition recce is to provide information on the target, and determine the: a. b. c. d. method of demolition; time and labour required; quantity of mines and explosives required; and equipment and other stores required.
RECONNAISSANCE ORDERS 2-2-3. A detailed recce is generally undertaken by a junior engineer officer or senior NCO. Before starting, there must be clear instructions which assists in determining the best method of destroying the target and estimating the explosives required. These instructions shall cover the following points: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. j. where and when the report is required; identification, location, and nature of the target; tactical objective of the obstacle (delay that must be imposed, and whether it is intended to impede tracked and/or wheeled vehicles); whether it is a preliminary or reserved demolition; when the demolition is to be ready to State1 (SAFE), and length of time allowed for changing the state of readiness to State 2 (ARMED); if hasty or deliberate calculations are to be used; any restrictions or conditions for closing the route; type of mines, explosives, equipment and labour available; and availability of other engineer intelligence (such as air photos).
ORGANIZING THE RECONNAISSANCE 2-2-4. Generally, the composition of a demolition recce party will be kept to a minimum in personnel and equipment. When reconnoitering assault targets close
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to the opposing force, personal protection takes the form of concealment and stealth, and may include a protection party. 2-2-5. The composition and equipment of the party must be suited to the kind of information to be obtained. In a simple recce, when the measurements to be taken are few and easy to obtain, an officer or senior NCO with one assistant should suffice. Complicated targets, involving numerous sets of measurements, which may require the use of demolition ladders and other aids, require larger recce parties. Specialists or advisors, such as a technician able to recognise apparatus in a power station, or an expert in concrete reinforcement, may be included as required. The commander of a large recce party should be free to reconnoitre the area in general (perhaps to decide on the location of firing points) while the remainder conduct the actual target reconnaissance according to his instructions. 2-2-6. party: a. b. c. d. e f. g. h. j. k. m. n. The following stores and equipment will be useful to a demolition recce two metre measuring rods and flexible steel tapes x 2 each; 30 metre tape x 1; leadline (for depth of water) x 1; recce boat x 1; demolition ladder (lengths) and demolition safety belt x 1 each; chisel x 1; large hammer x 1; cordage and twine; recce proforma; Engineer and Assault Pioneer Field Pocket Book; camera and tape recorder (if available) x 1 each; and chalk, spray paint or paint and brush.
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COMPLETING THE RECONNAISSANCE 2-2-7. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Tasks. The main tasks are: decide on the general method of attack, including type of charges to be used and where to put them; take general measurements to describe the target; take detailed measurements at the points of attack so that charges can be calculated; calculate explosives, time, labour, and other requirements; complete the demolition recce proforma; select the firing point(s). For a reserved demolition this will have to be done in consultation with the Demolition Guard Commander; and draw a sketch of the target and site.
2-2-8. Recce Proforma. As much of the demolition recce proforma as possible shall be completed with the target in view. If this is not possible, rough notes can be used later, with possibly a tape-recorded target description and photograph. 2-2-9. Method of Demolition. Before deciding on the method of attack, the objective of the demolition must be considered. The recce officer or NCO will decide the method of demolition which best ensures success. Points which shall be considered are: a. b. c. progressive preparation sequence; protection of long standing demolitions, or demolitions in areas of heavy traffic; and resources available (explosives, mines, equipment, and time).
2-2-10. Demolition Calculations. Demolition calculations are discussed in Chapter 6.
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RECONNAISSANCE REPORTS 2-2-11. Demolition Recce Reports. Demolition recce reports are used to record the information collected. Their use saves time and ensures all the necessary information is collected. The obstacle recce report (E120B) at Annex A is used for all demolition task reconnaissances except bridges. The bridge demolition recce proforma (E121B) is at Annex B to this chapter. 2-2-12. Obstacle Task Table (CF 682). Information from a demolition recce report can be incorporated with other obstacle planning information on a CF 682, Obstacle Task Table, which serves as a planning tool for work scheduling and resource management. An Obstacle Task Table appears at Annex C. 2-2-13. Obstacle Folder. In cases of a long standing threat, demolitions may be planned during peacetime and some preparation may be completed. These are known as peacetime prepared obstacles. In this case, detailed information on each target including the method of attack, prestocked stores and explosives, and other information may be gathered in an Obstacle Folder, which is described in Annex D to this chapter. This obstacle folder is standardized throughout NATO in STANAG 2123.
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SECTION 3 CONTROL OF DEMOLITIONS GENERAL 2-3-1. Unlike other obstacles which become progressively more effective as work proceeds, demolitions are not effective until the charge is fired. The enemy may conduct harassing attacks to prevent the execution of the demolition or force a premature firing to hinder the withdrawal of friendly troops. The control of demolitions is therefore very important. DEMOLITION ORDER 2-3-2. Instructions for the execution of a demolition target are issued by written or verbal orders prior to an operation commencing, or by the Demolition Order DND 913 (Annex E). Instructions for the execution of a demolition task must include: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. j. k. identification, type and location of the target; tactical objective of the demolition (gap required); reserved or preliminary; technical details; restrictions on firing and emergency firing instructions; mines, explosives, equipment and manpower assigned to the task; by when the demolition is to be executed or prepared to State 1 (SAFE); restrictions on closing the route to traffic; reports and returns required; and security.
2-3-3. The Demolition Order is based on NATO STANAG 2017. It shall be used for a reserved demolition and may be used for a preliminary demolition. Instructions for its use are printed on the form. Distribution is as follows:
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a. b. c. d.
Demolition Guard Commander - Copy 1(White); Demolition Firing Party Commander - Copy 2(Green); Authorized Commander - Copy 3(Canary); and spares - Copy 4(Pink) and Copy 5(Goldenrod).
2-3-4. Codes used with the Demolition Order may consist of a word, a number, a series of numbers, or a series of letters. The Canadian procedure is to use a word. STATES OF READINESS 2-3-5. State 1 (SAFE). Notwithstanding the NATO definitions contained in the glossary, the Canadian context of State 1 (SAFE) is as follows: a. b. the charges are placed and secured; the vertical and horizontal ring mains are installed but not connected together. The charges are connected to the vertical ring mains. This may reduce the possibility of both the vertical and horizontal ring mains detonating at the same time due to artillery or air strikes or sabotage. There may be cases when vertical and horizontal ring mains must be connected at State 1 due to the size of the target, time available to change states, or the inaccessibility of portions of the ring main; and detonators and initiation sets are not connected or installed.
c.
2-3-6. State 2 (ARMED). On changing to State 2 (ARMED), the Canadian context is: a. b. the vertical and horizontal ring mains are connected together; and the detonators and initiation sets are connected.
2-3-7. Changing to State 2 (ARMED) must be accomplished as quickly as possible. This change shall be rehearsed during the day, at night, and during all weather conditions. The Authorized Commander shall be made aware of the times to change states so that the decision to issue the order is made in a timely fashion.
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2-3-8. Authorized Commander. Initially the Authorized Commander is the formation commander responsible for the operational plan. At any stage during the operation the Authorized Commander may delegate authority or transfer the responsibility. For example, when one formation withdraws through another which is holding an intermediate position, it is normal for control to be transferred to the commander of the holding formation, who then becomes the Authorized Commander. Normally the procedure is to delegate responsibility for preliminary demolitions to the Engineer Commander. The duties of Authorized Commanders and their staffs are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. preparation and distribution of the barrier plan to units; designation of preliminary demolition targets that may have firing restrictions, or require special security measures; designation of reserved demolition targets and appointment of a demolition guard and firing party, including composition; preparation and issuing of the Demolition Order; orders the state of readiness, changes to it, and the demolition to be fired; orders emergency firing procedures as necessary; notifies higher and all other interested headquarters if the authority is to be delegated, or the demolition changed in classification from reserved to preliminary; establishes special communications and/or liaison officers to pass the Authorized Commander's orders; and sets traffic priorities and advises units when routes or areas are closed to traffic. Engineer Commander. The duties of the Engineer Commander are to: advise to the Authorized Commander on the barrier plan and technical details (preparation time, resources and expected results, etc); reconnoitre, plan, prepare and execute demolitions;
h. j. 2-3-9. a. b.
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c. d. e. f. g. h.
designate the engineer unit to provide the Demolition Firing Party; assist the formation staff in the preparation of the DND 913 Demolition Order; maintain of records of completed demolitions and demolitions in progress; ensure that the necessary stores are available; provide a guard on preliminary demolitions if ordered; and ensure that a reserved demolition is guarded until the arrival of the Demolition Guard.
2-3-10. Other Units. Infantry and/or armoured units may provide protection for engineer recce and work parties and form demolition guards when ordered. PRELIMINARY DEMOLITION TARGETS 2-3-11. General. A preliminary demolition target can be executed as soon after preparation as convenient on the orders of the officer to whom authority has been delegated. These demolitions present fewer difficulties than reserved demolitions and have the following advantages: a. b. c. d. they can be completed by engineers or assault pioneers without the requirement for demolition guards or firing parties; there is normally less interference by the enemy on our own troops and elaborate precautions against capture are not required; a simple firing circuit may be used; and demolition of a target (e.g., a bridge) can be executed in stages (e.g., superstructure, piers, abutments) rather than simultaneously.
2-3-12. Control. All demolitions, reserved or preliminary, are subject to control measures. Although preliminary demolitions are normally fired once they are prepared; policital, tactical or geographical reasons may result in preliminary targets being prepared and fired at a later date: a. Prior to withdrawal, all preliminary demolitions may be prepared to State 1. Following the preparation of each target and depending upon the tactical commander's orders, the prepared demolitions can be left
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secured by a guard, picket or patrol. They may also be turned over to an infantry or armoured unit. During the withdrawal, the prepared demolitions may then be executed as required. b. A particular facility or installation may be designated as a preliminary demolition, however, due to its location it may be prepared and fired according to a timed schedule. For example a factory located in a city filled with refugees may be a preliminary demolition, with firing restricted to when all refugees have been evacuated.
If any restrictions are placed on the execution of a preliminary demolition, a DND 913 Demolition Order is prepared for that target. EXECUTION 2-3-13. Progressive Preparations. When time for preparation is short, the demolition can be prepared in progressive stages. An effective obstacle can thus be created if preparations are halted at any stage. For example, the first step might be preparation of a single span (complete and ready to fire), before continuing with other spans, piers or abutments. As later stages are completed, they are incorporated into the firing circuit. 2-3-14. Completion. The firing of a demolition does not necessarily complete the obstacle. Additional time may be required after the firing, to ensure the demolition is complete as well as effective. For example, the cutting of a main span of a road bridge over a deep water obstacle, which achieves a 40 metre gap, may well complete the obstacle. However, in the case of closing a minefield lane (which may involve cratering), antitank mines would have to be laid after the craters have been fired. In such cases, engineers will continue to require protection until it is completed. In the event of a misfire or only partial destruction, the demolition guard shall continue to provide protection while the corrective action is taken. REPORTING 2-3-15. After the demolition, the effectiveness of the obstacle and the gap created shall be reported through the chain of command to the Engineer Commander. 2-3-16. If mines are laid to enhance the obstacle, these mines must be recorded on a Minefield Record (CF 1275) or on a Protective Minefield Record (CF 947), and this record will also be passed through the chain of command to the Engineer Commander.
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BARRIER HANDOVER 2-3-17. A change in the operational situation may require the transfer of barriers to another unit. This handover may be complicated by different languages and differences in organization, training and barrier munitions if the units are from other NATO nations. Barrier handover checklists are described in B-GL-319-001/FT-001, Engineers in Battle. When handing over prepared demolitions to another unit, if a Demolition Order or obstacle folder was issued for the target, the form will be completed in accordance with the instructions.
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SECTION 4 RESERVED DEMOLITIONS GENERAL 2-4-1. The destruction of a reserved demolition target shall be controlled at a specific level of command because it plays a vital part in the successful conduct of an operation. There are few tasks in war where errors in orders, control, or timing can have as serious consequences as in the execution of a reserved demolition. All demolitions along a reserved route are classified reserved. The number of reserved demolitions shall be kept to a minimum. Reserved demolitions pose the following problems to engineers: a. b. they are usually kept open for traffic until the last moment, therefore quick and simple demolition techniques cannot be used; the methods used to prepare the target for demolition shall be capable of withstanding weather, traffic vibrations, and enemy fire over a long period of time. Firing circuits shall be carefully placed and protected to avoid damage from passing vehicles, sabotage from pedestrians, or indirect fire; and engineers who could be employed elsewhere have to remain at the site awaiting the order to fire.
c.
RESPONSIBILITIES 2-4-2. Demolition Guard Commander. The Demolition Guard Commander is normally the officer commanding an infantry or armoured unit or sub-unit tasked with protecting the reserved demolition. Responsibilities of the Demolition Guard Commander are: a. b. c. d. e. commanding the Demolition Guard and Demolition Firing Party; approving the location of the firing points, which are located close to the command posts; securing the demolition site and providing protection to the reserved demolition target and the firing party at all times; controlling all traffic over or through the target; passing orders in writing to the Demolition Firing Party Commander to change the state of readiness and to fire the demolition;
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f. g. h.
keeping the Authorized Commander informed of the state of preparation of the reserved demolition and the site situation; reporting the results of the demolition to the Authorized Commander; and maintaining a seniority list for that appointment and for the Demolition Firing Party Commander in case of casualties.
2-4-3. Demolition Firing Party Commander. The Demolition Firing Party Commander is normally an engineer officer or senior NCO commanding the engineer sub-unit tasked to provide the Demolition Firing Party and may well have been tasked to prepare the reserved demolition. However, for most reserved demolitions, the preparation is completed by a Field Troop, and a Field Section remains behind as the Firing Party. The duties of the Demolition Firing Party Commander are: a. b. maintaining the state of readiness ordered for the reserved demolition; advising the Demolition Guard Commander of the time required to: (1) change the state of readiness, and (2) complete the obstacle once the demolition is fired (i.e., mining), c. d. e. maintaining a seniority list in case of casualties; siting the firing point in consultation with the Demolition Guard Commander; firing the demolition when ordered by the Demolition Guard Commander, and ensuring that the firing is successful. When there is no demolition guard and the Demolition Firing Party Commander receives orders to fire the demolition, other than those specified in paragraph five of the Demolition Order, the order shall be referred to the Authorized Commander or to the Demolition Firing Party Commander immediate superior; s reporting the results of the demolition by the fastest means possible to the Demolition Guard Commander, or to whoever ordered the firing if no demolition guard is provided; and reporting the results of the demolition by completing the Demolition Order or Obstacle folder.
f.
g.
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COMMAND AND CONTROL 2-4-4. Communications. The Authorized Commander must ensure that there is a clear channel whereby the order can be passed to a Demolition Guard Commander to change the state of readiness of a target and to fire it. This means of communication will be positive, secure and known and understood by all concerned. One of the following methods will usually be used: a. b. normal command channels. liaison officer with radio. This method provides a direct link to the Authorized Commander and is often valuable as it permits the Demolition Guard Commander to concentrate on other aspects of his task. radio allotted to the Guard Commander. This may be on the formation command net or a special net. engineer net. Through the Demolition Firing Party. artillery net. Through a Forward Observation Officer with the Demolition Guard. line. A special line may be laid between the Demolition Guard Commander and the Authorized Commander. dispatch rider. This method is useful in conditions of radio silence, and as an alternative to line. Authorized Commander. The Authorized Commander may be on the site to give the order in person.
c. d. e. f. g. h.
2-4-5. Command. The Demolition Guard Commander commands all troops at the reserved demolition site, including the Demolition Firing Party. The Demolition Guard Commander makes the decisions concerning the layout of the demolition site, including the locations of defensive positions, command posts, firing points, check points and routes throughout the site. An example site layout is at Fig 2-4-1. 2-4-6. Main Command Post. Ideally the Demolition Guard Commander's command post shall be sited where it can best command the defence of the demolition target from the home side. This may conflict with the requirements for the demolition firing point which shall be close to or collocated with the command
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post. Usually some compromise is necessary as the Demolition Guard Commander and the Demolition Firing Party Commander shall be collocated. 2-4-7. Alternate Command Post. An alternate command post is required on the far side and another alternate is required, sited on the home side. 2-4-8. Check Point. When units are withdrawing in contact with the enemy, problems of identification may arise. It is the responsibility of the withdrawing troops to identify themselves to the Demolition Guard. A check point is always established by the Demolition Guard. Military police or reconnaissance troops may be placed under command for this duty. Good communications are essential between the check point and the Demolition Guard Commander. Each unit withdrawing through the demolition is required to send a liaison officer to the check point well in advance of the unit. 2-4-9. Refugee Control Points. For refugees on foot and in vehicles, a checkpoint manned by military police on the far bank and a release point on the home bank may be required. The control of refugees is the responsibility of the Demolition Guard Commander. Refugee traffic shall be halted off the route, and then escorted across the target in groups to the release point. Refugees will not be allowed to interfere with the withdrawing forces or with the demolition preparations.
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Fig 2-4-1 Example reserved demolition site layout FIRING POINTS 2-4-10. Main Firing Point and Alternates. The main and alternate firing points are normally as close to the demolition target as possible to provide observation. The firing point shall provide protection to the firing party from the effects of blast and falling debris. Safety distances that shall be followed during
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peace and operations are detailed in Chapter 4. As a minimum, there will be two firing points; the main on the home bank and an alternate on the far side. An alternate firing point on the home side shall also be sited if possible. The main firing point will be manned continuous-ly. Manning of the alternate firing point(s) will be based on the judgement of the Demolition Guard Commander considering the target size, manpower, the time required to change to State 2, and the threat. Normally the second-in-command of the Demolition Guard and the second-in-command of the Firing Party are collocated at the alternate command post and firing point on the home side. 2-4-11. can: a. b. c. The firing point is sited so that the Demolition Firing Party Commander be easily accessible to the Demolition Guard Commander for orders to change the state of readiness and to fire the demolition; communicate with the firing party; and observe the entire target. Siting of the firing points will also take into account the proximity of the electro-magnetic emitters (e.g., air defence radar) and their potential impact on firing circuits and electric detonators.
FIRING PROCEDURES 2-4-12. Firing Procedure. The normal procedure for firing a reserved demolition is as follows: a. the Demolition Guard Commander reports to the Authorized Commander that the demolition is prepared to State of Readiness 1 (SAFE), and the time required to change to State 2 (ARMED), which is recorded on Demolition Order; the Authorized Commander orders the change in State of Readiness to State 2 (ARMED). The Demolition Firing Party Commander's copy of the Demolition Order (Copy 2) is completed by the Demolition Guard Commander; the Authorized Commander issues the order to fire the demolition to the Demolition Guard Commander;
b.
c.
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d.
the Demolition Guard Commander passes the order to fire to the Demolition Firing Party Commander by signing the Demolition Firing Party Commander's Demolition Order (Copy 2); and the Demolition Firing Party Commander fires the demolition, checks that the firing is successful, and reports the results to the Demolition Guard Commander. Any required mining or booby-trapping is then completed.
e.
2-4-13. Failure. If there is a failure or partial failure of the demolition, the firing party shall take immediate steps to rectify the fault and if necessary reset the charges. The demolition guard, if provided, shall remain in position until the demolition has been successfully completed. 2-4-14. a. Reports. The results of a reserved demolition are reported as follows: the Demolition Guard Commander reports the results of the demolition to the Authorized Commander, with Part III of the Demolition Order completed (Copy 1); and the Demolition Firing Party Commander completes the Demolition Report pages of the Obstacle Folder (if used), as well as Part III of his Demolition Order (Copy 2), and forwards it through the engineer chain of command to the Engineer Commander.
b.
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ANNEX A - OBSTACLE RECCE REPORT
Fig 2A-1 Obstacle Recce Report E120B (DND 2103) pages 1 and 2
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Fig 2A-1 Obstacle Recce Report E120B (DND 2103) pages 3 and 4
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ANNEX B - BRIDGE RECCE REPORT
Fig 2B-1 Bridge Demolition Recce Report E121B (DND 2107) pages 1 and 2
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Fig 2B-1 Bridge Demolition Recce Report E121B (DND 2107) pages 3 and 4
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Fig 2B-1 Bridge Demolition Recce Report E121B (DND 2107) pages 4, 5 and 6
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ANNEX C - OBSTACLE TASK TABLE
Fig 2C-1 Obstacle Task Table (CF 682) front
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Fig 2C-1 Obstacle Task Table (CF 682) back
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ANNEX D OBSTACLE FOLDER-GERMANY CF 765 (STANAG 2123) GENERAL 2D-1. The Obstacle Folder-Germany (CF 765) is based on STANAG 2123. It is specific to operational planning for the defence of North-West Europe, however this does not preclude the use of it for targets planned during training or on operations elsewhere. It gathers in one document, all of the information relevant to a specific demolition target. On completion of the folder, the information contained within is classified as NATO CONFIDENTIAL, otherwise it remains NATO UNCLASSIFIED while blank. 2D-2. The Obstacle Folder is for targets which have been reconnoitered well in advance. Early reconnaissance permits the determination of charge sizes and locations as well as the storage of the required explosives, accessories and mines in a nearby ammunition storage facility. 2D-3. In Germany, numerous potential demolition targets were constructed with chambers ready to receive explosives, and buried conduits for firing circuits, as described in Section 4, Chapter 5. CONTENTS 2D-4. There are five parts to the folder: the target location, supply of munitions and stores, technical instructions for the target preparation, handover/takeover procedures, and the demolition report. The table of contents is found on the inside of the back cover page. 2D-5. The folder consists of white and light blue pages. The light blue pages may be detached and distributed as follows: a. b. c. pages 3, 7, 8, 9, and 15 - for use by the commander of the party detailed to pick up the barrier material; page 31 - for retention of the Unit handing over the target; and pages 33 and 34 - for use by the Demolition Firing Party Commander to report the results to the next superior officer (e.g., Demolition Guard Commander).
2D-6. The white pages are to remain in the folder. If there is insufficient space to enter the information, insert pages can be used. In such cases, the words "see page..." are to be inserted at the appropriate place. The insert page is to be
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placed immediately after the page to which it refers. Convenient pockets are included for the key to the ammunition storage facility and the Demolition Order. 2D-7. All subject matter in the obstacle folder is to be completed in languages agreed for the folder: English, French or German. Notes on maps, plans, sketches, etc., are to be in one language only, with a translation of relevant items into another language at the page provided. DISTRIBUTION 2D-8. These folders are made in a very limited number of copies. One copy would be issued through the chain of command to the Section or Troop Commander responsible for a particular target. COMPLETION AFTER FIRING 2D-9. After completing the obstacle, the Demolition Firing Party Commander reports the results of the demolition to the Demolition Guard Commander (if there is one) using pages 33 and 34, and through the engineer chain of command by completing pages 35 and 36 of the folder.
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ANNEX E - DEMOLITION ORDER (DND 913)
Fig 2E-1 Demolition Order (DND 913) front
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Fig 2E-1 Demolition Order (DND 913) back
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Demolitions
CHAPTER 3 SERVICE DEMOLITION STORES AND EQUIPMENT SECTION 1 GENERAL SCOPE 3-1-1. This chapter describes the characteristics and uses of demolition stores and equipment not previously covered in B-GL-320-009/FP-001, including: a. b. c. d. e. shaped charges and military explosives for specific tasks; electrical initiating accessories and equipment; commercial explosives; miscellaneous equipment; and NATO demolition stores.
EXPLOSIVES 3-1-2. The theory of explosives is explained in B-GL-320-009/FP-001, as are non-electric accessories. 3-1-3. Types. Explosives are available in various shapes and sizes for various tasks. The various types of explosives which may be encountered are explained in Annex A to this Chapter. Logistic and packaging details are in Annex B to this Chapter. 3-1-4. Danger: All explosives are not the same. Engineers and Assault Pioneers must understand the properties of the explosive being used. 3-1-5. Commercial explosives. Commercial explosives can be made available through the supply system. They are usually used for a specific task, when one or more of their properties are superior to those of service explosives or if service explosive stocks have been depleted. In these cases, detailed specifications are required. Civilian explosives must never be mixed with service explosives as the main charge. The characteristics of commercial explosives are outlined in Annex C to this Chapter.
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3-1-6. Improvised explosives. The fabrication of improvised explosives and charges may be required in some situations and is explained in Annex D to this Chapter. NATO DEMOLITION STORES 3-1-7. There are a variety of explosives, charges and demolition accessories in use by the other NATO countries. More information is contained in AOP-19 Land Forces Explosives and Demolition Accessories Interchangeability Catalogue In Wartime (NATO). NATO INTERCHANGEABILITY SYMBOL 3-1-8. Fig 3-1-1 shows the NATO interchangeability symbol which indicates (for demolition stores) that the item complies with a NATO standardization agreement, and is functionally interchangeable with any item of similar function bearing the symbol, when used with other demolition accessories also bearing the symbol.
Fig 3-1-1 NATO interchangeability symbol COMPATIBILITY OF DEMOLITION ACCESSORIES 3-1-9. Fig 3-1-2 is a summary of the compatibility of demolition accessories. It shows, for example, if the non-electric detonators of one nation can be used with the safety fuse of another nation. This chart may be out of date in some cases because new items may have been introduced. It will be amended as correct information is available. Symbols used in Fig 3-1-2 are shown in the legend, and a blank at the junction of particular items indicates compatibility
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Service Demolition Stores and Equipment
Fig 3-1-2 Summary of compatible demolition accessories
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Electrical Procedures
SECTION 2 SHAPED CHARGES THEORY 3-2-1. Shaped charges use explosive power to penetrate into hard targets such as armour plate and concrete. A typical shaped charge concentrates the energy from the detonation and the moving shock wave to a specific point on the target. A "V" shaped cavity inverts and directs the shock wave while the standoff distance provides time for the inversion to occur. The explosives used in shaped charges are generally pressed or cast with a high velocity of detonation. The higher the velocity of detonation and detonation pressure, the more effective the penetration.
Fig 3-2-1 Shaped charge and target 3-2-2. When the detonator initiates the explosive charge, the detonation wave passes over the liner and liquefies it. The liner material is then accelerated (Fig 32-2). When the liner material converges at the centre line or axis of the detonation, it is squeezed out at high velocity, thus forming a jet. The material close to the apex of liner moves at a much higher velocity than the material toward the base of it. The remainder of the liner forms a heavy solid slug which follows the jet at a much slower velocity. 3-2-3. The intense pressure created by the jet causes the penetration of the target. The pressure applied by a shaped charge is in the order of several megabars which is well into the ballistic range for most materials.
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Fig 3-2-2 Shaped charge jet formation Fig 3-2-3 illustrates the response of the target to a shaped charge jet. Penetration occurs as the material flows out of the hole. The material dislodged in the deeper part of the hole flows out along the walls. The distance between the shaped charge and the target is critical because there must be sufficient room to Fig 3-2-3 Shaped charge form the jet, but not too great or the jet penetration will stretch and dissipate. Typical standoff distances are between three to six times the charge diameter. Penetration is highly dependent on the target material. For steel it is normally around four to six times the charge diameter, but precisely manufactured shaped charges can penetrate as high as 10 or 12 times the charge diameters. 3-2-4. The Canadian Forces use both conical and linear shaped charges (above). The conical shaped charge is round in construction and creates a point penetration. Conical shaped charges penetrate deeper than the linear charges because the energy from the explosion is focussed at a single point. The explosion in the linear shaped charge is focussed along a line, which forms a long longitudinal jet that slices through the target making a linear cut.
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CONICAL SHAPED CHARGES 3-2-5. Conical shaped charges are used primarily to bore holes in earth, masonry, concrete and in paved and unpaved roads. They may also be used to disable troops inside fortifications. The following conical shaped charges are currently used: Fig 3-2-4 Types of shaped charges a. b. c. Charge Demolition, 15 lb, M2A4; Charge Demolition, 40 lb, M3A1; and DREScavator (a conical shaped charge based on a plastic container and a steel liner. This will be used with Trigran and will be similar to the Charge Demolition, Linear Shaped, 10 kg, Trigran C24). Logistical data for these charges is found in CFTO C74-300-DO1/TA-
3-2-6. 000.
3-2-7. Effectiveness. The effectiveness of the conical shaped charges is outlined below. Ser Target Specifications Effectiveness M2A4 M3A1 (40 (15 lb) lb) (d) (e) 30.5 cm 3.8 cm 91.5 cm 76.2 cm 7.0cm 50 cm 6.35cm 152 cm 152 cm 9 cm
(a) 1
(b) Armour plate Reinforce d concrete
(c)
Penetration Average hole diameter 2 Maximum wall thickness Penetration depth Average hole diameter Fig 3-2-5 Conical shaped charge effectiveness
CHARGE DEMOLITION, NO 1, 6 INCH, BEEHIVE, MK3 3-2-8. The Charge Demolition, No 1, 6 inch, Beehive, MK3 has been replaced by the Charge Demolition, 15 lb, M2A4.
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Fig 3-2-6 Methods of arming (with and without M1A4, adapter) CHARGE DEMOLITION, 15 LB, M2A4 3-2-9 Description. The M2A4 shaped charge (Fig 3-2-7) is less sensitive to detonation by small arms fire than the M2A3 version due to changing the booster from Pentolite (M2A3) to Composition A3. It consists of a moisture resistant fibre container with a cylindrical lower portion and a conical upper portion formed in one piece. The dimensions of the charge body are 30.35 cm high, bottom diameter of 17.3 cm and a top diameter of 5.23 cm. The stand-off distance is provided by a fibre sleeve. The top of the tapered sleeve fits into the bottom of the charge while the scalloped bottom provides a firm base for the charge. The stand-off sleeve is placed around the charge body for shipping. It contains 4.5 kg of Composition B, with a cavity to accept the 50 gram Composition A3 booster. The detonator well protrudes into the booster. The charge liner is made of glass.
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Fig 3-2-7 Charge demolition, 15 lb, M2A4 3-2-10. Preparation. The charge is to be armed only by using a No 12 nonelectric, or M6 electric detonator. It may also be used in conjunction with the M1A4 adapter. The adapter is used because the threaded deton-ator well on top of these charges is larger than the in-service detonators. CHARGE DEMOLITION, 40 LB, M3A1
Fig 3-2-8 Charge Demolition, 40 lb, M3A1 3-2-11. Description. The M3A1 charge (Fig 3-2-8) is an improvement over the M3, being less likely to detonate due to small arms fire. It is used for rapid excavation of boreholes and general demolitions. The metal charge body is 39.1 cm high and 24.1 cm in diameter. The steel cone has a internal angle of 60 B-GL-361-008/FP-003 49
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degrees. Stand-off is provided by a steel frame which consists of a 3.8 cm steel band with sections bent inward to provide a seat upon which the charge sits and three steel legs welded to the outside of the band to provide a 35.8 cm stand-off. A set screw is provided to secure the charge in the stand-off frame. The main charge is 13.6 kg of Composition B and has a cavity for the 50 gram Composition A3 booster. 3-2-12. Preparation. The M3A1 is armed using No 12 non-electric or M6 electric detonators only, due to the No 12 electric detonator being too large to fit in the detonator cavity. The threaded detonator well accepts the M1A4 adapter. DRESCAVATOR SHAPED CHARGE 3-2-13. General. The DREScavator demolition charge is the proposed new generation conical shaped charge that will replace the present items now in use. It is being tested and is expected to be available in the near future. It is planned that the container will be prefilled with Trigran. It is presently assembled on site and consists of the following; a. b. c. container, demolition, conical, filled with Trigran; liner, conical steel; and water or motor oil as required.
3-2-14. Assembling the Charge. Above freezing temperature (0C) add water and below freezing temperature add motor oil (any grade), to the Trigran, occasionally tapping the container gently to ensure that all voids are filled. 3-2-15. Important. Do not use liquids other than water or motor oil as they may react with, or breakdown the Trigran. If the charge is transported in the prepared state, settlement of the Trigran may occur causing air voids inside the container. 3-2-16. Preparation. Mold a minimum of 140 grams ( block) of C4 around a double thumb knot on a detonating cord lead. Place the priming charge into the Trigran ensuring good contact. The charge is initiated using an electric or nonelectric detonator connected to the detonating cord lead.
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Fig 3-2-9 Adapter, priming, M1A4 ADAPTER, PRIMING, M1A4 3-2-17. Description. The priming adapter M1A4 (Fig 3-2-9) is a plastic hexagonal shaped device threaded to fit in the standard threaded detonator cavities used in the M2A4 (15 lb) and M3A1 (40 lb) shaped charges. A shoulder inside the threaded end is large enough to accept safety fuse and detonating cord, but too small to permit passage of a detonator. The adapter is slotted along its length to permit easy and quick insertion of electric detonator lead wires
Fig 3-2-10 Use of M1A4 adapter LINEAR SHAPED CHARGES 3-2-18. Linear shaped charges are primarily used to cut main support members of bridges. The following linear shaped charges are available: a. b. c. Charge Demolition, No 14, 11 lb, MK 1; Charge Demolition, Necklace, L1A1; and Charge Demolition, C126, Linear Shaped, 10 kg, Trigran C24 (DREStructor).
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CHARGE DEMOLITION, NO 14, 11 LB, MK 1 3-2-19. The Charge Demolition, No 14, 11 lb, MK1 (below) is commonly known as the Hayrick. The charge body is made from sheet steel. The bottom is closed by a 47 mm mild steel liner, which is bent into an inverted V with an angle of 55 degrees. There is a steel tower welded centrally on top with a filling hole closed by a pressed in cap. There are steel hinges on each end of the charge which are used to join the charges directly together or by using the link adjustable. It contains 5.1 kg of explosives consisting of 50% RDX and 50% TNT, and a perforated tetryl pellet that acts as a primer/booster, positioned centrally in the tower with a bolt passing through the holes of the tower and the pellet. Total weight of the charge is 9.3 kg.
Fig 3-2-11 Charge Demolition, No 14, 11 lb Mk1(Hayrick) 3-2-20. Preparation. When the hayricks have been positioned around the target, the bolts are withdrawn and a length of detonating cord is fed through the towers of all hayricks for simultaneous detonation. 3-2-21. Effectiveness. With no stand-off distance other than that inherent in the design, and with charges placed on opposite sides of the target, the hayrick will cut 200 mm of laminated steel.
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Fig 3-2-12 Methods of use-Charge Demolition, No, 14 (Hayrick)
Fig 3-2-13 Charge Demolition, No 14 (Hayrick), configuration
Fig 3-2-14 Charge Demolition, No 14 (Hayrick), configuration
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CHARGE DEMOLITION, NECKLACE, L1A1 3-2-22. Description. The Charge Demolition, L1A1 is made up of five hayricks and the hardware to attach it to the target. The complete assembly consists of the following items in a single container: a. b. c. d. Charge Demolition, No 14, 11 lb, MK1: quantity five; Clamps Demolition, Necklace, MK1: quantity; Links Adjustable Demolition, Necklace, MK1: quantity two (2); and nails, 150 mm (6 inch): quantity ten (10).
3-2-23. Preparation. It is armed as per the Charge Demolition No 14, 11 lb shaped charge. 3-2-24. Effectiveness. Using the full necklace, the charges will cut a 25 mm steel plate from a stand-off distance of up to 1 m. CHARGE DEMOLITION, C126, LINEAR SHAPED, 10 KG, TRIGRAN C24 3-2-25. Description. Also known as the DREStructor, the C24 Demolition Charge was designed as a low cost linear shaped charge for structural demolitions. It is assembled on site and consists of the following:a. Container Demolition, C126, filled with ten kg of Trigran; b. c. Liner Steel, C1; and water or motor oil as required.
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3-2-26. The Container Demolition C126, is an olive drab, medium density, polyethylene container. It is 368 mm long, 172 mm wide, and 321 mm high. There is a central tower which is screw threaded externally to accept the filling cap. A cloth handle is formed off each side of the tower. When the cap is fitted to the charge, a molded seal and gasket inside the lip presses against the top of the tower to provide a water tight seal. The cap Fig 3-2-15 Container Demolition, C126 extends inside the tower and into the trigran charge. Four molded plastic or nylon fasteners are contained inside the cap for use in securing the liner to the charge. 3-2-27. The bottom of the charge is formed in the shape of an inverted "V" with an interior angle of 60 degrees. A solid plastic strip along each lip of the "V" has been perforated by two 14 mm holes for securing the metal liner to the charge. The C1 liner (Fig 3-2-16) is made from 4.4 mm steel and fits into the inverted "V" of the container. The liner is perforated by eight 14 mm holes. The top four holes (two on each side) match up with the four holes in the bottom edges of the C126 container. The bottom four holes permit attachment to the target using wire or rope. Flanges on opposite sides of the liner allow it to be attached to the target by use of a bolt gun or by insertion into prepared rails.
Fig 3-2-17 Container Demolition, C126 and liner C1, schematic Fig 3-2-16 Liner steel, C1 3-2-28. Charge Assembly. The charge is assembled in a similiar manner to the DREScavator. 3-2-29. Preparation. To arm the charge: B-GL-361-008/FP-003 55
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a.
using the projection of the cap, clear a path in the mixture. Ensuring the threads and bearing surfaces are free of debris and explosive particles, screw the cap securely onto the container; mold a minimum of 140 grams ( block) of C4 plastic explosives around a double knotted lead of detonator cord. Press it into the cap cup ensuring the cup is completely filled; and attach the liner to the charge container by inserting the four plastic fasteners.
b.
c.
3-2-30. Effectiveness. The assembled charge produces a cut in steel approximately 600 mm long and 130 mm deep near the charge centre. In reinforced concrete, reinforcing bars up to a depth of 115 mm will be cut below the centre of the charge. Non-reinforced concrete will be breached to a greater depth and length. The depth of cut at the ends is reduced in comparison with the centre. Two (2) DREStructors positioned opposite each other will destroy a reinforced concrete beam up to one metre in thickness.
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SECTION 3 SPECIFIC TASK MILITARY EXPLOSIVES TRITONAL GRANULATED (TRIGRAN) 3-3-1. Description. Granulated Tritonal (Trigran) is a high energy blasting explosive in prill form used for cratering operations. It is also used in conjunction with the DREScavator and DREStructor. Trigran is a homogeneous mixture of 80% TNT and 20% atomized aluminum in the form of solid spherical particles of approximately 3 mm nominal diameter. Trigran is water resistant. It flows as a liquid and detonates efficiently in hot or cold environments. It is inexpensive compared to C4 plastic explosives. 3-3-2. Trigran comes in 9 kg jugs made of black, high density polyethylene and the jug has a minimum weight of 418 grams. The design includes a 76 mm diameter pour-ing spout, fitted with a screw threaded plastic cap and a carrying handle.
Fig 3-3-1 Container, Trigran
3-3-3. Preparation. Trigran charges are armed with a priming charge of high explosive. A minimum of one-quarter (3) block of C4 plastic explosives is normally molded around a double thumb knot of detonating cord. 3-3-4. Effectiveness. Trigran has a velocity of detonation of 4000 m/s, and when a liquid is used to fill the air voids, it is increased to 6000 m/s. Through extensive trials, Trigran has been found to be an excellent cratering explosive and when used as directed, the shaped charges work very effectively. CHARGE DEMOLITION FLEXIBLE, "DETASHEET C" 3-3-5. Description. Certain tasks require explosives in special shapes or configurations. Detasheet "C", olive drab in colour, is the military version of Detasheet and is made to military specifications. Detasheet is a flexible high explosive composed of a mixture of 63% PETN, 8% Nitrate of Calcium, and an elastomeric binder. It has a velocity of detonation of 7000 m/s. Detasheet is used in special charges for steel cutting as described in Chapter 6.
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3-3-6. Preparation. When preparing Detasheet, it shall be cut with a knife and armed by one of the following methods: a. first method (at right): (1) cut a notch approximately four cm long and six cm wide in the Detasheet, insert the detonator fully, and secure the Fig 3-3-2 Arming Detasheet detonator with tape; or Danger. Explosives shall be cut with a knife on a non-sparking surface. Do not use shear type instruments
(2) place the detonator on top of the Detasheet and secure it with another strip of the explosive; or insert the end of the detonator approximately 40 mm between two sheets of the explosive. b. second method: If using detonating cord only, the Detasheet may be primed by tying a Uli knot (shown here) and inserting it in the same way as a detonator. Fig 3-3-3 Uli knot CHARGE ASSEMBLY, DEMOLITION MK 138 (SATCHEL CHARGE) 3-3-7. Description. The satchel charge is used for general demolition purposes, including underwater operations. It may not be submerged for more than three hours. Several charges connected together can be floated
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for towing by a diver or swimmer. 3-3-8. The satchel charge consists of a haversack packed with 10 individual Charge Demolition, MK 35 Mod 1, each consisting of a 0.9 kg block of C4 explosive contained in a canvas charge bag. Total weight is 12.5 kg. The booster and explosive Fig 3-3-4 Charge Assembly, Demolition, lead consists of 2.74 m of MK 138 (satchel charge) reinforced detonating cord. Approximately one metre of the detonating cord is looped to form a 0.3 m booster in the explosive charge and the remainder extends out to form the explosive lead. The explosive lead Fig 3-3-5 Satchel charge explosive lead is looped under the webbing on one face of the charge bag. Each charge has a securing sash cord (1 m) and a flat hook for lashing it to obstacles. 3-3-9. The haversack is a Field Pack Canvas MK 4, Mod 1 and is made of grey cotton treated to be waterproof, fireproof and mildew resistant. The shoulder strap is equipped with a snap hook and fastener which can be adjusted from 50 127 cm. The pocket on the back of the haversack holds one Bladder Assembly which is issued with each satchel charge. The towing ring is secured to the bottom of the haversack. The satchel charge can be lashed to an obstacle with the five metre cotton securing cord and the two flat hooks. 3-3-10. Safety Precautions. The following safety precautions shall be observed: a. b. the satchel charge contains high explosive and therefore should be protected from high temperatures and severe drops and jolts; and poisonous gases are produced when detonated, so an enclosed area must be ventilated prior to re-entering.
EXPLOSIVE TRAINING CHARGE, C2/C2A1 3-3-11. Description. The C2 and C2A1 explosive training charges are Canadian designed and used to simulate explosive demolition charges during B-GL-361-008/FP-003 59
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training. The complete charge shown in Fig 3-3-5 consists of the following components: a. The charge container is made of molded uncoloured polyethylene and is designed to accept the bursting charge and fuse cavity with the quickmatch assembly attached. The fuse cavity is made of a resin rubber molding compound and is threaded internally to accept the igniter electric adapter of different firing devices. The quickmatch assembly consists of strands of woven rayon cord impregnated in a quickmatch mixture, looped and inserted through the hole of a cork washer. The retaining sleeve is made of a resin rubber molding compound and secures the charge container to Fig 3-3-6 Explosive training charge C2/C2A1 the fuse cavity. The igniter electric adapter is molded of polyethylene. It is threaded to fit into the fuse cavity and has a central fire channel to accept an igniter electric. The C2A1 differs from the C2 in that the ribs on the external surface of the igniter electric have been removed to facilitate insertion of the C2A1 into the M18A1 practice mine. The closing plug with safety fuse adapter of molded polyethylene is used to seal the fire channel in the igniter electric adapter during storage and transport. To operate, the fuse adapter portion is inserted in the fire channel and used with Fuse Blasting Time, M700. The bursting charge consists of approximately 1.5 grams of sulphurless powder.
c.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
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3-3-12. a.
Preparation. This training charge can be armed with: Fuse Blasting Time M700 (Safety Fuse): (1) remove and retain the closing plug/safety fuse adapter, (2) insert the safety fuse into the safety fuse adapter at the end remote from the plug, and (3) insert adapter and safety fuse end into the hole in the igniter electric adapter. Ensure that the open end of the safety fuse protrudes just beyond the end of the fuse adapter.
b.
Igniter electric. (1) remove and discard the closing plug for the igniter electric adapter, (2) insert the igniter electric into the hole in the igniter electric adapter, and (3) attach the igniter electric to the firing device or to the electrical supply (make sure that the switch is off).
The flame from either of the above method ignites the quickmatch fuse, which ignites the bursting charge and causes the charge container to burst with a mild explosion. FUSE INSTANTANEOUS, L1A1 3-3-13. Fuse Instantaneous L1A1 consists of a twisted yarn coated with sulphurless mealed powder wound with one "Durafil" yarn and protected by a light brown polythene covering. It has an outside diameter between 4.95 and 5.20 mm and has an identification marker in the form of a raised ridge that runs along the length for night identification. Fuse Instananeous L1A1 comes in 150 m lengths and has a burning rate of not less than 33.5 metres a second at 16o C. It functions within a temperature range of -32o to 52o C. 3-3-14. Fuse Instantaneous L1A1 is used to join the firing device to the main charge when using booby traps, and in battle noise simulation. The following safety precautions are to be observed:
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a. b.
avoid sharp bends, kinks and stretching; handle carefully in cold weather to avoid breaking the protective covering or the powder train. In rainy or damp weather keep the connections dry by taping; and tape all loose or cut ends and keep unused fuse in its original packaging until required.
c.
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SECTION 4 ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES AND EQUIPMENT ELECTRIC DETONATORS 3-4-1. Electric detonators initiate explosives upon command of an electrical source. The four (4) electric detonators in service are: a. b. c. d. Cap Blasting Electric, Commercial No 12; Cap Blasting Electric, Commercial C3; Cap Blasting Electric, M6; and Cap Blasting Electric, M4.
When handling electric detonators be sure to follow procedures outlined in Chapter 4. 3-4-2 Both the No 12 and the C3 electric detonators are regular strength, high fire energy detonators. The C3 detonator is an improved version of the No 12 detonator in that it has less lead ozide but provides the same output. The loading of the PETN and lead azide has been changed to make it safer to manufacture. The C3 detonator will replace the No 12 detonator once stocks have been depleted. Brief descriptions appear here. 3-4-3. The M4 and M6 electric detonators are American high Fig 3-4-1 Typical electric detonator strength electric detonators and are designed to be used in conjunction with the M1A4 adapter. The M6 electric detonator is used to initiate the 15 lb shaped charge, the 40 lb shaped charge and the Bangalore Torpedo. The M4 electric detonator is identical to the M6 except the lead wires are 30.4 m (100 ft) long for use in the M18A1 Claymore antipersonnel mine.
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3-4-4. Igniters Electric ignite safety fuse, explosive training charges and black powder upon command of an electrical source. The electric igniter that is presently in service is the Igniter, Time Blasting Fuse, Electric, C2 (igniter electric). It consists of a cylindrical aluminum body containing a match head composition (15 mg) formed around a bridge wire. Two lead wires extend from one end of the body. The other end is open to receive the safety fuse Fig 3-4-2 Igniter, time blasting fuse, electric, C2 (igniter electric) or instantaneous fuse. DEMOLITION SET, C1, NON-EXPLOSIVE, WITH EQUIPMENT 3-4-5. The following items are included in the check list for the Demolition Set, C1, and are demanded separately: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. j. blasting machine, ZEB/C100S; reeling machine, cable hand, without reels, quantity two (2); knife, pocket, C5; crimper, blasting cap, No 4, plier type, with integral fuse cutter; pliers, lineman, with sidecutter; insulation tape, electrical, cotton, 19 mm, thermo setting adhesive; ohmmeter, portable; cable assembly set pricker; and reel, cable steel, 230 mm flange diameter, 196.85 mm inside traverse, 203.2 mm maximum outside diameter.
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BLASTING MACHINE, ZEB/C100S 3-4-6. Description. The blasting machine ZEB/C100S is a portable condenser type exploder used to provide power required for the initation of electric detonators and igniters. It consists of a light metal casing with a driving shaft fitted to the casing cover which accepts a detachable crank handle. The crank handle is held in position by a blocking lever. An ignition push button and two terminals for the demolition cable are located on the top of the casing. The terminals are fitted with an insulating body to prevent short circuiting between the casing and the demolition cable. Two sight glasses are also located on the top, a neon discharge lamp which indicates full ignition and a filament lamp for the exploder testing system. The blasting machine will operate with a maximum circuit resistance of 260 ohms. It can be used in temperatures of -46o C to 70o C. The set includes the blasting machine, two crank handles, a carrying case with a spare tube containing two filament lamps and case, a battery case and lamp changing key. 3-4-7. Testing. The test for functioning and maximum capacity must be conducted prior to every operation as follows: a. open the case and remove the crank handle from the side pocket; push the blocking lever back and hold it at stop; place the crank handle onto the driving shaft and release the blocking Fig 3-4-3 Blasting machine, ZEB/C100S lever; turn the crank handle until the neon discharge lamp (at right next to terminals) glows, indicating that the ignition condenser is loaded; and push the blocking lever to stop, remove the crank handle in an upward motion and allow the blocking lever to slide back to the original position. During this operation observe the filament lamp (next to firing button). If the filament lamp glows brightly for a short time it indicates that the blasting machine has reached its maximum capacity. When the voltage of the blasting machine decreases to approximately 80%, the filament lamp will not glow. By detaching the crank handle B-GL-361-008/FP-003 65
b. c.
d. e.
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and releasing the blocking lever, the blasting machine is discharged and free of current. 3-4-8. a. b. c. d. e. Operation. To operate the blasting machine: connect the demolition cable to the terminals; charge the blasting machine as per the procedure described in the testing paragraph; push the ignition button down as far as possible to effect ignition; push the blocking lever back to stop and detach the crank handle; and disconnect the demolition cable from the terminals.
Check the satisfactory operation of the blasting machine by turning the crank handle and observing the glowing of the right hand neon discharge lamp. 3-4-9. a. b. Filament Lamp Replacement. To replace the filament lamp: use the key to remove the sight glass of the filament lamp in a counter clockwise direction; slip the slotted handle end of the key onto the filament lamp, pressing slightly, and take out the lamp without turning. The lamp has a pin plug (not a screw) so that a turning movement must be avoided when removing the filament lamp; insert the replacement lamp in the slotted end of the socket; and replace the "O" ring and the sight glass.
c. d.
3-4-10. Maintenance. This condenser type blasting machine requires no special maintenance. To ensure satisfactory contact, the terminals shall always be kept clean. OHMMETER, ZEB/WO, TEST SET 3-4-11. Description. The ZEB/WO ohmmeter is a portable instrument used to test for continuity and to measure resistance in electric detonators, igniters, demolition cable and electrical firing circuits. All exterior components of the ZEB/WO ohmmeter have been tightly sealed to prevent water penetration. The battery compartment is secured by a screw cap on the left side of the meter. The
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two terminals on top of the ohmmeter have undetachable knurled nuts. The maximum transmitted testing current is 18 milli-amps, however, if the ohmeter is damaged a built in safety features will prevent a current in excess of 50 milliamps from being generated and transmitted. The ohmmeter set includes: ZEB/WO ohmmeter, leather carrying case, battery compartment key, shorting link and a 1.5 volt, size AA battery. 3-4-12. Pre-check. The accuracy of the ohmmeter depends on the voltage of the current source. The ohmmeter shall be reset if the voltage of the battery decreases or if the battery has been replaced. The following Fig 3-4-4 Ohmmeter, ZEB/WO procedure applies: a. open the terminals ensuring that the ohmmeter is not connected to or touching any object. The indicator must point to the infinity scale. Any deviation can be corrected by carefully turning the slotted screw inserted in the middle of the casing cover at the front (the screw may be adjusted with the battery key or any suitable tool); short circuit the terminals by using the shorting link. The indicator must reflect to the zero reading scale. Any deviation can be corrected by turning the slotted screw at the bottom right hand corner of the ohmmeter. Battery fluctuations plus or minus 10% can be corrected. If the indicator cannot be set to zero, the battery shall be replaced; and remove the shorting link from the terminals.
b.
c.
3-4-13. Measuring resistance. To measure resistance in electric detonators, demolition cable or a firing circuit, the following procedures will be followed: a. connect the open ends of the electric detonator, demolition cable, or firing circuit to the terminals on the ohmmeter. The ohmmeter will indicate the exact resistance; to determine what the total resistance of the firing circuit should be, add the cable resistance to the resistance of all individual items connected in the circuit. If the ohmmeter reading exceeds the calculated resistance, this indicates the presence of added resistance in the contacts. If the measured value falls below the calculated value, this indicates current may be leaking through an improper electrical connection. A break in the circuit is indicated if the ohmmeter indicates no reading at all; and B-GL-361-008/FP-003 67
b.
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c.
after terminating the test, disconnect the wires from the terminals.
3-4-14. Replacing the battery. If it is not possible to adjust the indicator to zero, the battery shall be replaced by: a. b. c. d. e. turning the screw cap of the battery compartment counter clockwise (using the key provided); removing the non-serviceable battery; inserting a fresh battery negative pole down, so the positive pole will make contact with the brass on the screw cap; replacing the screw cap; and the ohmmeter is then checked and adjusted if required, as described above.
PRICKER CABLE SET 3-4-15. The pricker cable set consists of a red and black cable, 2 m in length, fitted to pricker clamps. A banana plug is secured at the opposite end which connects to the terminals on the ohmmeter. The pricker cable set is used to locate faults in a firing circuit. The fault finding procedure is described in Chapter 4. DEMOLITION CABLE 3-4-16. Description. The standard cable used for demolition purposes consists of a cable with two conductors that are twisted together. Each conductor is 14 AWG and consists of 19 copper cholorosuphonated wire strands, with each strand being 27 AWG. The conductors are polyethylene insulated with one being black and the other tan. The cable is available in 300, 600, 900 and 1200 m lengths. The voltage capacity is 600 V and is rated to a minimum temperature of -40o C. The resistance for a single length of wire is 8.78 ohms per 1000 m at 20o C and 8.96 ohms per 1000 m at 25o C. These resistance readings will double (17.56 ohms or 17.92 ohms per 1000 m) for demolition applications where both a positive and a negative wire are necessary. Differences between these Figs and on site measurements may be explained by: a. b. c. actual length of demolition cable tested; calibration of the ohmmeter/galvanometer used; and environmental conditions.
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3-4-17. If normal demolition cable is not available, any twisted, two conductor cable between No 14 and No 22 gauge may be used. In an emergency, any strong, well insulated, two conductor, twisted cable may be used. The resistance of the cable will have to be determined in each particular case.
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SECTION 5 MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT GENERAL 3-5-1. The placing of demolition charges frequently involves gaining access to awkward locations, fixing explosives where attachment is not easy, and creating boreholes. To make the placement of charges easier, there are some standard tools and equipment that can be employed. CAMOUFLET SET, MK 1 3-5-2. The Camouflet Set, Mk 1 is a system used in the preparation of cratering charges to create obstacles. Procedures for the use of the Camouflet Set, MK 1 is covered in Chapter 7. The complete set includes the following items:
Fig 3-5-1 Camouflet Set, MK 1 a. b. c. d. e. f. g. chisel, steel, weight 6.56 kg; thumper, heavy, weight 22.68 kg; clamp, tube withdrawing, weight 5.9 kg; point, driving, quantity thirty (30), weight 1.08 kg; key, ejector, weight 0.56 kg; cap, driving, weight 2.04 kg; adapter, weight 6 kg;
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h. j.
stirrups, quantity four (4), weight 0.75 kg; and tube, driving, quantity four (4), weight 19 kg.
3-5-3. As an additional accessory, wooden tamping rods are required. The dimensions of these items are 3.66 m long and 0.349 to 0.381 m in diameter. These are painted white to seal the wood before initial use and are not to be repainted. The rods must be replaced when cracked, splayed, mushroomed, split or when it cannot be cleaned of explosive residue. All items, less the driving tubes and tamping rods are carried in a wooden box fitted with manila carrying handles. DEMOLITION LADDER C2 AND SAFETY BELT 3-5-4. Demolition ladder. Special ladders and safety belts assist access to bridge members above or below the deck. Although conventional ladders can be used, they are far from ideal. The Demolition Ladder C2, is designed to be easily assembled by two personnel in various configurations. It is constructed of lightweight aluminum weighing 36 Fig 3-5-2 Demolition ladder C2 kg. The ladder consists of interconnected sections and associated components, all capable of being stored compactly in or on an engineer section vehicle. It consists of the following six major components: a. Hook Demolition Ladder. This is the top anchor assembly and is made of solid aluminum. It will support a person and demolition accessories in a vertical position, unsupported at the base. It may be used in various configurations on the ladder: (1) top end of ladder, (2) top side of platform assembly, and (3) on the extension, horizontally with the platform assembly. b. Hoist Assembly. The hoist assembly may be placed between any two ladder assembly sections or at the very top of the ladder. It is used to assist in lifting explosives and accessories to the target area.
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c.
Platform Assembly. The platform assembly may be placed anywhere along the ladder and is held in place by two transversal pins through two alternate rungs. It may be used as an extension to the anchor assembly. Ladder Section Assembly Base. Is 1.82 m long and is not interchangeable with the upper sections. It is equipped with a foot assembly designed to grip and hold onto hard surfaces such as steel, cement, or asphalt. The other end of the assembly is equipped with an ice pick for gripping icy surfaces. Ladder Section Assembly Upper. This consists of two identical sections 1.82 m long which can be used in any order.
d.
e.
3-5-5. Safety belt. The safety belt secures a soldier to a girder or ladder, and includes a length of cordage which can be used to lift items.
Fig 3-5-3 Safety belt ARMOURED ENGINEER VEHICLE (AEV) 3-5-6. The telescopic excavator arm of the AEV has a ladder fixed to the lower part of the boom. This can be used to gain access to structural members on a target. From the top of the AEV the ladder provides an additional reach of about 3 m and is not extendable. 3-5-7. The AEV is also equipped with cutting and welding equipment which can be used to cut bridge members or reinforcement in concrete.
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Fig 3-5-4 AEV with Ladder BOLT GUNS 3-5-8. Often the best location for a demolition charge is in an area that provides nothing to assist in the attachment of the charge. In this case, a bolt gun using a powder cartridge, is able to attach fasteners to steel, concrete, or timber. There are various types of bolt guns available in field units. For more information, see the user manual that is provided with the bolt gun.
Fig 3-5-5 Typical Bolt Gun ENGINEER POWER TOOLS
Fig 3-5-6 Typical Fasteners
3-5-9. General. The use, maintenance and safety procedures of engineer power tools are described in B-GL-320-004/FP-001 and the applicable operator manuals. 3-5-10. Compressor. A compressor and its variety of tools can be particularly useful in demolition tasks. Most compressors can be used for concrete breaking and drilling, and wood boring. Compressors may be hydraulic or pneumatic type. B-GL-361-008/FP-003 73
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3-5-11. Pionjar. The Pionjar is the commercial name of a light weight, gasoline driven, combination breaker/drill that performs similar, but smaller tasks than the compressor. It comes with a variety of tools and bits for various applications. 3-5-12. Hydraulic Tools. Engineer section vehicles are equipped with hydraulic power packs. Also available are portable hydraulic units (Stanley HP 1) or the trailer mounted hydraulic system. These units are equipped with a variety of power tools which can be useful in demolition tasks if concrete drilling or wood boring is required. Hydraulic tool attachments, such as breakers, circular saws and hammer drills are applicable to demolition tasks. 3-5-13. Power Augers. Power augers are available in engineer units. An example is the STIHL 4309 which can be fitted with a wood drill and a 17.2 cm core drill. 3-5-14. The APC M113A2 and the MLVW SEV come fitted with a hydraulically powered auger. It comes with two sections of auger that are 20 cm in diameter and 1.5 m in length. See the operators manual or C-30-674-000/MS002 for instructions on how to operate and maintain it. BATTLEFIELD EFFECTS REMOTE FIRING SYSTEM (BERFS) 3-5-15. The BERFS system is a UHF radio link from a firing point to the explosive / pyrotechnics. It eliminates the need for long lengths of demolition cable and allows the easy control of elaborate battle simulation effects. A system comprises of one (1) transmitter and up to five(5) receivers. Each receiver can initiate up to ten (10) circuits. Each circuit can be individually selected by the transmitter and fired at any time and in any order. Typical operating range in open terrain is 2 - 5 kms and in line of site conditions ranges of 10 - 25 kms can be expected.
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3-5-16. Safety features built into the BERFS system include transmitters only being able to activate receivers which belong to the same system by the use of a coding system. Also, if the situation occurs where two systems are deployed operating on the same frequency and are operated at exactly the same time, this will not result in an unintentional firing of a Fig 3-5-7 BERFS in transit case system. The firing command will be ignored by one or more receivers. Transmitters and receivers cannot be activated until the removable key has been inserted into and activated the key switch. For detailed operating instructions see the BERFS operators handbook.
Fig 3-5-8 BERFS transmitter
Fig 3-5-9 BERFS receiver
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ANNEX A TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES 3A-1. Ammonium Nitrate. Ammonium nitrate is the least sensitive of explosives, and requires a booster charge to initiate it. It is combined with a more sensitive explosive in many composite explosives. It is not suitable for cutting or breaching charges because it has a low detonation velocity. However, because of its excellent cratering effects and low cost, ammonium nitrate is used in most cratering and ditching charges, and extensively in commercial quarrying operations. Ammonium nitrate should be packed in an airtight container because it is extremely hydroscopic (absorbs humidity). Ammonium nitrate or composite explosives containing ammonium nitrate are not suitable for underwater use unless packed in waterproof containers or detonated immediately after placement. 3A-2. Pentaerythrite Tetranitrate (PETN). PETN is a highly sensitive and very powerful military explosive. Its explosive potential is comparable to RDX and nitroglycerin. Boosters, detonating cord and some detonators contain PETN. It is also used in composite explosives with TNT or nitrocellulose. PETN is a good underwater explosive because it is almost totally insoluble in water. 3A-3. Cyclotrimethlenetrinitramine (RDX). RDX is another highly sensitive and very powerful explosive. It forms the base charge in the M6 electric detonator. When RDX is desensitized, it serves as a booster, bursting charge or demolition charge. It is used principally in composite explosives, such as Composition A, B, and C. RDX is available commercially as cyclonite. 3A-4. Trinitrololuene (TNT). TNT is the most common military explosive world wide. It may be in pressed or cast form, such as a booster, bursting and demolition charge, or in a flake form. It can be used in combination with other types of explosives. 3A-5. Tetryl. Tetryl is an effective booster charge in its non-composite form, and as a bursting or demolition charge in composite forms. It is more sensitive and powerful than TNT. However, RDX and PETN based explosives, which have increased power and shattering effects, are replacing tetryl and composite tetryl explosives. 3A-6. Nitroglycerin. Nitroglycerin is one of the most powerful high explosives and is comparable to RDX and PETN in explosive potential. It is the explosive base for commercial dynamites. Nitroglycerine is highly sensitive and it is also extremely temperature-sensitive. Therefore it is not used in military explosives.
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3A-7. Black Powder. Black powder is the oldest-known explosive and propellant. It is a composite of 75% potassium or sodium nitrate, 10% charcoal and 15% sulfur. It is very sensitive to friction. Safety fuses, and some igniters and detonators contain black powder. 3A-8. Amatol. Amatol is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and TNT. It is a substitute for TNT in bursting charges. Some older Bangalore torpedoes use 8020 amatol (80 percent ammonium nitrate and 20 percent TNT). Because it contains ammonium nitrate, it is hygroscopic and must be kept in airtight containers. If properly packaged, amatol remains viable for long periods of time with no change in sensitivity, power or stability. 3A-9. Composition A3. Composition A3 is a composite explosive containing 91 percent RDX and 9 percent wax. The purpose of the wax is to coat, desensitize, and bind the RDX particles. Composition A3 is the booster charge in some newer shaped charges and Bangalore torpedoes. 3A-10. Composition B. Composition B is a composite explosive containing approximately 60 percent RDX, 39 percent TNT, and 1 percent wax. It is more sensitive than TNT. Composition B is used as the main charge in shaped charges because of its shattering power and high rate of detonation. 3A-11. Composition B4. Composition B4 contains 60 percent RDX, 39.5 percent TNT, and 0.5 percent calcium silicate. Composition B4 is the main charge in newer models of bangalore torpedoes and shaped charges. 3A-12. Composition C4 (C4). C4 is a composite explosive containing 91 percent RDX and 9 percent non-explosive plasticizers. C4 has a high velocity of detonation and is waterproof. C4 is effective in temperatures between -56o C and 76o C; however C4 loses its plasticity in colder temperatures. It is the primary plastic explosive used in the Canadian Forces. 3A-13. Tetrytol. Tetrytol is a composite explosive containing approximately 75 percent tetryl and 25 percent TNT. It is the explosive component in some manufactured demolition charges. Booster charges require different mixtures of tetryl and TNT. Tetrytol is more powerful than its individual components, has more shattering power than TNT and is less sensitive than tetryl. 3A-14. Pentolite. Pentolite is a mixture of PETN and TNT. Because of its high power and detonating rate, a mixture of 50-50 pentolite (50 percent PETN and 50 percent TNT) is an effective booster charge in certain shaped charges. 3A-15. Dynamites. All dynamites contain nitroglycerin plus varying combinations of absorbents, oxidizers, antacids, and freezing-point depressants. Dynamites vary greatly in strength and sensitivity depending chiefly on the B-GL-361-008/FP-003 77
Demolitions
percentage of nitroglycerin. Dynamites are used for general blasting, including land clearing, cratering, ditching and quarrying. 3A-16. Trigran. Trigran is a homogeneous mixture of 80% TNT and 20% atomized aluminum in the form of solid spherical particles of approximately 3 mm nominal diameter.
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ANNEX B MILITARY EXPLOSIVES LOGISTICAL DATA 3B-1. Figures 3B-1 to 3B-4 detail logistical data for common military explosives packaging for planning purposes. The items listed here are available through the supply system. Weights and dimensions listed are the largest package details in reference. For more information refer to C-74-300-D01/TA-000. 3B-2. The following abbreviations are used in the tables: Assembly Charge Composite Cardboard Carton Demolition Fbrbd Mtl NSN Wrbnd Wdn Fibreboard Metal NATO stock number Wirebound Wooden
Ass Chg Comp Crdbd Ctn Dml
Ser Nomenclature
(a) (b) 1 Chg Dml, Plastic Comp C4, 1.25 lb 2 Chg Dml, 8oz, PE, No 4
MILITARY PLASTIC EXPLOSIVES NSN Packing Weight Dimensions Details (kg) (cm)
(c) 1375-21850-0275 1375-99220-2413 (d) 1 per wrap, 40 wraps per wrbnd box 1 per wax paper wrap, 10 wraps per crdbd box, 4 box per wdn box 30 per wrap, 1 wrap per wrbnd box 2 per wdn box 2 rolls per fbrbd box (e) (f) 25.63 48.7 x 31.5 x 150.5 11.8 31 x 23 x 21
4 5
Chg, Dml, Plastic Comp C4, M112, 1.25 lb Chg Ass, Dml, Mk138 Mod 1 Chg Dml, Detasheet, 0.083 In (width), 38 ft roll Chg Dml, Detasheet, 0.125 in, 25 ft roll Chg Dml, Detasheet, 0.42 In, 76 ft roll Chg Dml, Plastic DM12, 500 grams
1375-00724-7040
20.92 35.5 x 29 x 21.8
1375-00834-7297 1375-01.036-0443
32.66 81.9 x 40.8 x 46.9 22.0 45 x 36.5 x 21
1375-01036-0444 1375-01038-6885 1375-12120-7988
2 rolls per fbrbd box
20.47 45 x 36.5 x 21 22 45 x 36.5 x 21 49 x 29.5 x 24
1 per fbrbd box
50 per wrap, 1 wrap per wdn box
30.30
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Ser Nomenclature
(a) (b) 9 Chg Dml, Plastic Comp C4, 0.5 lb
NSN
(c) 1375-21112-7485
Packing Details
(d) 6 per bag, 9 bags per wdn box
Weight Dimensions (kg) (cm)

(e) 18.7 (f) 45.1 x 24.8 x 260.7
Fig 3B-1 Military plastic explosives SHAPED CHARGES Packing Weight Dimensions Details (kg) (cm)
(d) 1 per wdn box (e) 29.54 (f) 52.6 x 29.7 x 34 56.5 x 52.7 x 43.8
Ser Nomenclature NSN

(a) (b) 1 Chg Dml, Shaped, M3A2, 40 lb 2 Chg Dml, Shaped, M2A4, 15 lb 3 Chg Dml, Linear, 4 Chg Dml,No 14, Mk 1, 11 lb 5 Chg Dml, Necklace, L1A1
(c) 1375-00088-6691 1375-00926-3939 1375-21798-5886 1375-99942-3314 1375-99960-5409
3 per ctn, 1 ctn per wdn box Not available 5 per wdn box L20A1 1 per mtl box
29.54
74.39 74.5
81.6 x 35 x 32 122 x 101.6 x 77
Fig 3B-2 Shaped charges MISCELLANEOUS MILITARY EXPLOSIVES Ser Nomenclature NSN Packing Weight Dimensions Details (kg) (cm) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 1 Tritonal Granulated (Trigran) Primer Detaprime 1376-21884-8312 1375-21894-7614 9 kg per ctnr, 4 ctnr per wrbnd box 240 per mtl box M2A1, 2 mtl box per wrbnd box 22.7kg per crdbrd box As required 48.9 92.5 x 27.6 x 37
17.69 36.8 x 32.1 x 22.1
3 4
Dynamite, Forcite, 75% Chg, Dml, CE/TNT, 0.875 lb
1375-21861-8837 1375-21798-1610
Not available Not available
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Fig 3B-3 Miscellaneous military explosives MILITARY EXPLOSIVES ACCESSORIES Ser Nomenclature NSN Packing Weight Dimensions Details (kg) (cm) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 1 Cap, Blasting 1375-21- 10 per can, 14.3 55.9 x 26.7 Electric,No 12 116-6036 14 can per x 26
drum,
2 drum per wrbnd box 2 Cap, Blasting, 1375-21- 10 per can, 14 14.3 55.9 x 26.7 x 26 Electric, C3 905-0092 cans per drum, 2 drums per wrbnd box 16.59 41 x 44.5 x 3 Cap, Blasting, 1375-01- 10 per crdbd 29.5 Electric, M6 192-9174 ctn, 9 ctns per mtl can, 2 mtl cans per wdn box 11.5 48.9 x 30.5 x 4 Igniter, Time 1375-21- 50 per ctn, 20.9 Fuse, Electric 898-7155 10 ctns per wdn box C2 5 Charge 1375-21- 20 per can, 1 8.2 57.1 x 43 x Explosive, 858-1159 can per ctn, 11.9 Training, 12 ctns per fbr C2A1/2 box Fig 3B-4 Military explosive accessories
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ANNEX C COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVES AND ACCESSORIES GENERAL 3C-1. Commercial explosives and accessories are used for applications such as mining, quarrying and construction. The use of commercial explosive products within the Canadian Forces can be both cost effective and often necessary. They may be employed when service explosives are unavailable or insufficient for the immediate tasks or when commercial products may be necessary because of their special characteristics and lower cost. 3C-2. This annex is not intended to cover the entire realm of commercial explosives and only deals with nitroglycerine and ammonium nitrate based explosives with some other types mentioned as primers and boosters. It is intended as a guide to be used in conjunction with: C-74-375-AAO/TA-000, C09-011-001/AB-000 and B-CE-320-012/FP-004. Together with information provided by Ammunition Technicians and company representatives, the appropriate explosive products can be selected. 3C-3. Prior to the issue of commercial explosives to user units, the supporting ammunition facility shall provide the user with a copy of the manufacturers' product brochure(s). The requirement for the explosives distributor to supply these brochures shall be specified in the purchase order. 3C-4. Explosive selection is based on two primary criteria: the explosive will function efficiently and safely under the employment conditions, and is the most economical product to produce the desired result. It must be determined which explosive (service or commercial) is best suited for the particular environment and has the performance characteristics for the economic execution of the task. CATEGORIES OF EXPLOSIVES 3C-5. a. There are basically two types of explosives. Low Explosives. The chemical reaction of low explosives when initiated, is a form of combustion and occurs at a slow rate in comparison with high explosives. This process is called deflagration. The rate of deflagration varies between 400-700 m/s but can be as high as 1500 m/s depending on conditions such as confinement and pressure. An example of low explosives would be black powder or blasting powder.
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b.
High Explosives. In high explosives, the decomposition or chemical reaction happens at a very fast rate. This process is called detonation. The velocity of detonation in high explosives is between 1000 - 8500 m/s.
3C-6. When initiated, explosives are converted into gases with a high temperature and tremendously increased volume. This causes energy to be exerted on the confining material. The effectiveness of explosives in blasting is due to the speed with which this energy is produced. The released energy acts equally in all directions but naturally tends to escape through the path of least resistance. 3C-7. For efficient blasting, the type and quantity of explosives used must be carefully considered. This annex deals with commerical high explosives as they are more applicable to military requirements. EXPLOSIVE DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY) 3C-8. Density is the most important characteristic when selecting an explosive type. By knowing the explosive density, blasters can design effective and efficient shots of any size. All explosives have a density that is related to the density of water (1 gram per cubic centimetre). Density or Specific Gravity (SG) is the weight per measured unit, expressed as grams/cc compared to water. Explosive density determines the amount of explosive required in a specific borehole diameter, length of charge required and other charge criteria depending on the application. Generally, the higher the density the more energetic the product. Ser (a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fig 3C-1 EXPLOSIVE DENSITY Type Density (Specific gravity) (b) (c) Granular Dynamite 0.8 - 1.4 Gelatin Dynamite 1.0 - 1.7 Cartridged Water Gelatin 1.1 - 1.7 Bulk Water Gelatin 1.1 - 1.3 Air Emplaced ANFO 0.8 - 1.0 Poured ANFO 0.8 - 0.85 Packaged ANFO 1.1 - 1.2 Explosive Density
STRENGTH 3C-9. Density is sometimes also described as "stick count", which is the amount of cartridges required to fill a 50 lb box or case. For the dense gelatin B-GL-361-008/FP-003 83
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explosives, it ranges from 104 to 155 cartridges, while the bulkier ammonia dynamite explosives range from 180 to 190 cartridges. 3C-10. It is important to be familiar with how the strength of commercial explosives are measured when calculating charges. They can be measured in two ways: nitroglycerine comparison or measurement of energy. 3C-11. Nitroglycerine Comparison. For nitroglycerine based explosives, it is the amount of nitroglycerine by weight in the explosive expressed as a percent. For other explosives, it is a strength measurement per unit of explosive compared with the same unit of straight nitroglycerine. 3C-12. Measurement of Energy. The terms in the following paragraphs are also used in reference to the strength of an explosive product: a. Absolute Weight Strength (AWS). The energy per unit of weight expressed in calories per gram. It is the maximum theoretical explosive energy based on the ingredients in the explosive. The AWS of ANFO is 890 cal/g when mixed 94% ammonium nitrate to 6% fuel oil. Absolute Bulk Strength (ABS). The energy per unit of volume expressed in calories per cubic centimetre (cm3). The ABS is equal to the explosive's AWS multiplied by it's density. The ABS of ANFO equals 890 Cal/g x 0.85 g/cm3 or 756 cal/cm3. Relative Bulk Strength (RBS). The bulk strength of the explosive compared to ANFO. The RBS of an explosive is equal to the ABS of the explosive divided by the ABS of ANFO.
b.
c.
3C-13. Velocity of Detonation (VOD). The velocity of detonation is a measurement of the speed, expressed in metres per second, at which a detonation wave travels through an explosive. It is influenced by pressure and containment, and generally the higher it is, the greater the shattering effect. OTHER PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 3C-14. Water Resistance. Commercial explosives vary widely in resistance to water penetration. Straight nitroglycerine explosive and variants are the most water resistant. Ammonium nitrate based explosives have little water resistance but can be packaged to provide moisture protection. 3C-15. Resistance to Freezing. Some explosives and blasting agents freeze and become difficult to work with. Gelatin explosives tend to stiffen and become
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firm after prolonged exposure to low temperatures. Ammonium nitrate based explosives may become set after absorbing moisture during storage and temperature changes. It is sometimes desirable to keep explosives in a warm storage area until use. 3C-16. Fumes. The detonation of explosives produces fumes, principally: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water vapour, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen, with the latter two being poisonous. Exposure to these fumes can be fatal. An area must be allowed to ventilate naturally or the fumes removed mechanically. If this is not possible, a non-hazardous product shall be used. ANFO explosives produce more oxides of nitrogen than nitroglycerine based explosives and special attention shall be paid to these fumes as they are particularly insidious. There are two types of fumes: permissible and non-permissible (above and below ground operations). Guidelines for classification of fumes are found in the C.I.L. Blaster Handbook. s DANGER Explosive fumes may be poisonous and fatal. Ensure adequate ventilation.
3C-17. Storage Qualities. Commercial explosives are all subject to deterioration. Humidity, temperature changes and poor storage facilities allow moisture to be absorbed, which is the principle cause of deterioration. Moisture reduces sensitivity and strength, and may cause exudation of some ingredients. Nitroglycerine based explosives may exude nitroglycerine after prolonged or unsatisfactory storage conditions. Ammonium nitrate based explosives may not detonate if too much moisture is absorbed. All explosives shall be physically inspected prior to use. Storage facilities should be dry, dark and have a constant temperature. The oldest stock of explosives and accessories shall be used first, and only enough to complete the task should be removed from storage. 3C-18. Sensitivity. Sensitivity is a measure of an explosives propagating ability (ease of initiation by either heat, shock or friction). An explosive is either "cap sensitive" (sensitive enough to be initiated with a detonator or blasting cap) or a booster shall be used for initiation. This is important when deciding where and how the charges will be initiated. All the accessories used shall be compatible. NITROGLYCERINE BASED EXPLOSIVES (DYNAMITES) 3C-19. The physical characteristics of the various dynamites differ. Gelatin dynamites are almost invariably plastic, while ammonia dynamites are quite granular and possess no noticeable degree of cohesiveness. Semi-gelatins and B-GL-361-008/FP-003 85
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straight dynamites have fair cohesiveness falling midway between gelatins and ammonia dynamites in this respect. 3C-20. Warning: When handling nytroglycerine based explosives, do not allow the explosives to come into contact with bare skin. Ensure that the handling area is well ventilated. If nytrogrlicerine poisoning is suspected contact medical authorities immediately. 3C-21. Straight (Granular). The explosive base of straight dynamites is liquid nitroglycerine which is absorbed in a mixture of carbonaceous materials such as wood pulp, ground meal, etc. In straight dynamites the percentage of nitroglycerine describes the grade. The relative high cost, sensitivity to shock and friction, noxious fumes and very high flammability limits their use especially since the introduction of ammonia added dynamites. 3C-22. Ammonia Added. Ammonium-Granular dynamites are dynamites in which the primary source of energy is derived from the reaction of ammonium and sodium nitrates with various fuels. Nitroglycerine contributes to the explosive energy, but is primarily a sensitizer that ensures complete reaction of the nitrates and fuel mixture. In these dynamites, the ammonium nitrate with an explosive energy of about 70% that of nitroglycerine, is the primary energy source. 3C-23. Semi-gelatins. Semi-gelatin dynamites are ammonium dynamites which contain a small amount of nitrocotton as a gelling agent and have higher percentages of nitroglycerine than granular dynamites. There are no straight semigelatin dynamites. These products have better water resistance and a more cohesive, semi-gelatinous texture than granular dynamites. Semi-gelatins generally have a slightly higher velocity of detonation than granular dynamites with equal strength markings. 3C-24. Gelatin Dynamites. Gelatin dynamites have as a base a water resistant "gel" made by dissolving nitrocotton in nitroglycerine. It is insoluble in water and tends to waterproof other ingredients with which it is mixed. At the same time, it binds them together, rendering it cohesive and plastic in nature. There are two types of gelatin dynamites: a. Straight Gelatin. Nitrocotton rather than an absorbent, combustable material is used to hold the nitroglycerine. It has too high a velocity of detonation for effective rock blasting and is expensive; and Ammonia Gelatins. These differ from straight gelatins in that a portion of the strength is derived from ammonium nitrate. They are
b.
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somewhat lower in velocity of detonation and slightly less water resistant, but are more economical. 3C-25. Permissible Dynamites. Permissible dynamites are those which have been tested and approved for use in underground coal mines. They are ammonia dynamites, either granular or gelatins, which have a flame depressant additive, such as sodium chloride to reduce the volume, duration, and temperature of the explosion's flame. They are designed to minimize the probability of a gas or dust ignition. Permissible explosives absorb moisture readily and deteriorate as a result. Storage and stock rotation must be carefully supervised. 3C-26. Dynamite Packaging. Dynamites are cartridged in some form of waxed or coated paper wrapping which prevents exudation of nitroglycerine and protects the explosive from contact with outside objects, and in some instances, from moisture absorption. The outer dynamite wrappers shall never be removed from the cartridge other than for inspection or testing purposes by qualified Ammunition Technicians. The addition of dirt or grit to the raw explosives could reduce sensitivity. AMMONIUM NITRATE BASED EXPLOSIVES 3C-27. Ammonium Nitrate is an essential ingredient in nearly all commercial explosives, including dynamites and water gels. It's predominant use is in the form of a prill with a particle density in the range of 1.40 to 1.50 g/cc. The main difference between agricultural and blasting prills is that the blasting prills are generally less dense, more porous and have less antisetting coating than fertilizer prills. Ammonium nitrate prills with particle densities approaching the density of solid ammonium nitrate, over 1.7 g/cc are less sensitive to detonation. 3C-28. ANFO. The combination of 94 percent ammonium nitrate and 6 percent (by weight) fuel oil produces an economical and effective explosive. The voids in the blasting prill enable the fuel oil to be retained by the prill in a uniform and intimate manner. They also improve the sensitivity by acting as sites for high temperature "hot spots" or ignition points. If ANFO is to be used in wet conditions it shall be used in pre-packaged form and initiated as soon as possible after loading. COMMERCIAL ACCESSORIES 3C-29. General. The following paragraphs describe various commercial accessories. It is important to understand that manufacturers have different methods of making their products. It is imperative that both their users and supervisors obtain the complete product description and become familiar with this information before using the product. B-GL-361-008/FP-003 87
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3C-30. Safety Fuse. Brands of safety fuse currently manufactured in Canada are designed with similar characteristics as the military M700 time blasting fuse. Normally commercial safety fuse is black in colour vice green. 3C-31. Hot Wire Lighters. These devices in some respect resemble fireworks sparklers. They consist of a wire covered with an ignition composition that burns slowly at a fairly uniform rate with an intensely hot ring of fire. They are lighted by a match and can be used to ignite a freshly cut length of safety fuse by merely holding the burning portion of the lighter against it. Hot wire lighters are not considered as timing devices. 3C-32. Thermalite Igniter Cord. This is a device for lighting safety fuse that introduces important principles of safety and efficiency when firing boreholes in rotation. It is cord-like in appearance and approximately 1.6 mm in diameter. The active composition is carried on a core of wire with an outer protective textile and wire counter-rings. The burning (actually an exothermic reaction) progresses at a relatively uniform rate along its length. 3C-33. Commercial Non-electric Blasting Caps. Non-electric blasting caps initiate explosives when used with safety fuse and are normally manufactured in two strengths, No. 6 and High Strength (H.S.). The caps come packaged in cardboard cartons of 100 or in cases containing 1,000 or 5,000. A No. 8 strength blasting cap is available by special demand. 3C-34. Comercial Electric Blasting Caps. They function instantaneously with the application of an electric current making it possible to fire multiple high explosive charges simultaneously. They are manufactured in various strengths with the most common being No. 6 and No. 8 strengths. The standard leg wire lengths and respective electrical resistances are found in C-09-011-001/AB-000. 3C-35. Delay Electric Blasting Caps. There are two different types: short period and long period (LPV) delay. a. Long Period Delay. These blasting caps have delay periods of just over second in sixteen consecutive delays and are manufactured in No. 8 strength. The length of the cap bodies varies with the delay period. Short Period. These blasting caps have delay periods measured in milli-seconds. The length of the blasting cap bodies varies depending on delay period. The average timing chart can be found in C-09-011-001/AB-000. They are used mainly for surface blasting in quarries and construction work. The most notable advantages are:
b.
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(1) reduced vibration and concussion, (2) improved fragmentation, (3) more predictable results with regard to the amount and direction of throw of the blasted material, (4) backbreak and overbreak is reduced, with working faces left in an improved condition, and (5) cut-off holes are minimized, with a reduction in the hazard of unexploded dynamite. 3C-36. Specialty Blasting Caps. Non-Incentive (for underground coal mining operations) Short Period Blasting Caps and Seismocap Electric Blasting Caps can be used if nothing else is available. Refer to C-09-011-001/AB-000. 3C-37. Boosters. Boosters are tubular in shape and are composed of an integral mixture of high explosive (PETN) and elastomeric binder. The composition has both the appearance and some physical characteristics of rubber. They are compatible with electric and non-electric detonators, and detonating cord. Key features of boosters are as follows: a. b. c. Excellent moisture resistance. Long shelf life. 3 to 5 years. Excellent safety characteristics. Boosters are highly insensitive to mechanical impact, and there is no metal-to-metal contact between the booster and blasting cap. High energy performance. 8,000 m/s VOD with high brisance optimizes efficiency in priming ANFO and selected water gels. Compact size. Minimizes both storage requirements and explosive exposure in the blast area. No fumes. A non-nitroglycerin priming and blasting system means that users are not exposed to hazardous fumes (i.e. no headaches as is associated with nitroglycerin based products). Easy handling. Primer units can be assembled or disassembled with a "twist of the wrist" requiring no punching for make up. This speeds up loading, both horizontally and vertically. B-GL-361-008/FP-003 89
d. e. f.
g.
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3C-38. Detonating Cord (Primacord). The nomenclature differs with each manufacturer but basically it has all characteristics and uses as service detonating cord. It is produced in rolls of 102 metres with standard properties detailed in C-09-011-001/AB-000. 3C-39. Detonating Relays. These devices are designed to accomplish short interval delay initiating of detonating cord. The explosives charges are similar to those used in delay electric detonators. They have the same sensitivity to impact and should be protected from abuse. They consist of a 70 mm copper tube which contains explosive charges at each end, a delay element in between, and approximately 305 mm of detonating cord crimped into the ends of the tube. The relays can be spliced into the ring main or trunkline between charges and tied using a square knot, tape, stapling or clips. They are susceptible to moisture and should not be used in wet conditions or underwater. 3C-40. Shock Tube Non-electric Detonating System. The shock tube nonelectric detonating system is based on a hollow plastic tube that is lined with a finely powdered explosive composition, which when properly initiated, propagates a shock wave through the tube at a velocity of approximately 2000 m/s. This shock wave initiates the primary charge (along with any delay element) in the detonator, which causes the main charge to detonate. The shock wave is contained within the tube and has no effect on an explosive in contact with it. This allows this system to be used with any explosive regardless of sensitivity. This system is a sealed unit with the detonator securely crimped at one end and at the other end a heat seal. The non-electric shock tube detonators come in various lengths, for use with above and below ground and long and short delays. The best feature about this system is that the entire detonating system and all holes can be initiated (i.e. made "hot" in commercial explosive terminology) before the first charge detonates, thereby reducing the chance of cut offs and misfires. 3C-41. Primers. Primers are small cylindrical charges of cap sensitive, high explosive. They are available in various sizes for different applications, approximately 35 mm long and 32 mm in diameter, with holes running lengthwise through it for attachment to detonating cord or cavities for inserting detonators.
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ANNEX D IMPROVISED CHARGES GENERAL 3D-1. Antitank Mines, shells and bombs can be improvised as concussion, buried or pressure charges, and as the explosive components of a booby trap. They are unsuitable as cutting charges where close contact with the target is essential. Fig 3D-1 Antitank mine prepared as an 3D-2. Mines. Whatever type improvised charge of antitank mine is used, there shall be no attempt to initiate the explosion by using the mine fuse. The mine shall be prepared by packing the fuse cavity s with high explosive or by fixing a 0.5 Kg charge to the side of the mine opposite the fuse cavity, armed by an initiation set detonated by initiating the charge. 3D-3. Shells. The explosive content of shells is small compared with their total weight (even in high explosive shells, the explosive is only about 10% of the total weight). Generally speaking, only large calibre high explosives shells are suitable. Small artillery and mortar projectiles are useful in booby traps due to their fragmentation properties. To prepare a high explosive shell as an improvised charge, first carefully unscrew the fuse or shipping plug, preferably with a special wrench made for this purpose. Never attempt to loosen the fuse or plug by striking it with another object. The supplementary charge located there can be used as a booster. Place a small charge to initiate the booster. If this is not feasible, another method is to fix one kg of high explosives as a cutting charge against the thinnest part of the wall of the casing (about halfway between the base and nose cap). 3D-4. Bombs. Unexploded bombs dropped from aircraft are unstable and dangerous and shall not be improvised as demolition charges. Unused general purpose or blast bombs from supply stocks contain the greatest proportion of high explosives to total weight (about 50% in the case of 230 kg and 450 kg bombs) and are most suitable. They can be recognized by the parallel sides of the case and comparatively snub nose. Armour piercing bombs have streamline cases and long pointed noses, and are of little use for demolition purposes. General purpose bombs can be armed using the following methods:
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a.
if the fuse cavity (which may be located in the nose, side or tail) contains the standard booster charge, but no fuse, place a small charge in the fuse cavity in close contact with the booster charge; or the main filling is usually reached from a filler cap under the tail cowling. Unscrew the Fig 3D-2 Arming bombs as demolition filler cap by steady charges pressure (never attempt to force it open) and place a 0.5 kg charge in close contact with the main charge. Danger. If a fuse is in the fuse cavity, do not attempt to initiate by an external charge over the fuse, use the method described.
b.
b.
IMPROVISED BANGALORE TORPEDOES 3D-5. Improvised bangalore torpedoes can be prepared by placing plastic explosive into a tube or container such as: a. b. metal pipe of 40 to 65 mm diameter; two 1.8 m angle iron pickets bound together; or bamboo poles of approximately 50 mm internal diameter.
Fig 3D-3 Improvised Bangalore torpedo (1.8 m iron pickets)
c.
3D-6. An example of an improvised bangalore torpedo using two 1.8 m angle iron pickets is illustrated in Fig 3D-3. The plastic explosive is armed with detonating cord with double thumb knots no more than 1.5 m apart.
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IMPROVISED ANTIPERSONNEL PIPE CHARGE 3D-7 The improvised antipersonnel pipe charge is simply a short length of plastic or metal pipe enclosing plastic explosive formed around detonating cord and pieces of metal. The pieces of metal are embedded in the outside of the charge so that with the frag-ments of the casing they obtain the maximum energy from the detonation. Fig 3D-4 Improvised antipersonnel pipe charge IMPROVISED DIRECTIONAL MINE 3D-8. A directional mine (Fig 3D-5) can be improvised by packing about 4.5 kg of explosives in the centre of a 180 or 225 litre oil drum. The drum is then filled with an assortment of rocks, gasoline in small containers and metal wire, nails and scrap.
Fig 3D-5 Improvised directional mine 3D-9. The device is exploded in front of approaching troops. For this reason, electric initiation or actuation by means of trip wire and a pull firing device is usually necessary. In open hilly country, oil drums similarly prepared but with about 9 kg of explosive, can be rolled downhill to explode in the face of an advancing force. Initiation of this type of charge is by a short length of safety fuse.
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IMPROVISED SHAPED CHARGES 3D-10. The theory of shaped charges is described in Chapter 3. Improvised shaped charges are fairly simple to prepare, the main problem being that of providing an appropriate charge container. A can or wine bottle with a cone shaped bottom may be used for an impro-vised cone shaped charge (Fig 3D-6). The point of initiation must be directly opposite the point of the cone. 3D-11. The optimum depth of charge and the stand-off distance from the target are calculated as follows: a. b. charge depth is twice the Fig 3D-6 Improvised shaped charge depth of the cone; and the stand-off distance (provided by a spacer or leg). Stand-off = 3d Distance 2 3D-12. a. where d = diameter of container
The following methods may be used for cutting a glass bottle: wrap a piece of string soaked in gasoline around the desired line of cut, light it on fire, and after 1-2 minutes, immerse the bottle in cold water; or fill the bottle with oil to the level of cut, plunge a red hot poker into the bottle and lift off the neck.
b.
PLATTER CHARGE 3D-13. The Platter Charge (Fig 3D-7) is the name given to a charge that relies on the Misnay-Schardin effect. This "plate" effect uses a mild steel plate with explosive attached, and can penetrate up to 70 mm of steel at a distance of 90 m. The plate can be directed by careful moulding and charge initiation.
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Fig 3D-7 Platter charge 3D-14. The steel plate (preferably round, but square is satisfactory) weighing between 1 and 3 Kg is required. An equal weight of explosive is packed uniformly behind the plate and armed at the exact centre of the rear. A container is an aid to aiming but is not essential. 3D-15. This charge can be used to destroy vital machinery parts such as electrical gears and casings that might not be easily accessible. With practice, a target the size of an oil drum can be hit at a distance of 20 m.
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APPENDIX 1 AMMONIUM NITRATE AND FUEL OIL (ANFO) GENERAL 3D1-1. ANFO (the explosive mixture of prilled ammonium nitrate and fuel oil) is the most common of the improvised explosives. It is widely used in industry and is either supplied commercially or manufactured locally. ANFO is cheap, very versatile and available world wide. It is suitable for demolition tasks such as road and airfield construction and road cratering. 3D1-2. Only low density prilled (small ball) ammonium nitrate intended for explosive applications with a particle density in the range of 1.40 to 1.50 grams/cm3 shall be used in preparing ANFO. This type of ammonium nitrate has a lower moisture content and uniform size, is relatively dust free, and has excellent fuel oil absorbency. It has good sensitivity to detonation by acting as sites for high temperature "hot spots" or ignition points. All requests for this grade of ammonium nitrate shall be passed to a reputable explosives distributor to ensure that the correct product is obtained. 3D1-3. Caution. Ammonium nitrate based fertilizers or powdered ammonium nitrate shall not be used as alternatives. They are not designed for explosive applications and other ingredients may cause unsafe reactions when the fuel oil is added or may produce undesirable results. 3D1-4. Ammonium nitrate readily absorbs moisture from the air which renders it inert, so it must be protected from moisture. In wet ground, Trigran shall be used in place of ANFO, unless the precautions specified in paragraph 18 of this Appendix are followed. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 3D1-5. In comparison with other high explosives, ANFO has the following advantages: a. b. it is economical; it has a low velocity of detonation (2000 to 4750 m/s depending on confinement) and produces high gas pressure, making it well suited as a lifting charge; it is free flowing, making it easy to pour into cratering chambers or vertical boreholes;
c.
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d.
prior to combining it with fuel oil, ammonium nitrate presents no security problem, although it is subject to the same storage regulations as the other high explosives and must be added to the net explosive quantity of the building or site; and misfires in which the primer or booster has fully detonated, can be made safe by adding large quantities of water.
e.
3D1-6. In comparison with other explosives, ANFO has the following disadvantages: a. ANFO has very poor water resistance. It readily absorbs moisture from the air and must be stored in airtight containers or used the same day it is mixed. Dampness will cause the prills to clog together or break down into crystals; it has low sensitivity and therefore another high explosive is required as a booster; it gives off no toxic fumes prior to detonation, but on detonation it produces extremely toxic gases which must not be inhaled; the production of ANFO is time and labour intensive and requires knowledgable supervision; diesel fuel oil is a skin irritant; it will burn and may explode if the mass is sufficient; and the ammonium nitrate will react with copper, tin, bronze or brass, giving off toxic and inflammable fumes.
b. c. d. e. f. g.
PREPARATION OF ANFO 3D1-7. General. Although ANFO will function without precise measurement, the most efficient results will be achieved with accurate measurement. For planning purposes the mixture ratio is 94% ammonium nitrate to 6% fuel oil. The measurement for the mixing of the components of ANFO can be carried out by two methods: by weight or by volume. 3D1-8. Volume Measurement. A calculated volume of fuel oil is added to a known volume of prilled ammonium nitrate (PAN). It is necessary to know the specific gravity (SG) of both the prilled ammonium nitrate and the fuel oil must be known. The SG of fuel oil is reasonably constant and for our purposes 0.8 is used (1 litre of fuel oil weighs 0.8 kg). The SG of PAN varies according to its country of origin and must be determined (from indications on the packaging or from the B-GL-361-008/FP-003 97
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producer). The amount of fuel oil that is mixed with a known volume of PAN according to the SG is in the table below. PAN PAN SG (units) to one unit fuel oil (a) (b) (c) 1 0.8 16 2 0.9 15 3 1.0 14 Fig 3D1-1 Ratio of PAN to fuel oil according to SG 3D1-9. Weight Measurement. To mix ANFO by weight, it is necessary to know the weight of PAN to be used. The best mixing ratio of PAN to fuel oil is 16.86 : 1 (for example, 1 kg of fuel oil to 16.86 kg of PAN). 3D1-10. Fig 3D1-2 shows the amount of fuel oil required for a known weight of PAN. Fig 3D1-3 shows the equivalent volume of fuel oil required to mix with a known weight of prilled ammonium nitrate. Volume of fuel oil required ( ) CA & US PAN UK PAN Japan PAN SG = 0.8 SG = 0.9 SG = 1.0 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 1 10 0.6 0.7 0.8 2 20 1.2 1.4 1.5 3 30 1.8 2.0 2.2 4 40 2.4 2.7 3.0 5 50 3.0 3.4 3.7 6 60 3.6 4.0 4.5 7 70 4.2 4.7 5.2 8 80 4.8 5.3 6.0 9 90 5.4 6.0 6.7 10 100 6.0 6.6 7.4 Fig 3D1-2 Volume Measurement Ser Volume of PAN Ser
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Weight of Fuel oil required (units) ammonium nitrate Weight Volume (a) (b) (c) (d) 1 10 0.6 0.8 2 20 1.2 1.5 3 30 1.8 2.2 4 40 2.4 3.0 5 50 3.0 3.7 6 60 3.6 4.5 7 70 4.2 5.2 8 80 4.8 6.0 9 90 5.6 6.7 10 100 6.0 7.4 Fig 3D1-3 Weight Measurement (Using PAN with a SG of 0.8 gm/cm3) MIXING 3D1-11. In Canadian Forces applications, the volume of ANFO seldom warrants the use of a specially designed industrial mixer. Mixing is normally done by hand or concrete mixer. 3D1-12. When using a concrete mixer, the following safety rules are to be observed: a. b. c. the mixer shall be grounded and fully inspected to ensure serviceability and safety prior to use; only electric, diesel or compressed air driven mixers are to used since ANFO is flammable; and if the mixer is used at irregular intervals, the mixing cowl shall be coated with an epoxy such as fibreglass to prevent corrosion of the metal by ammonium nitrate.
Ser
3D1-13. When ANFO is mixed by hand, the following procedure is recommended: a. b. pour the required quantity of PAN into the mixing container; pour the required quantity of fuel oil into another container and mix in a measured quantity of soluble dye. "Waxoline" red dye at 1:2000 gives a satisfactory result; pour the dyed fuel oil slowly into the PAN and mix until the whole mixture is a uniform colour (approximately two minutes); B-GL-361-008/FP-003 99
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d.
after mixing, it is recommended to store the ANFO in a non-absorbent container for approximately one hour to allow the fuel oil to penetrate the prills; and detonate the ANFO as soon as possible after loading it.
e.
3D1-14. Useful items for mixing small quantities of ANFO are available from unit resources, including: a. polyethylene containers: (1) one litre jug for measuring fuel oil, (2) a bucket graduated in litres for measuring PAN, (3) 30 litre garbage can for mixing ANFO, and (4) a funnel for pouring ANFO; b. c. d. rubber gloves; wooden paddles; and safety goggles.
3D1-15. When large charges are required, it may be more convenient to prepare mixes in increments of 40 kg (normally one bag). The contents of a bag may be poured into a wooden mixing tray and mixed with wooden paddles. LOADING Fig 3D1-4 Timber mixing trough 3D1-16. ANFO can be loaded mechanically or by hand. For most military tasks, hand loading of the charge will be the only method available. It is not the most efficient method but it is simple and gives satisfactory results. DANGER. Ensure the borehole or chamber has cooled sufficiently prior to loading ANFO.
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3D1-17. ANFO shall not be poured into wet holes. Water contamination of ANFO, which leads to poor fragmentation or even misfires, can be detected by the yellow or reddish-yellow fumes of oxides of nitrogen formed on detonation. Three methods of overcoming this problem are: a. b. c. use another type of explosive which does not react with water (for example, Trigran); remove water from the chamber (blown out with compressed air); and place ANFO into sealed plastic bags of the required size.
PREPARING ANFO 3D1-18. A booster charge shall be used to initiate ANFO. In most military applications this will be C4 plastic explosive. The total quantity of C4 required for the booster charge is normally a block of C4. The size of the chamber charge is determined by soil type as described in Chapter 6. 3D1-19. In a borehole or cratering application, the following procedure is used: a. b. after allowing the borehole or the chamber to cool, pour half of the main charge into the chamber; lower the booster charge down the borehole or the camouflet tube. If the charge sticks to the sides of the borehole or driving tube, gently push with the authorized wooden tamping rod. Never apply undue force or pound on the booster charge. load the remaining ANFO into the hole, periodically run the tamping rod into the hole to ensure even distribution; and when the main charge has been completely loaded, stem the hole with earth or drill cuttings. This will provide short term protection to keep moisture out.
c. d.
CLEANING OF EQUIPMENT 3D1-20. Items manufactured from copper, tin, brass or bronze are not to be used in operations involving ammonium nitrate. If they do come in contact with ammonium nitrate compositions, they are to be washed immediately with soap and water.
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3D1-21. Implements, troughs, tamping rods and containers used for the preparation and placement of ANFO are to be washed with soap and water as soon as possible after use. Cleaning will take place on the Demolition Range or the task site.
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CHAPTER 4 ELECTRICAL PROCEDURES SECTION 1 SAFETY GENERAL 4-1-1. a. b. c. d. This chapter describes the following: firing circuits; electrical, dual and combination initiation; electrical hazards; and safety procedures.
4-1-2. Safety regulations, responsibilities and procedures for general demolition use and training are covered in B-GL-304-003/TS-OA1, B-GL-320-009/FP-001 and range standing orders. This manual complements these publications and shall be used in conjunction with these publications. STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION 4-1-3. The safety regulations governing the storage and transportation of explosives are outlined in B-GL-304-003/TS-OA1, and pertinent extracts are included in B-GL-320-009/FP-001. NON-ELECTRIC INITIATION 4-1-4. The safety precautions and procedures for basic charges and nonelectric initiation are described in B-GL-320-009/FP-001. SAFETY DISTANCES 4-1-5. B-GL-320-009/FP-001 details the requirements for safety distances during operations and peacetime training. These safety distances are repeated in Annexes A and B to this chapter. ELECTRICAL INDUCTION HAZARDS 4-1-6. Electrical firing circuits can be fired prematurely by electric current induced by electromagnetic waves emitted by radio transmitters, radars, and electrical machinery. The danger of accidental firing occurs when a circuit, or a portion of a circuit, acts as an aerial and picks up energy from a source. This B-GL-361-008/FP-003 103
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danger is greatest when part of the circuit, through coincidence or accident, is of the correct length and configuration to become resonant to the frequency of the source. This danger may be reduced by observing the safety precautions in the following paragraphs. 4-1-7. a. b. Electric detonators and igniters. users shall ground themselves for ten seconds prior to handling electric detonators or igniters; electric detonators and igniters shall be kept in service packs or in closed metal containers until connected into circuits. Do not open in an aircraft or vehicle, or within 30 m of a radio set; leads shall be twisted together, with only the minimum length untwisted and separated to make the connection; and connections between electric detonator leads and demolition cable shall be secured with tape. Demolition cable. only tightly twisted cable is to be used. Knotted or cable with loops in it shall not be used; the bare ends of the cable at the blasting machine shall be shorted by shunting (twisting together) and grounded when connecting electric detonator leads to the other end; firing cable shall be kept away from power and telephone cables; electrical tool cables shall be cleared from the site before electric detonators are connected; the demolition cable shall, whenever possible, be buried, or at least laid flat on the ground; and
c. d. 4-1-8. a. b.
c. d. e.
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f.
if two pieces of demolition cable are joined, Fig 4-1-1 illustrates the recommended method.
Fig 4-1-1 Joints in demolition cable 4-1-9. The electrical induction hazard may be reduced further by avoiding the following circuit configurations: a. single cable series circuits;
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b.
detonators connected to the same strand of a double cable, in multiple detonator or igniter electric applications (the fewer detonators the better); and a detonator on a circuit being held by a person who may act as an aerial.
c.
4-1-10. Demolition circuits shall only use one electric detonator where possible. The only electrical accessories which shall be used are a blasting machine, a length of twin twisted demolition cable, and an electrical detonator or igniter electric. When using electrical initiation, a back-up, non-electric method of initiation shall also be used, i.e. combination initiation. 4-1-11. Firing circuits using several detonators, or igniters electric may be necessary in Battle Noise Simulation. In this case, the safety distances in Fig 4-12 shall be observed to reduce the electrical induction hazard. Ser (a) 1 2 Safety distance Field Field radar radio (b) (c) (d) Electric detonator or igniters No No hazard electric in sealed packs hazard When twisting the leads of 40 m Locating mortar-70 m Infantry patrol - 2 m electric detonator or igniter electric or when connecting multi-detonators circuits When connecting an electric detonator or 30 m Artillery- 100 m igniter electric into a single detonator Infantry patrol - 2 m Item
circuit Assembled single detonator or single igniter electric circuit with a minimum length of demolition cable of 50 m
3 4 5
1m
Artillery- 100 m Infantry patrol - 2 m
Assembled multi-detonator or igniter electric circuit
If the effect of a premature firing is critical, safety distances as in serial 2 must be followed.
Fig 4-1-2 Safety distances for field radio and radar equipment 4-1-12. Distances at which military mobile radio and field radar equipment do not affect electric detonators or igniters electric in the course of preparation and in completed circuits are given in Fig 4-1-2. Safety distances from civilian radio, television, and radar transmitters are given in Fig 4-1-3.
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4-1-13. circuit.
Helicopters may not fly over or land within 30 m of an electrical firing
Ser Average or peak transmitter power Safety distance (m) (watts) (a) (b) (c) 1 0 30 30 2 31 50 50 3 51 100 110 4 101 250 160 5 251 500 230 6 501 1000 305 7 1001 3000 480 8 3001 5000 610 9 5001 20000 915 10 20001 50000 1530 11 50001 100000 3050 12 over 100000 contact NDHQ NOTE When the transmission is a pulsed or pulsed continuous wave type and its pulse width is less than 10 micro seconds, the power indicated is average power. For all other transmissions the power indicated is peak power. Fig 4-1-3 Safety Distances from civilian radio, television or radar transmitters 4-1-14. Lightning strikes or near misses may initiate both electrical and nonelectrical firing circuits. Therefore all blasting activities shall be suspended during electrical storms or when one is approaching. 4-1-15. Electric initiation shall not be used within 150 m of an energized power line. Use non-electric initiation or de-energize the power line.
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SECTION 2 FIRING CIRCUITS TYPES OF FIRING CIRCUITS 4-2-1. In military demolitions, a firing circuit consists of detonating cord lines and a firing system or initiation set and is designed to initiate multiple charges simultaneously. They can be very simple as in a trunkline, or as the situation dictates, they can be more elaborate in design consisting of double horizontal and vertical ring mains. Initiation can be by electrical or non-electrical means or by both means. The four methods of joining multiple charges for simultaneous initiation are: trunkline, ring main, simple firing circuit, and maximum firing circuit. The choice is dependent on the importance and complexity of the target, time available and on the tactical situation. 4-2-2. Trunkline. A trunkline is a simple length of detonating cord with multiple charges located along either side and normally initiated at one end only. Trunklines are employed on simple demolition tasks of little tactical importance.
Fig 4-2-1 Trunkline 4-2-3. Ring Main. The ring main doubles the number of ways the attached charges can be initiated. The ring main is configured so the detonation wave will travel from two directions vice one, as in the case of a trunkline fired with one initiation set. It is preferable to initiate the ring main at two points, kept well apart, so if one initiation set fails, the other will still initiate the charges. When two initiation points are used, the ring main shall be closed using a cross-over (a piece of detonating cord, minimum 2 m in length). It is connected between the
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initiation sets and the first charges at both ends, to ensure that the detonating wave travels to all charges from both directions.
Fig 4-2-2 Ring main 4-2-4. Vertical Ring Main. Vertical ring mains are configured around the target in a vertical plane to connect multiple charges located in one area of a target for simultaneous initiation (i.e. all the charges required for one cut of a bridge span). 4-2-5. Horizontal Ring Main. A horizontal ring main is configured around a target in a horizontal plane and all vertical ring mains are connected to it. 4-2-6. Simple Firing Circuit. A simple firing circuit is generally employed on complex targets where a second attempt at initiation is possible in the event the first attempt was unsuccessful. Most preliminary demolition targets require simple firing circuits. A simple firing circuits consists of a horizontal ring main with single vertical ring mains as required. Each charge is connected to a vertical ring main by a single detonating cord lead. Initiation points are located on the horizontal ring main.
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Demolitions
Fig 4-2-3 Simple firing circuit 4-2-7. Maximum Firing Circuit. A maximum firing circuit reduces the risk of failure by doubling the vertical and horizontal ring mains, by doubling the detonating cord leads to charges, and by doubling the number of initiation points. Normally, maximum firing circuits shall be used on all reserved demolitions, and in situations where there is doubt about a second chance of firing in case of a failed first attempt. Such thorough precautions are warranted because a reserved demolition cannot be allowed to fail. The two detonating cord leads from each charge are connected to different vertical ring mains. The horizontal and vertical ring mains are connected in all possible locations.
Fig 4-2-4 Maximum firing circuit
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INITIATION METHODS 4-2-8. Single Initiation. Initiation of a firing circuit by one initiation set, either electric or non-electric. It is only normally used on a trunkline. 4-2-9. Dual Initiation. Initiation of a firing circuit with two independent but similar methods, either two electric initiation sets or two non-electric initiation sets. 4-2-10. Combination Initiation. Initiation of a firing circuit with both types of initiation, electric and non-electric, operating independently of each other. PROTECTION OF FIRING CIRCUITS AND CHARGES 4-2-11. Every effort shall be made to protect firing circuits and charges. The most obvious threat is direct and indirect fire. However, weather, vibration and sabotage shall also be considered. Protective measures will be thorough and the firing circuit and charges shall be inspected regularly on long standing demolitions. 4-2-12. Enemy Fire. Where possible, firing circuits and charges shall be located on inside surfaces, away from possible observation. This will lessen the chance of damage from direct fire. Demolition cable shall be buried when possible. 4-2-13. Weather. Although current explosives and accessories are designed to withstand dampness, long standing charges and firing circuits shall be protected from the weather. Charges will be covered with moisture proof material. Detonating cord will have shallow "U"s bent into it, as close to the initiation point and charges as possible to allow water to drip off and not contaminate the explosive. Safety fuse will not be prepared until just prior to use, and then kept dry until State 2 is ordered. Initiation sets will be protected against rain, dew, and moisture. 4-2-14. Heat. Firing circuits and charges must be protected from direct sun rays. Plastic explosives tends to deteriorate at temperatures above 60oC, and detonators become more sensitive. In very hot climates, the charges and firing circuits shall be placed on the shady side of the targets, and the metal targets shaded, if possible. 4-2-15. Vibrations. Vibration caused by traffic, direct and indirect fire, or wind may loosen charges and connections in firing circuits. Charges shall be fixed to targets by bolt guns and appropriate fasteners. If this is not possible, they will be held in place with wire and wood or strapping devices. Firing circuits will be protected from traffic damage by the use of sandbags or timber. Loose lengths B-GL-361-008/FP-003 111
Demolitions
will be tied back from roadways and tied at intervals to protect against fraying and the possibility of pulling out from charges or detonators. Initiation points must be at least five metres apart to prevent both being damaged by a single blast. 4-2-16. Pedestrians. Large numbers of refugees can be expected to cross reserved demolition targets. Charges and firing circuits may be tampered with innocently or deliberately. Proper refugee control, including signs, escorts and designated routes are the best methods of prevention. 4-2-17. Inspections. Regular inspections and testing of long standing charges, firing circuits, and protective measures are essential to prevent failures and problems. Points to look for include: a. b. c. d. moisture penetrating initiation points and charges; fraying of cable and coatings on wire and detonating cord; undue strain on cable and detonating cord; and loose charges and fixtures.
4-2-18. Important. Non-electric initiation sets and detonators of either type are never buried so they may be inspected during maintenance or in the event of a misfire. 4-2-19. Effects of Nuclear Explosions. If a nuclear explosion is possible, the following considerations and counter measures are recommended: a. b. Blast. Charges and firing circuits shall be fixed to targets as securely as possible, by the use of bolt guns or banding equipment; Heat. Heat may explode detonators, ignite charges and detonating cord, and burn insulation on demolition cable. They shall be protected by shielding with items that provide thermal protection such as corrugated galvanized iron (CGI), steel pickets and sand bags. These stores will be kept on hand to replace any damaged items; and Electro-Magnetic Pulse. EMP from a nuclear blast can create an electrical induction hazard. The only practical counter measure is to delay changing to state 2 until the last possible moment, as well as following the guidelines discussed earlier.
c.
4-2-20. When using electrical initiation, armoured vehicles shall not be used as firing points due to electrical induction hazards unless:
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a. b.
there is a minimum of 50 m of demolition cable between the blasting machine and the nearest detonator; and all other radio frequency/induction safety precautions are complied with.
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SECTION 3 ELECTRICAL INITIATION GENERAL 4-3-1. Electrical initiation has the following advantages over non-electric initiation: a. b. c. the electrical circuit can be tested for continuity until the last moment; positive control of the demolition is maintained until it is initiated; and if time is a critical factor, the demolition can be initiated at any given moment from a place of safety.
4-3-2. When electrical induction factors are considered, electrical initiation may have to be rejected in favour of non-electric initiation. Prior to the start of operations, all electrical initiating equipment shall be checked as per Chapter 3 before any tests are conducted. Prior to the start of demolitions, site commanders will ensure that they are in possession of all blasting machine crank handles. DEMOLITION CABLE TESTING 4-3-3. Test Demolition Cable. All personnel working with electrical initiation shall know the procedures and hand signals involved. The tests are controlled by the person at the firing point, with an assistant at the other end of the cable. When a signal is sent or answered the person signalling will stand erect with feet slightly apart. The signal shall be given clearly so it can be easily understood. The following procedure and signals are used: a. Open Circuit. The tester starts by holding both ends of the demolition cable apart and above his shoulders, clearly indicating separation of the two conductors. The assistant separates the conductors, holds one in each hand and returns the "open circuit" signal as shown in Fig 4-3-1. The tester now untwists the ends of the conductors and inserts them into the ohmmeter tester, which must read fault. Closed Circuit. After completing the open circuit test, the tester signals by holding the arms above the head and bending the elbows so the hands touch, clearly indicating a closed circuit. The assistant twists the two bare ends of the conductors together and returns the "closed circuit" signal to the tester as shown in Fig 4-3-2. The tester now takes a reading which should show continuity and the number of ohms
b.
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resistance. The resistance reading of the wire and the combined resistance of all electrical detonators shall not exceed the capacity of the blasting machine.
Fig 4-3-1 Open circuit signal c.
Fig 4-3-2 Closed circuit signal
Shunt and Ground. Upon completion of a successful test, the tester twists the bare ends of the conductors together and grounds them by inserting 2-3 cm into the ground. The tester then signals to the assistant by holding one arm straight above the head, making a clear circular motion then bending and pointing to the ground as shown in Fig 4-3-3. The assistant returns the signal and completes shunting and grounding.
Fig 4-3-3 Shunt and ground signal 4-3-4. Fault Finding. If the tests indicate no continuity, there are one or more faults are in the cable. The following procedure will indicate where the fault is located: a. b. the tester untwists the conductors so the circuit is open, while ensuring the conductors are twisted together at the assistant's end; starting at the middle of the cable, using the ohmmeter tester and pricker cables determine what end of the cable has the break. Keep B-GL-361-008/FP-003 115
Demolitions
going to the half way point, determining which half has the break. When the tester reads "Fault" or "discontinuity", the break is located between the last test location and the present location; and c. the break or problem is then repaired as in Figure 4-1-1 and the continuity of the cable is checked again.
4-3-5. Discontinuity. After a successful demolition, the cable shall be tested for discontinuity. This will confirm that there are no shorts or grounding occurring in the cable. TESTING ELECTRIC DETONATORS 4-3-6. This test shall be conducted by the soldier firing the demolition, and it shall be supervised by an NCO. The electric detonators are tested one at a time using the following procedures: a. b. c. d. e. f. move the electric detonators from the ammunition point to a safe area 20 m from personnel and 8 m from other explosives or accessories); remove helmets if worn; personnel conducting the test will ground themselves for ten seconds; carefully remove an electric detonator from the container; straighten the leg wires and under control, place the electric detonator under a helmet or sandbag; with all personnel kneeling and keeping their backs to the electric detonator, remove the protective cover from the leg wire ends. Attach the wire ends to the terminals on the ohmmeter tester, note the amount of resistance; if satisfied with test, twist the leg wire ends together and stick the ends into the soil to ensure grounding; if not satisfied with results of the test, return the defective electric detonator to the Ammunition NCO for marking and disposal; under control, remove the electric detonator from under the helmet or sandbag, and coil up the leg wires while moving towards the leg wire ends stuck in the ground; and
g. h. j.
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k.
the tested electric detonator is either used immediately or is stored under a helmet or sandbag in a designated area under supervision.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT TESTING 4-3-7. The following applies if the electric detonator has not been used immediately after testing and has been temporarily stored or placed down: a. personnel connecting electric detonators to the demolition cable shall first ground themselves for ten seconds prior to handling electric detonators; and the demolition cable shall be grounded prior to and upon completion of connecting the electric detonator (at the firing point end once connected).
b.
4-3-8. Once the electric detonator is connected to the demolition cable, the circuit shall be tested for continuity and resistance. Normally this is done last when all other activity on the demolition site is complete and unnecessary personnel are off the site. This test shall be done on a regular basis on long standing demolition charges as part of regular maintenance. The procedure is as follows: a. ensure the electric detonator is in a safe area 20 m from personnel and 8 m from other explosives and accessories and covered with a helmet or sandbag; personnel ground themselves, then the ends of the demolition cable located at the firing point are removed from the ground. The ends are untwisted and connected to the terminals of the ohmmeter tester. There will be continuity and the resistance will not exceed the capacity of the blasting machine; and the ends of the demolition cable are then twisted together and stuck into the soil for grounding.
b.
c.
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Demolitions
Fig 4-3-4 Connecting an electric detonator to demolition cable in a single detonator firing circuit CALCULATE POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR SERIES CIRCUITS 4-3-9. General. For most military demolition operations, the present blasting machines are sufficient and power requirement is not a consideration. Other frequently used power sources such as batteries and generators have varying capabilities. In the case of multi-detonator circuits with demolition cable lengths of over one km, as in Battle Noise Simulation, it is important to know the total circuit resistance and power requirements. For military applications series circuits are used because of the limited numbers of detonators or igniters electric used. For information on series in parallel or parallel circuits see C-09-011-001/AB000. 4-3-10. Resistance. It is necessary to determine resistance to ensure that the power source is adequate to fire all electric detonators or igniters electric connected to the firing circuit. The total resistance in a series circuit is the sum of all the detonators or igniters electric, extension wires (if used) and demolition cable. Once the total resistance is known, the power required (in voltage) can be calculated using the Ohms Law.
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4-3-11. Ohm Law. Ohms law is used to calculate the electromotive force s required in volts to detonate the electric detonators or igniters electric on a circuit for which the resistance is known. E = IR Where: E = electromotive force (volts) I = current (amps) R = total circuit resistance(ohms)
4-3-12. Electric Power Formula. The power required can be calculated in watts or converted to watts if a known power source has an output expressed in watts. W = IE or W = I2R Where: W = electric power required (watts) I = current (amps) E = electromotive force (volts) R = total circuit resistance (ohms)
4-3-13. Planning. The amperage required for a circuit containing one or more electric detonators or igniters electric, connected in series will always be 1.5 amps, therefore "I" will always be 1.5 amps in the calculations. For planning purposes, when using military electric detonators or igniters electric, use two ohms resistance per electric detonator or igniter electric. Fig 4-3-5 can be used to calculate the resistance of the most common sizes of copper wire. If any other type of wire is used, the resistance of that wire must be known before resistance calculations are done. Resistance calculations are for planning purposes and are not intended to replace continuity and resistance checks. 4-3-14. Power Source Output. In any electric firing circuit, the power source must exceed the power required. To provide a margin of error for old power sources or inaccurate readings, the calculated electric power requirement of a circuit shall never exceed 90% of the power source. This information is available from the nameplate on the source or can be measured with a volt meter. Ser (a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 AWG gauge number (b) 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 Copper wire resistance (Ohms Per 305 m) (c) 0.395 0.628 0.999 1.588 2.525 (Note) 4.02 6.39 119
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Demolitions
AWG gauge Copper wire resistance (Ohms number Per 305 m) 8 20 10.15 9 22 16.14 Note: Normal military issue. Fig 4-3-5 Resistance of Copper Wire 4-3-15. Sample Calculations. The following sample calculations are shown to illustrate how the resistance of a circuit is to be calculated to determine if it is within the capabilities of the blasting machine. The circuit will be comprised of six igniters electric, 2 m leg wire extensions of 16 gauge wire and 900 m of 14 gauge demolition cable. a. b. Step 1. Calculate resistance of Igniters electric. 6 x 2 ohms = 12 ohms Step 2. Calculate resistance of demolition cable (two strands). (2 x 900 m) x 2.525 ohms (from Fig 4-3-5) 305 m = 14.9 ohms Step 3. Calculate resistance of extension wires. (6 igniters electric x 2 leg wires x 2 m extension wires) x 4.02 ohms (from Fig 4-3-5) 305 m = 6 x 2 x 2m x 4.02ohms 305m = 0.316 ohms Step 4. Calculate total resistance. (1) Igniters electric = 12 ohms
Ser
c.
d.
(2) Demolition cable = 14.9 ohms (3) Extension wires = 0.316 ohms
(4) Total circuit = 27.216 ohms, which is within the capabilities of the blasting machine CONNECTING SEVERAL DETONATORS TO DEMOLITION CABLE 4-3-16. For series type circuits, the preferred method for military applications, all the electric detonators or igniters electric are connected together to provide a
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single path for the current. One leg wire of one detonator is connected to a leg wire from the next detonator, and so on until all detonators or igniters electric are included in the circuit. If the leg wires are not long enough, then leg wires may be extended by the use of single conductor wires of approximately the same wire gauge. It is important that these extension wires be taken into account when calculating circuit resistance.
Fig 4-3-6 Connecting lead wires in a multi-detonator firing circuit ELECTRIC INITIATION SEQUENCE 4-3-17. Before Firing. The following procedure will be employed when using electric initiation: a. b. prepare charges, then the ring main(s); under supervision, test the electrical initiation components, then the entire electric initiation system (can be completed concurrently with other tasks); the designated person in charge shall ensure that all unnecessary personnel, stores, equipment and vehicles have cleared the danger area or are under protective cover; inform any sentries and other units in area that firing is about to commence; and upon command of the authorized person, the electric detonator can be taped to the cradle on the ring main to complete the firing circuit. Both ends of the body of the electric detonator shall be left exposed so they can be seen in the event of a misfire.
c.
d. e.
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Fig 4-3-7 Connecting detonators to demolition cable in multi-detonator firing circuit 4-3-18. a. b. Firing. When using electric initiation the following procedure is used: all remaining personnel (the firing party) move to the firing point; the intention to fire is signalled by use of voice (shout "firing" in the four directions), whistle or air horn (12 short blasts with one second intervals); during a minimum pause of ten seconds, personnel listen for sentries and watch for unauthorized personnel; the firing party will ground themselves, and continuity is verified again; the demolition cable is connected to the previously tested blasting machine and the crank handle is given to the person designated to fire the demolition; upon the command of the authorized person in charge, the demolition is fired; and
c. d. e.
f.
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g.
if successful, discontinuity is verified and the demolition cable ends are shunted and grounded. If unsuccessful, a second firing is immediately attempted.
4-3-19. When the demolition is fired all personnel will wear helmets, unless they are in prepared bunkers or shelters, or are outside the danger area. All personnel will be alert for flying debris, and observe or listen for possible misfires. 4-3-20. Combination Initiation. If combination initiation is used, the following procedures are to be used: a. b. c. d. e. a non-electric initiation set is prepared taking into consideration the walking time back to the firing point; upon command of the authorized commander, both initiation sets are connected to the ring main; the firing party signals it's intention to fire as described previously; the non-electric initiation set is fired; and the firing party then walks back to the firing point and completes the electric initiation procedure.
4-3-21. After Firing. Depending on the situation and if the demolition is successful, the following procedure shall be followed: a. b. c. discontinuity is verified and the cable ends are shunted and grounded; the designated person will ensure that the site is inspected to ensure all demolition charges have fired; once the all clear has been given, normally by voice, whistle or horn (one fifteen second blast) secondary tasks such as mining, booby trapping can be completed; and the effectiveness of the demolition and any other information are reported as required.
d.
4-3-22. Misfires. If the tactical situation allows, the firing circuit and charges will be tested and inspected to find the fault, corrected and then initiated again. a. In the event that the demolition fails, adhere to the specified waiting period for misfires as follows: B-GL-361-008/FP-003 123
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(1) non-electric initiation or igniters electric. Minimum thirty minutes; (2) electric initiation. Ten minutes; and (3) combination initiation. As for non-electric initiation, if the charge is buried, follow the procedures in Chapter 7.
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ANNEX A INSTRUCTIONAL, TRAINING AND EXERCISE SAFETY DISTANCES Ser (a) 1 2 Charge type (b)
Electric detonators and detonating cord In the open In the open
Target (c)
Charge size (d) As per local Range Standing Orders
Danger area radius (m) (Note 1)
Remarks (f)
If detonating cord clips are used the min safety distance - 100 m
(e) 20 a. on stone free ground: charge x 40 m (min 100 m) b. on stony ground: charge x 60 m (min 100 m) 0-0.5 kg 30 0.5-1 kg 60 1-2 kg 70 2-3 kg 80 3-4 kg 90 4-5 kg 100 5-10 kg 120 0-0.5 kg 60 0.5-1 kg 80 1-2 kg 90 2-3 kg 100 3-4 kg 120 4-5 kg 140 5-10 kg180 a. 300 b. 500 c. 1000 1000 a. b. c. 500 a. b. 100 300 500
Charges for battle inoculation and demonstrations Charges for battle inoculation on stone free ground
In the open
a.Troops static-max 10 kg b. Troops mobile - max 0.5 kg
a.
If detonating cord clips used the min safety dist - 100 m b. Charges are not to be covered
As for serial 3 but on stony ground
In the open
As for serial 3
If detonating cord clips used min safety dist- 100 m
Cutting
6 7
Concussion Cratering
a. Timber b. Concrete c. Metal (girders, guns and vehicles) Buildings and AFVs
Roads, runways and railways
Limited by local Range Standing Orders
As for serial 5 a. up to 2kg b. 2-30 kg c. over 30 kg As for serial 5
Includes explosive aid to digging.
8 9
Buried Borehole
Piers, abutments and retaining walls a. Timber As for serial 5 b. Rock, masonary, concrete and brick
300 500
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Danger area radius (m) (Note 1)
Ser (a) 10
Charge type (b) Breaching
Target (c)
Reinforced concrete beams and slabs, mass concrete walls and obstacles
Charge size (d) As for serial 5
Remarks (f)
(e) 1000
11
Bangalore Torpedo Wire Obstacles (Commercially manufactured) Shaped Charges

Concrete, steel or armour plate
a. b. c. a. Conical (1) Charge Demolition, 15 lbs, M2A4 (6.8 kg HE) (2) Charge Demolition, 40 lbs, M3A1(18.1 kg HE) (3) DREScavator, (10 kg HE) b. Linear (1) Charge Demoliton, No. 14, 11 lbs, MK 1 (5 kg HE)
(2) Charge Demolition, 10 kg, Trigran C24 DREStructor
1000 200 100
12
a. (1) (2) (3) b. (1) (2)
400 500 500
a. Perpendicular (right angles) to torpedo axis b. Standing in line with axis c. Lying in line with axis Includes mines used for expedient charges.
Distances in column (e) are for shaped charges fired vertically. When fired in another plane, the danger area in line with the molten slug shall be 1000 m.
300 400
Charges shall not be detonated until divers or swimmers have left the water.
13 14
Underwater
Distances are similar to distances for charges on land.
Improvised charges Improvised charge safety distances are governed by the most hazardous construction material used in the charge or the target. If either the charge or target contain the following materials the associated safety distance will be used: a. Wood, Plastic or Glass - 300 m b. Concrete - 500 m c. Steel - 1000 m NOTES 1. These danger areas shall be observed in peacetime when adequate cover is not provided. 2. This figure includes all charge types described in this publication. Fig 4A-1 Instructional, training and exercise safety distances
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ANNEX B OPERATIONAL SAFETY DISTANCES WARNING: OPERATIONAL DEMOLITIONS USE ONLY (DO NOT EXTRAPOLATE) Injury from Blast (Notes 1, 3 and 4) Damage to Property (Notes 1, 3 and 4) Ser Weight of explosive (kg) Distance at which personnel are safe, provided they have adequate protection (ie, inside a trench or AFV) from fragments and debris (m) (c) 20 25 30 35 40 45 45 50 50 50 55 60 70 75 85 85 95 Distance up to which personnel suffer acute aural discomfort and possibly some ear damage (m) Distance up to which there is a likelihood of ear injury and possibility of more serious injury (m) Distance up to which personnel may sustain serious but probably not fatal injury and there is danger of fatalities by blast pressure or by sudden displacement (m) (f) 05 05 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 15 20 20 20 25 Average distance up to which minor
house damage
occurs (m)
Average distance up to which houses are rendered uninhabitable. Extensive repairs are necessary (m)
Average distance up to which houses are badly damaged and require demolition (m)
Average distance up to which 50% of glass is broken (Note 2) (m)
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
(b) 05 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 300 400 500 600
(d) 15 15 20 20 25 25 25 30 30 30 30 35 40 45 50 55 55
(e) 10 10 10 15 15 15 15 15 20 20 20 20 25 25 30 30 30
(g) 05 10 10 10 15 15 15 15 15 20 20 20 25 30 35 35 40
(h) 05 10 10 15 15 20 20 20 25 25 25 35 35 45 55 60 65
(i) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 40 45 50 50 65 75 95 115 130 145
(j) 25 35 45 55 60 65 90 100 110 115 125 140 185 235 280 320 360
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Injury from Blast (Notes 1, 3 and 4) Ser Weight of explosive (kg) Distance at which personnel are safe, provided they have adequate protection (ie, inside a trench or AFV) from fragments and debris (m) (c) 100 105 110 110 130 140 150 Distance up to which personnel suffer acute aural discomfort and possibly some ear damage (m) Distance up to which there is a likelihood of ear injury and possibility of more serious injury (m) Distance up to which personnel may sustain serious but probably not fatal injury and there is danger of fatalities by blast pressure or by sudden displacement (m) (f) 25 25 25 30 30 35 40 Average distance up to which minor
house damage
Damage to Property (Notes 1, 3 and 4) Average distance up to which houses are rendered uninhabitable. Extensive repairs are necessary (m) Average distance up to which houses are badly damaged and require demolition (m) Average distance up to which 50% of glass is broken (Note 2) (m)
occurs (m)
(a) 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
(b) 700 800 900 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
(d) 60 60 65 65 75 80 85
(e) 30 35 35 35 40 45 50
(g) 45 45 50 50 60 70 75
(h) 70 75 80 85 105 125 140
(i) 160 170 185 195 250 300 340 350
(j) 395 425 460 485 620 740 845 860
25 5,000 190 110 60 50 105 200 Notes: 1. Distances have been rounded off to the next highest 5 metres. 2. 10% of glass is broken at twice these distances, and usual limit of glass breakage is three times these distances. 3. These distances are for blast effect only. Protection must be sought from flying debris. 4. Figures are for Service Plastic Explosives. Fig 4B-1 Operational safety distances
WARNING: OPERATIONAL DEMOLITIONS USE ONLY (DO NOT EXTRAPOLATE)
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Typical Demolition Tasks
CHAPTER 5 TYPICAL DEMOLITION TASKS SECTION 1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE 5-1-1. The tactical aim of a demolition task must be clearly understood because it influences the technical methods employed to destroy the target. For every task, there is a minimum amount of damage or destruction necessary to achieve the aim, and it will be done efficiently using the available time, manpower and resources. To exceed the damage necessary for the objective is a waste of effort and resources. OBSTACLE 5-1-2. Particular attention shall always be given to restricting any repair of the obstacle. This can be done by laying mines, booby-traps, or crating the approaches to the target. The following sections describe methods of causing effective damage to some of the more important types of demolition targets. It shall also be remembered that some targets can be more effectively and easily destroyed by non-explosive methods. GAP SIZE 5-1-3. The obstacle gap created will normally exceed the maximum span capability of enemy assault bridging. This is taken as a minimum of 40 m. The gap size or denial effectiveness can be increased by the use of mines, booby traps, fencing and debris. CONSTRUCTION 5-1-4. Demolitions can also be used on several construction applications if heavy equipment is not available, including: a. b. c. d. excavating for field fortifications and antitank ditches; land clearing of trees, stumps and boulders; obstacle clearance; and clearance of ice and log jams.
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5-1-5. B-GL-320-009/FP-001 discusses the use of explosives for excavating field fortifications including land clearing, cratering, ditching and ice demolitions ROCK BLASTING 5-1-6. Rock blasting is the start of the rock production cycle in quarry operations. Military explosives are not normally used for this task. There is a wide range of commercial explosives suitable for quarry blasting, differing in properties for various situations. Therefore loading and firing techniques used in quarry blasting are quite different than the more common demolition tasks. Specific details concerning the use of explosives in quarry blasting are covered in B-GL-320-012/FP-004. 5-1-7. The nature of the rock blasting operation involves the drilling of boreholes in large rock formations that are beyond the capacity of present military equipment, and specialized drilling patterns. The details of these and other aspects of rock blasting are beyond the scope of this manual. However, a basic familiarization and understanding of terminology used in quarry blasting is beneficial. The engineer executing any small rock blasting task must observe the results and be prepared to modify patterns, explosive quantities and methods to achieve the best results. 5-1-8. Terminology. The following terms relating to quarrying are used in this section: a. b. c. d. burden - the distance measured from the explosive to the face; collar - the open end of the drill hole; cut - the opening holes of an excavation designed to provide "relief" for later holes to break toward; cut-off - a failure caused by ground movement cutting-off a column of explosives or detonating cord before it can fire, caused by improper use of delay devices; face - the rock surface to be excavated; grade - the floor of the quarry; load factor - the quantity of explosive used per cubic metre of material excavated. Sometimes called a powder factor;
e. f. g.
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h. j.
muck pile - the broken rock from a blast; and toe - the bottom of the quarry face.
5-1-9. Principles of rock excavation. The aim of rock excavation is to achieve the desired breakage with a minimum of drilling and explosive. To achieve this aim the following points must be considered: a. b. c. d. the tendency of the rock to break away when explosives are fired ("relieving" the holes); the borehole blast design and sequence of firing; the loading of the explosives into the holes; and the geological factors such as the strength of the rock.
5-1-10. Relief. If a single hole was drilled deep into a large rock surface and exploded, one could expect to produce some radial cracks and perhaps some breakage at the entrance of the hole, because the rock has no room for movement. If the hole is drilled near the open face, and exploded the rock is relieved into the face. This is the basic principle of quarrying, "to shoot to a relief face". 5-1-11. The first step in quarrying is to provide the relief face. If the face already exists naturally, much effort can be saved. If a natural face cannot be found, a cut must be made to produce the face. This cut is made by drilling a grid of boreholes with a spacing approximately equal to the depth of the boreholes. After firing, the loose rock is removed and if necessary further holes are fired until a face of sufficient height is developed. 5-1-12. Having established a face, quarrying can begin by drilling and firing lines of boreholes at the face. These boreholes generally give the best results when drilled vertically from the top, but horizontal boreholes may be used. B-GL-320-012/FP-004 illustrates blast patterns.
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SECTION 2 ROAD SYSTEMS (LESS BRIDGES) SITES FOR ATTACK 5-2-1. The extent to which roads can be destroyed will vary from a simple crater obstacle to a route denial belt which blocks in depth all routes within it. Apart from bridge demolitions, the technical problem is simple. 5-2-2. The site chosen shall be one which cannot be easily by-passed and where there is difficulty in deploying repair equipment. Ripping only breaks up the road pavement whereas explosives are used to attack the subgrade and if possible, the drainage system. Flooding will hinder repairs and cause prolonged maintenance troubles. Suitable sites for attack are: a. b. Bridges Approaches. Where the stream or gap is too small to provide a sufficient obstacle in itself, the approaches shall be destroyed as well. Culverts. Charges laid in culverts shall be well tamped if they are to destroy the road as well. They are seldom worth using as single obstacles. However, if the aim is to block the drainage system, the destruction of a culvert is a quick way of achieving it. Fords. Effective obstacles can be created at fords, and causeways over marshy ground by cratering, flooding and mining. Escarpments or steep hill sides. The charge should be designed to blow outwards as well as upwards. It is better to blow away the road, rather than to bring down the hill-side on top of it, as this may permit the use of the road after clearance of the debris. Embankments. Embankments are often difficult to by-pass if blocked, particularly in marshy areas. Cuttings. In deep cuttings with steep sides, blowing in the sides of the cutting may create a more effective obstacle. Craters within cuttings are ineffective because the debris would fall back into the obstacle. Woods. Obstacles shall be created in wooded areas at points where the undergrowth or the trees are so dense that to construct a detour requires considerable effort. Road junctions and level crossings. An excellent means of blocking two routes in one demolition.
c. d.
e. f.
g.
h.
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j.
Towns and villages. These sometimes afford good obstacle sites, but even if all sides streets are blocked as well as the main thoroughfare, a bypass route can quickly be made by demolishing a few buildings, and there is always ample local material to fill in craters. Road Tunnels. Road tunnels provide a choke point on a road and are therefore good demolition targets. The best points of attack are places where it passes through loose or shifting ground.
k.
5-2-3. The main consideration with a large route denial operation is to keep planning simple. It is important to ensure that all axial roads are damaged to the same degree to prevent bypass. The general method of attack may vary with the nature of the road. In some cases, denial can be quick and more effective by simply blowing a single bridge or a short length of road in a good defile, instead of destroying many miles of road surface itself. ROUTE DENIAL OBSTACLES 5-2-4. The emplacing of route denial obstacles involves the progressive execution of explosive or non-explosive obstacles along one or more routes in front of an opposing force. Generally used during defensive operations as part of a major obstacle belt, route denial obstacles can also be employed during the delay or covering force battle and withdrawal operations. Use of scatterable mines, preplanned artillery fire plans and prepared obstacles can effectively enhance route denial obstacles if coordinated early in the operational planning process. In order for route denial obstacles to be effective, they must be executed quickly and efficiently using well trained troop, section and sub-section drills. 5-2-5. There are two methods of emplacing route denial obstacles. The more commonly known Rapid Route Denial (RRD) method and the newer Systematic Route Denial (SRD) method. An understanding of the concepts and the employment of standard drills of each method is critical in the choice of which method is to be used. What is also appropriate in making the choice, particularly to the engineer troop commander on the ground, is an understanding of all available techniques to emplace the obstacle, their advantages and disadvantages, limitations and circumstances which favour their use. It is the officer's function based on his tasking and detailed reconnaissance, to select the best method suited for a particular situation. RAPID ROUTE DENIAL 5-2-6. Rapid route denial was developed to optimize the rapid development of a major obstacle belt of perhaps twelve or more multi-crater sites. The method
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works well only when all sites are preliminary demolitions. The method uses an assembly line technique with concurrent activity from the various parties involved - recce party, chamber party, charging and ring main party, and firing and mining parties. This method is impractical for small operations since there is generally not enough time to bring the "assembly line" up to speed. There are several advantages and disadvantages to the rapid route denial method. a. Advantages. (1) the first crater obstacle is created much quicker than by any other method; (2) none of the prepared sites require protection by demolition guards or firing parties; (3) time lost due to travel between the site and safe area for each step of the procedure is significantly reduced; and (4) all parties can prepare for their specific sub-task at each site rather than each field section preparing for all sub-tasks at one site. b. Disadvantages. (1) field troops must reorganize into the required parties and section stores and equipment redistributed, thus disrupting the established chain of command and section integrity; (2) the method is more vulnerable to enemy action or vehicle breakdown. Work will not continue until a new party is constituted, tasks are reallocated or transport redistributed; (3) the method is overly dependent on the single troop ammunition vehicle. Conflicting requirements for the ammunition vehicle to be moving rearward to be resupplied at the same time of a route denial operation can cause timing problems. The charging and mining parties will require dedicated vehicle support (probably the ammunition vehicle) to transport the large quantities of explosives and mines necessary to complete all of the target sites; (4) site control and continuity will be difficult as no single commander will oversee the preparation of the target from start to finish. This may result in confusion and will cause lost time as each party becomes familiar with each new location.
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5-2-7. As can be seen by the list of advantages and disadvantages, careful mission analysis and a thorough knowledge of both tactical and technical situations are required. It is reiterated that this method was originally, and still is, intended or suited to a crater obstacle route denial task. Employment of this method for abatis, wire obstacle, booby trapping or other improvised nonexplosive obstacles is not recommended. SYSTEMATIC ROUTE DENIAL 5-2-8. Systematic route denial is a system of leap-frogging engineer sections from target to target along the route to be denied. It has been considered to be a less sophisticated system, which is easily understood and implemented. It is further argued that it is a very quick and flexible system that requires little reorganization, easily initiated and operationally effective during times of radio silence. 5-2-9. During the systematic route denial method, field sections are given orders to execute one or more complete obstacles rather than to perform a specific sub-task. The method involves leap-frogging, rearward, the lead section (section closest to the enemy) through other field sections that are preparing subsequent obstacles along the route. Once the lead section has cleared the other working sections, they can be resupplied or reconstituted to start working on the next obstacle in the chain of tasks or ordered to some other task. This method is particularly useful for small operations where there are insufficient numbers of obstacles to bring the rapid route denial assembly line up to speed or not all the obstacles are of the same type. Advantages and disadvantages to the systematic route denial method are as follows: a. Advantages: (1) a single field section commander is responsible for the obstacle task from start to finish minimizing confusion of orders; (2) command and control is maintained at all times even under conditions of radio silence. If the particular situation calls for it, the field troop commander is on site for the authorization to execute the firing of any explosive charges in the event that the tactical situation changes and a difficult judgement call needs to be made in the event of pending failure, capture or enemy action; (3) preparation or reorganization time for the field sections is minimal due to the organization of section basic loads;
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(4) the system is flexible in that any number of field sections can be attached or detached from the troop with no change in command and control procedures. Any number of targets can be attacked without complicating the troop resupply system; (5) administrative control can still be maintained even if the troop is split on two routes; (6) the success of the total operation does not depend as heavily on each party doing its assigned sub-task; and (7) the troop ammunition vehicle is free to move back to the echelon for replenishment as each section carries a basic load, or individual basic loads can be adjusted to suit particular obstacle tasks. b. Disadvantages: (1) the systematic route denial method can be inefficient in time and resources. The employment of a complete field section on a "simple" obstacle such as a wire fence obstacle, or small boobytrap obstacle that may require a half-section working party that could have been dropped-off then picked-up after completion, has utilized the truck/APC resource, the auger, the explosives and mines carrying capability or even the dozer capability; (2) the concept of leap-frogging of sections through each other, on the ground, actually translates to delicate vehicle manoeuvring through, over or around the different obstacle sites being prepared which must be correctly coordinated and timed. 5-2-10. Regardless of these comparisons between the two methods, the principle point is that no single drill, technique or method can be applied in every situation. Knowing all the aspects of the engineer operation to be completed will enable the engineer commander to select the proper method to conduct route denial tasks as the situation dictates. With properly trained field sections, good leadership and sufficient resources, either method can be used as is or modified as applicable. METHODS OF ATTACK 5-2-11. Cratering Charges. Roads are best destroyed by cratering at points where the building density or terrain features preclude direct bypassing of the
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obstacle. Preparation of road craters at turns in the road increases their effectiveness since this will make armoured vehicle launched bridging more difficult. Charges may be buried in the subgrade by one of the methods described in Chapter 6. In cases where the ground water table is high, placing buried charges will be difficult. A deep crater filled with water creates a more effective obstacle. 5-2-12. Manholes, sewers, and culverts may provide readily usable charge chambers for craters. Normal rules for spacing of these buried charges shall be observed. If more than one charge is used, no stemming is required between charges, but stemming must be placed from the outside charges to the outer extremities of the demolition as shown in Fig 6-6-2. 5-2-13. Culverts are blocked to cause flooding. A cutting charge propped against the underside of the arch over a length of three metres should ensure sufficient collapse to block it. RIPPING 5-2-14. Rippers on dozers and scarifiers on graders can penetrate hard ground, rock or road pavement material and break it up to enable further obstacle enhancement. Large sections of concrete surfaces are simply broken up or overturned to expose the subgrade. Ripping or scarifying shall be supplemented by antitank mines or by a crater every 50 m to deny the road. TUNNELS 5-2-15. The best point to attack a tunnel is where it passes through unstable ground. The brick or masonry lining shall be destroyed along 15 to 25 m by a series of small charges placed in or behind the lining by the borehole method at a height of about 1 m. If the borehole method is impracticable, a cutting charge should be used. It is often sufficient to destroy one side of the arch ring in this manner. The weight of the over- burden will bring down the roof and fill the section of Fig 5-2-1 Demolition of tunnel tunnel. In solid rock, the destruction of in hard ground or the lining, if any, will often have little rock effect, and large breaching charges
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must be used. A very effective obstacle can be created by laying three charges (at right), however a great deal of work is required to place the charges. The use of a ventilating shaft as the chamber for the charge, will often save time and effort. ABATIS 5-2-16. Trees felled can be used to block a road or defile. To stop tracked vehicles the trees should be at least 0.6 m in diameter and 6 m tall. Trees selected can be felled by explosives, chainsaw, or hand-axe and saw, but are felled so that the trunk remains attached to the stump. To stop wheeled vehicles the diameter of the trees may be smaller, although the remaining characteristics remain the same. Barbed wire, antitank mines, or booby-traps greatly increase the effectiveness. Abatis can be light or heavy: a. b. Light abatis. This is 20 to 50 m deep. If constructed with explosives, 1 to 1.5 hours work by a section is required. Heavy abatis. This is 50 to 100 m deep. If constructed with explosives, 2 to 3 hours work by a section is required.
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SECTION 3 BRIDGES GENERAL 5-3-1. The aim of bridge demolition is to create a gap large enough to make breaching, bypassing or repairs impracticable, and to force the enemy to re-bridge on a less favourable site. 5-3-2. Size of Gap. The gap required normally exceeds the maximum span capability of assault bridging equipment of the opposing force. This is taken as a minimum of 40 m. If the total gap spanned by a bridge is too small to restrict the use of assault bridging, the gap may be increased by destroying the abutments and cratering the immediate approaches. In this case, all adjacent sites suitable for bridging are also to be destroyed. 5-3-3. Degree of Destruction. The complete demolition of a bridge usually involves the destruction of all the components such as the spans, piers (if any), and the abutments. Complete demolition may be justified in cases where the terrain forces the enemy to reconstruct on the same site, but this is normally not required to meet the tactical objective. The method of attack is always selected to achieve the tactical objective with the minimum expenditure of resources. 5-3-4. Debris. Debris may cause serious construction delays if it is obstructing the gap. It also provides excellent cover for antitank mines and booby-traps. Whenever possible, bridges shall be demolished in such a way that the resulting debris imposes the maximum hindrance to reconstruction. For example, it could be a waste of resources to completely destroy the spans, piers and abutments of a bridge if the rubble from the abutments could readily be improved Fig 5-3-1 Use of debris to delay by dozing to provide ramps for a rebridging. abutments could readily be improved by dozing to provide ramps for a floating bridge. Leaving a "saw-tooth" pattern of debris (Fig 5-3-1) above the water level poses a difficult problem to overcome.
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5-3-5. Stages of Preparation. When planning a bridge demolition operation, it is essential that the first priority be the creation of a gap. This may require a one stage or a two stage attack. Further tasks to improve the obstacle can follow if the situation permits, including: a. b. c. cratering and mining abutments; destruction of piers; and cratering and mining approaches and alternate crossing sites.
PRINCIPLES OF BRIDGE DEMOLITION 5-3-6. If the engineer officer or NCO fails to recognize the characteristics of the target, the results of a demolition may be quite different from those expected. To overcome this, two concepts are used: collapse mechanism, and bridge categorization. COLLAPSE MECHANISM 5-3-7. General. There are two minimum conditions for a successful bridge demolition: a. b. a collapse mechanism must be formed; and once formed, the collapse mechanism must be free to move far enough to create the desired obstacle.
Fig 5-3-2 No collapse mechanism
5-3-8. Condition 1 - A collapse mechanism. Under normal conditions a bridge is a stable structure. In bridge demolitions the aim is to destroy certain parts of the bridge, causing the bridge to become unstable and to collapse under its own weight. That is, a hinge mechanism must be formed. This may involve the formation of hinges on various parts of the bridge. Fig 5-3-2 shows the lack of a collapse mechanism.
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5-3-9. Condition 2 Freedom of Movement. Once formed, the collapse mechanism must be free to move far enough under its own weight to create the desired obstacle otherwise it will jam and will not create the desired result (Fig 5-3-3). This may require cropping of the Fig 5-3-3 Jammed collapse mechanism bridge, abutment, or pier. 5-3-10. Types of Collapse Mechanism. There are three types of collapse mechanism (Fig 5-3-4) that may be formed by demolition. a. b. c. the see-saw; the beam; and the member without support.
Fig 5-3-4 Types of collapse mechanism BRIDGE CATEGORIZATION 5-3-11. General. The first step necessary to achieve an efficient bridge demolition is to categorize a bridge correctly. The term "categorization" has been adopted to avoid confusion with the term "classification" which is concerned with the load carrying capacity of bridges. The correct categorization of bridges coupled with an elementary knowledge of bridge design allows a suitable method of attack to be selected.
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5-3-12.
Categories. All bridges can be placed into one of three categories:
Fig 5-3-5 Simply supported bridge spans a. Simply Supported. A bridge is simply supported when an individual span is supported at each end without rotational restraint and with at least one end free to move horizontally. The theoretically ideal simply supported bridge is shown in Fig 5-3-5. The free bearing representsany bearing which allows some horizontal movement (for expansion and contraction due to temperature), e.g. roller bearings, sliding bearings, rubber bearing pads, etc. Multi-span bridges may consist of several simply supported spans. Continuous. "Continuous" has a wider meaning than that of a multispan continuous beam bridge, as would normally be implied. For demolition purposes, cantilever, portal and arch bridges are considered as continuous for the determination of the method of attack. If a bridge does not belong to the miscellaneous category and is not simply supported, the rule of thumb is to categorize it as "continuous". Miscellaneous. This category forms a small proportion of bridge structures. The method of attack for this category must be worked out from first principles. Examples of this category are suspension bridges, swing or lift bridges, and cable stayed bridges.
b.
c.
5-3-13. Differentiation Between Categories. There are a number of guidelines which are used to differentiate between simply supported and continuous bridges. These are described be-low and shown here. a. Continuity. Multi-span simply supported bridges usually have distinct breaks over the piers. In Fig 5-3-6, two simply supported spans are indicated because of the discontinuity of the bridge at the pier. In comparison, the main structural members of a continuous bridge are continuous over intermediate piers.
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Fig 5-3-6 Identification of simply supported and continuous spans b. Construction depth. In multi-span simply supported bridges the construction depth of the span may decrease at the piers as in Fig 5-3-6, whereas in continuous bridges it frequently increases at the piers. Flange thickness. This guideline applies only to steel plate girder bridges. In simply supported bridges the thickness flange plate frequently increases at mid-span, whereas in continuous bridges it frequently increases over the piers. Bearings. Multi-span simply supported bridges require two lines of bearings at the piers; continuous bridges only one.
c.
d. e.
Guiding Rule. The external appearance of a bridge can sometimes be deceptive. Whenever possible, construction drawings should be consulted to ascertain the correct category. However, if this is not possible and if there is any uncertainty about the support condition of a bridge span, the guiding rule is to always assume CONTINUOUS. The use of this rule always results in the selection of an adequate method of attack. However, failure to recognize the simply supported condition will invariably result in unnecessary demolition effort.
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CATEGORIZATION OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BRIDGES 5-3-14. The categorization chart for simply supported bridges (Fig 5-3-7), is entered from the left, and lines and arrows are followed across to the right. The route selected includes all categorization terms applicable to a particular bridge. 5-3-15. Sub-Categories. There are four main subcategories: steel beam, steel truss, concrete beam/slab, and bowstring. The first three can be sub-divided further into deck bridges, where the load is carried on top of the main structural members, or through bridges where the load is carried Fig 5-3-7 Simply supported between the main structural categorization chart members. For deck bridges it is necessary to determine the location of bearings (i.e. supporting the top chord/flange or the bottom chord/flange), as this has an influence on the possibility of jamming during demolition. 5-3-16. Definitions. The terms used in the simply supported categorization chart are explained below. a. Steel beam bridge. This sub-category includes normal steel beams, plate girders, and box girder spans. Typical cross sections are shown at the right.
Fig 5-3-8 Steel beam bridge typical crosssections
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b.
Steel truss bridge. There are many varieties of trusses used in bridge design, however all truss bridges contain diagonal members. Side elevations for the three normal configurations are shown here. Fig 5-3-9 Steel truss bridges
c.
Concrete beam/slab bridge. For categorization purposes there is no need to distinguish between reinforced and pre-stressed concrete bridges, as methods of attack are the same. Fig 5-3-10 shows mid-span cross-sections of types of concrete bridges most likely to be encountered. At the mid-span, the majority of steel reinforcing rods or tendons are located in the bottom section of the bridge, which is the most difficult part to attack with the current range of explosives. This fact has been considered in recommending the methods of attack for concrete bridges.
Fig 5-3-10 Mid-span cross-sections concrete bridges
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Fig 5-3-11 Simply supported, bowstring, normal d. Bowstring bridge. The normal bowstring has the form shown above. The bow may be a steel beam, box girder, concrete beam, or steel truss, and is mainly in compression. The deck acts as a tie and resists the outward force applied by the bow. The deck is designed as a weak beam spanning between hangers with no diagonal bracing between the hangers.
Fig 5-3-12 Simply supported, bowstring, reinforced e. Reinforced bowstring bridge. Occasionally a bowstring is used to reinforce a large steel beam/truss bridge. This type of bridge is categorized as a simply supported bowstring, reinforced (Fig 5-3-12). The existence of a steel beam or steel truss extending the full length of the entire span indicates that a bowstring bridge shall be regarded as "reinforced". Arch bridge. A bridge of the form shown in Fig 5-3-13 is not a bowstring. It is an arch; the outward forces of the arch are restrained primarily by the abutments and not by the deck. Fig 5-3-13 Type of arch bridge The categorization of this type of bridge is explained in the section on continuous bridges.
f.
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DEMOLITION OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BRIDGE 5-3-17. Reconnaissance. The reconnaissance procedure for simply supported bridges is: a. categorize the bridge as directed in the preceding paragraphs; take the following measurements (Fig 5-3-14); Fig 5-3-14 Measurements of simply supported spans
b.
(1) length of bridge L in metres. (Note that this is not the width of the gap itself, but the actual length of the longitudinal members which support the deck); do this for each span, (2) beam/truss/bow depth H in metres. This dimension includes the deck, (3) total end clearance E in metres. This is the sum of the end clearances at both ends of the span, and (4) the mean of the bearing support lengths Ls in metres at each end of the span. This is the average of the lengths from the end of the span to the face of the abutment or pier; c. d. determine the method of attack; and take detailed measurements required for charge calculations at the points of attack.
5-3-18. Point of attack. The point of attack will be at, or near mid-span because bending moments due to the bridge span's weight are at a maximum at mid-span, and the likelihood of jamming during collapse is reduced. 5-3-19. Line of attack. The line of attack will be parallel to the lines of the abutments as shown in Fig 5-3-15. This reduces the risk of restraining moments forming about opposite corners of the bridge, which could prevent collapse under it's own weight. Bridges shall therefore be demolished without twisting. If the recommended line of attack involves
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cutting across transverse beams, the line shall be repositioned to cut between adjacent trans-verse beams. 5-3-20. Methods of attack. The methods of attack are shown in Annex A to this Chapter. The method likely to produce the most economical solution is described first. Within each category there are variations in detailed construction, span, loading (e.g. Fig 5-3-15 Lines of attack road, rail, or both), gap and abutment conditions which influence the selection of the most suitable method. Thus, the method of attack first recommended in Annex A may not always be the most suitable. The selection of the best method of attack rests with the officer or NCO who carries out the reconnaissance. The three recommended methods of attacking a simply supported bridge span are a bottom attack, a top attack, or an angled attack. In all cases, it is necessary to ensure that jamming does not occur during collapses. 5-3-21. Bottom attack. For a bottom attack, it is necessary to have sufficient end clearance. The required end clearance (ER) to prevent jamming can be determined from Fig 5-3-16. If the total end clearance (E), is greater than the required clearance (ER), jamming will not occur and a bottom attack can be used. If E is less then ER then a top or angled attack is required, or the required end clearance must be created by: a. b. cropping the bottom corners of the bridge at one abutment; or destroying one abutment at the places where jamming would occur. Ser (a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 H/L (b) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 ER/L (c) 0.0002 0.0008 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.016 Ser (a) 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 H/L (b) 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 ER/L (c) 0.024 0.029 0.034 0.039 0.044 0.050 0.057 0.063 0.070
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Ser H/L ER/L Ser H/L ER/L (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) 10 0.10 0.020 20 0.20 0.077 Based on ER/L = [ 4x(H/L)2 + 1 ]1/2 - 1 Fig 5-3-16 Required end clearance (ER) at supports for mid-span bottom attack 5-3-22. Top attack. For a top attack, if it is necessary to remove a section at mid-span from the top of the bridge, the length of cut (Lc) to be removed is calculated using the table at Fig 5-3-17. The correct (Lc) will ensure the removal of the V-shaped cross section from the span required to prevent jamming. The depth of the V-shaped section is the full depth of the target. 5-3-23. Angled attack. For angled attacks, all members including handrails and service pipes must be cut. The angle of attack shall be about 70o to the horizontal to prevent jamming. The location of the attack shall be between the mid-span point and a point one-third (1/3) from one end. Some latitude in selecting the point of attack is allowed to reduce the need for changes to methods of attack. Figures showing methods of attack are provided at Annex A to this chapter. 5-3-24. Concrete bridges. For concrete bridges other than reinforced or prestressed concrete slab bridges, no bottom attack method has been included in Annex A. A bottom attack will be preferred once explosive charges capable of severing steel and concrete to depths greater than 0.15 m are introduced into service. In a top attack, all concrete within the indicated V-shaped section (Lc) must be removed to cut the span. A concrete stripping charge must be applied to achieve this. There is no requirement to cut steel reinforcing rods. 5-3-25. The table at Fig 5-3-17 is based on this formula :
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149

Ls/L
0.010 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.022 0.023 0.024 0.025 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.032 0.033 0.034 0.035 0.036 0.037 0.038 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.047 0.048 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.053 0.054 0.055 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.020 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.018 0.018 0.018 0.018 0.018 0.019 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.030 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.015 0.016 0.016 0.017 0.017 0.018 0.018 0.018 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.020 0.021 0.021 0.021 0.022 0.022 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.025 0.025 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.027 0.027 0.027 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.029 0.029 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.031 0.040 0.010 0.011 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.021 0.022 0.023 0.023 0.024 0.025 0.025 0.026 0.026 0.027 0.027 0.028 0.029 0.029 0.030 0.030 0.031 0.031 0.032 0.032 0.033 0.033 0.034 0.034 0.035 0.035 0.036 0.036 0.037 0.037 0.038 0.038 0.039 0.039 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.041 0.041 0.050 0.013 0.014 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.022 0.023 0.024 0.025 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.031 0.032 0.033 0.034 0.034 0.035 0.036 0.036 0.037 0.038 0.038 0.039 0.040 0.040 0.041 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.046 0.047 0.047 0.048 0.048 0.049 0.050 0.050 0.051 0.051 0.060 0.015 0.017 0.019 0.020 0.022 0.023 0.024 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.032 0.033 0.034 0.035 0.036 0.037 0.038 0.039 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.047 0.047 0.048 0.049 0.050 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.053 0.053 0.054 0.055 0.055 0.056 0.057 0.057 0.058 0.059 0.059 0.060 0.061 0.061 0.070 0.018 0.020 0.022 0.024 0.025 0.027 0.028 0.030 0.031 0.033 0.034 0.035 0.036 0.037 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.047 0.048 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.053 0.054 0.054 0.055 0.056 0.057 0.058 0.059 0.060 0.060 0.061 0.062 0.063 0.064 0.065 0.065 0.066 0.067 0.068 0.069 0.069 0.070 0.071 0.072 0.080 0.020 0.023 0.025 0.027 0.029 0.031 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.037 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.043 0.044 0.045 0.047 0.048 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.053 0.054 0.055 0.056 0.057 0.058 0.059 0.060 0.061 0.062 0.063 0.064 0.065 0.066 0.067 0.068 0.069 0.070 0.071 0.072 0.073 0.074 0.075 0.076 0.077 0.077 0.078 0.079 0.080 0.081 0.082 0.090 0.023 0.026 0.028 0.030 0.033 0.035 0.037 0.038 0.040 0.042 0.044 0.045 0.047 0.048 0.050 0.051 0.053 0.054 0.055 0.057 0.058 0.059 0.060 0.062 0.063 0.064 0.065 0.067 0.068 0.069 0.070 0.071 0.072 0.073 0.074 0.076 0.077 0.078 0.079 0.080 0.081 0.082 0.083 0.084 0.085 0.086 0.087 0.088 0.089 0.090 0.091 0.092 0.100 0.025 0.028 0.031 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.041 0.043 0.045 0.047 0.048 0.050 0.052 0.054 0.055 0.057 0.058 0.060 0.061 0.063 0.064 0.066 0.067 0.069 0.070 0.071 0.073 0.074 0.075 0.077 0.078 0.079 0.080 0.082 0.083 0.084 0.085 0.086 0.088 0.089 0.090 0.091 0.092 0.093 0.095 0.096 0.097 0.098 0.099 0.100 0.101 0.102
H/L
0.110 0.028 0.031 0.034 0.037 0.040 0.042 0.045 0.047 0.049 0.051 0.053 0.055 0.057 0.059 0.061 0.062 0.064 0.066 0.068 0.069 0.071 0.072 0.074 0.075 0.077 0.078 0.080 0.081 0.083 0.084 0.086 0.087 0.088 0.090 0.091 0.092 0.094 0.095 0.096 0.098 0.099 0.100 0.102 0.103 0.104 0.105 0.107 0.108 0.109 0.110 0.111 0.113 0.120 0.031 0.034 0.038 0.041 0.043 0.046 0.049 0.051 0.054 0.056 0.058 0.060 0.062 0.064 0.066 0.068 0.070 0.072 0.074 0.075 0.077 0.079 0.081 0.082 0.084 0.086 0.087 0.089 0.090 0.092 0.093 0.095 0.096 0.098 0.099 0.101 0.102 0.104 0.105 0.107 0.108 0.109 0.111 0.112 0.114 0.115 0.116 0.118 0.119 0.120 0.122 0.123 0.130 0.033 0.037 0.041 0.044 0.047 0.050 0.053 0.055 0.058 0.060 0.063 0.065 0.067 0.070 0.072 0.074 0.076 0.078 0.080 0.082 0.084 0.085 0.087 0.089 0.091 0.093 0.094 0.096 0.098 0.099 0.101 0.103 0.104 0.106 0.108 0.109 0.111 0.112 0.114 0.115 0.117 0.118 0.120 0.121 0.123 0.124 0.126 0.127 0.129 0.130 0.132 0.133 0.140 0.036 0.040 0.044 0.047 0.051 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.062 0.065 0.068 0.070 0.073 0.075 0.077 0.079 0.082 0.084 0.086 0.088 0.090 0.092 0.094 0.096 0.098 0.100 0.102 0.103 0.105 0.107 0.109 0.111 0.112 0.114 0.116 0.118 0.119 0.121 0.123 0.124 0.126 0.128 0.129 0.131 0.132 0.134 0.136 0.137 0.139 0.140 0.142 0.143 0.150 0.038 0.043 0.047 0.051 0.054 0.058 0.061 0.064 0.067 0.070 0.073 0.075 0.078 0.080 0.083 0.085 0.088 0.090 0.092 0.094 0.096 0.099 0.101 0.103 0.105 0.107 0.109 0.111 0.113 0.113 0.117 0.119 0.120 0.122 0.124 0.126 0.128 0.130 0.131 0.133 0.135 0.137 0.138 0.140 0.142 0.144 0.145 0.147 0.149 0.150 0.152 0.154 0.160 0.041 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.058 0.062 0.063 0.068 0.071 0.074 0.077 0.080 0.083 0.086 0.088 0.091 0.093 0.096 0.098 0.101 0.103 0.105 0.107 0.110 0.112 0.114 0.116 0.118 0.120 0.122 0.124 0.126 0.128 0.130 0.132 0.134 0.136 0.138 0.140 0.142 0.144 0.146 0.148 0.150 0.151 0.153 0.155 0.157 0.159 0.160 0.162 0.164 0.170 0.043 0.048 0.053 0.057 0.062 0.065 0.069 0.073 0.076 0.079 0.082 0.085 0.088 0.091 0.094 0.097 0.099 0.102 0.104 0.107 0.109 0.112 0.114 0.117 0.119 0.121 0.123 0.126 0.128 0.130 0.132 0.134 0.137 0.139 0.141 0.143 0.145 0.147 0.149 0.151 0.153 0.155 0.157 0.159 0.161 0.163 0.165 0.167 0.169 0.170 0.172 0.174 0.180 0.046 0.051 0.056 0.061 0.065 0.069 0.073 0.077 0.080 0.084 0.087 0.090 0.093 0.096 0.099 0.102 0.105 0.108 0.110 0.113 0.116 0.118 0.121 0.123 0.126 0.128 0.131 0.133 0.135 0.138 0.140 0.142 0.145 0.147 0.149 0.151 0.153 0.156 0.158 0.160 0.162 0.164 0.166 0.168 0.170 0.172 0.174 0.176 0.178 0.180 0.182 0.184 0.190 0.048 0.054 0.059 0.064 0.069 0.073 0.077 0.081 0.085 0.088 0.092 0.095 0.099 0.102 0.105 0.108 0.111 0.114 0.117 0.119 0.122 0.125 0.128 0.130 0.133 0.135 0.138 0.140 0.143 0.145 0.148 0.150 0.153 0.155 0.157 0.160 0.162 0.164 0.166 0.169 0.171 0.173 0.175 0.178 0.180 0.182 0.184 0.186 0.188 0.190 0.193 0.195 0.200 0.051 0.057 0.063 0.068 0.072 0.077 0.081 0.085 0.089 0.093 0.097 0.100 0.104 0.107 0.110 0.114 0.117 0.120 0.123 0.126 0.129 0.131 0.134 0.137 0.140 0.143 0.145 0.148 0.150 0.153 0.156 0.158 0.161 0.163 0.166 0168 0.170 0.173 0.175 0.178 0.180 0.182 0.185 0.187 0.189 0.191 0.194 0.196 0.198 0.200 0.203 0.205
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Ls/L
0.010 0.056 0.057 0.058 0.059 0.060 0.061 0.062 0.063 0.064 0.065 0.066 0.067 0.068 0.069 0.070 0.071 0.072 0.073 0.074 0.075 0.076 0.077 0.078 0.079 0.080 0.081 0.082 0.083 0.084 0.085 0.086 0.087 0.088 0.089 0.090 0.091 0.092 0.093 0.094 0.095 0.096 0.097 0.098 0.099 0.100 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.021 0.021 0.021 0.021 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.027 0.027 0.027 0.027 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.029 0.029 0.029 0.029 0.029 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.031 0.031 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.033 0.033 0.033 0.034 0.034 0.034 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.036 0.036 0.036 0.037 0.037 0.037 0.037 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.039 0.039 0.039 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.042 0.042 0.042 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.045 0.045 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.042 0.043 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.045 0.045 0.046 0.046 0.047 0.047 0.047 0.048 0.048 0.049 0.049 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.051 0.051 0.052 0.052 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.054 0.054 0.055 0.055 0.055 0.056 0.056 0.057 0.057 0.058 0.058 0.058 0.059 0.059 0.060 0.0.60 0.050 0.052 0.052 0.053 0.053 0.054 0.055 0.055 0.056 0.056 0.057 0.057 0.058 0.058 0.059 0.059 0.060 0.060 0.061 0.061 0.062 0.062 0.063 0.064 0.064 0.065 0.065 0.066 0.066 0.067 0.067 0.068 0.068 0.069 0.069 0.070 0.070 0.071 0.071 0.072 0.072 0.073 0.073 0.074 0.074 0.075 0.060 0.062 0.063 0.063 0.064 0.065 0.065 0.066 0.067 0.067 0.068 0.069 0.069 0.070 0.071 0.071 0.072 0.072 0.073 0.074 0.074 0.075 0.076 0.076 0.077 0.078 0.078 0.079 0.079 0.080 0.081 0.081 0.082 0.083 0.083 0.084 0.084 0.085 0.086 0.086 0.087 0.088 0.088 0.089 0.089 0.090 0.070 0.072 0.073 0.074 0.075 0.076 0.076 0.077 0.078 0.079 0.079 0.080 0.081 0.082 0.082 0.083 0.084 0.085 0.085 0.086 0.087 0.087 0.088 0.089 0.090 0.090 0.091 0.092 0.093 0.093 0.094 0.095 0.096 0.096 0.097 0.098 0.098 0.099 0.100 0.101 0.101 0.102 0.103 0.104 0.104 0.105 0.080 0.083 0.084 0.085 0.085 0.086 0.087 0.088 0.089 0.090 0.091 0.092 0.092 0.093 0.094 0.095 0.096 0.097 0.097 0.098 0.099 0.100 0.101 0.102 0.103 0.103 0.104 0.105 0.106 0.107 0.108 0.108 0.109 0.110 0.111 0.112 0.113 0.113 0.114 0.115 0.116 0.117 0.118 0.118 0.119 0.120 0.090 0.093 0.094 0.095 0.096 0.097 0.098 0.099 0.100 0.101 0.102 0.103 0.104 0.105 0.106 0.107 0.108 0.109 0.110 0.111 0.112 0.112 0.113 0.114 0.115 0.116 0.117 0.118 0.119 0.120 0.121 0.122 0.123 0.124 0.125 0.126 0.127 0.128 0.128 0.129 0.130 0.131 0.132 0.133 0.134 0.135 0.100 0.104 0.105 0.106 0.107 0.108 0.109 0.110 0.111 0.112 0.113 0.114 0.115 0.117 0.118 0.119 0.120 0.121 0.122 0.123 0.124 0.125 0.126 0.127 0.128 0.129 0.130 0.131 0.132 0.133 0.134 0.135 0.136 0.138 0.139 0.140 0.141 0.142 0.143 0.144 0.145 0.146 0.147 0.148 0.149 0.150
H/L
0.110 0.114 0.115 0.116 0.118 0.119 0.120 0.121 0.122 0.123 0.125 0.126 0.127 0.128 0.129 0.131 0.132 0.133 0.134 0.135 0.136 0.137 0.139 0.140 0.141 0.142 0.143 0.144 0.146 0.147 0.148 0.149 0.150 0.151 0.152 0.154 0.155 0.156 0.157 0.158 0.159 0.160 0.162 0.163 0.164 0.165 0.120 0.124 0.126 0.127 0.128 0.130 0.131 0.132 0.133 0.135 0.136 0.137 0.139 0.140 0.141 0.142 0.144 0.145 0.146 0.147 0.149 0.150 0.151 0.153 0.154 0.155 0.156 0.158 0.159 0.160 0.161 0.163 0.164 0.165 0.166 0.168 0.169 0.170 0.171 0.173 0.174 0.175 0.176 0.178 0.179 0.180 0.130 0.135 0.136 0.137 0.139 0.140 0.142 0.143 0.145 0.146 0.147 0.149 0.150 0.152 0.153 0.154 0.156 0.157 0.158 0.160 0.161 0.162 0.164 0.165 0.167 0.168 0.169 0.171 0.172 0.173 0.175 0.176 0.177 0.179 0.180 0.181 0.183 0.184 0.186 0.187 0.188 0.190 0.191 0.192 0.194 0.195 0.140 0.145 0.147 0.148 0.150 0.151 0.153 0.154 0.156 0.157 0.159 0.160 0.162 0.163 0.165 0.166 0.168 0.169 0.171 0.172 0.174 0.175 0.176 0.178 0.179 0.181 0.182 0.184 0.185 0.187 0.188 0.190 0.191 0.193 0.194 0.195 0.197 0.198 0.200 0.201 0.203 0.204 0.206 0.207 0.209 0.210 0.150 0.155 0.157 0.159 0.160 0.162 0.164 0.165 0.167 0.168 0.170 0.172 0.173 0.175 0.176 0.178 0.180 0.181 0.183 0.184 0.186 0.187 0.189 0.191 0.192 0.194 0.195 0.197 0.198 0.200 0.202 0.203 0.205 0.206 0.208 0.209 0.211 0.213 0.214 0.216 0.217 0.219 0.220 0.222 0.223 0.225 0.160 0.166 0.167 0.169 0.171 0.173 0.174 0.176 0.178 0.180 0.181 0.183 0.185 0.186 0.188 0.191 0.192 0.193 0.195 0.197 0.198 0.200 0.202 0.203 0.205 0.207 0.208 0.210 0.212 0.213 0.215 0.217 0.218 0.220 0.222 0.223 0.225 0.227 0.228 0.230 0.232 0.233 0.235 0.237 0.238 0.240 0.170 0.176 0.178 0.180 0.182 0.184 0.185 0.187 0.189 0.191 0.193 0.195 0.196 0.198 0.200 0.202 0.204 0.205 0.207 0.209 0.211 0.212 0.214 0.216 0.218 0.220 0.221 0.223 0.225 0.227 0.228 0.230 0.232 0.234 0.236 0.237 0.239 0.241 0.243 0.244 0.246 0.248 0.250 0.251 0.253 0.255 0.180 0.186 0.188 0.190 0.192 0.194 0.196 0.198 0.200 0.202 0.204 0.206 0.208 0.210 0.212 0.214 0.216 0.217 0.219 0.221 0.223 0.225 0.227 0.229 0.231 0.233 0.234 0.236 0.238 0.240 0.242 0.244 0.246 0.248 0.249 0.251 0.253 0.255 0.257 0.259 0.261 0.263 0.264 0.266 0.268 0.270 0.190 0.197 0.199 0.201 0.203 0.205 0.207 0.209 0.211 0.213 0.215 0.217 0.219 0.221 0.223 0.225 0.227 0.229 0.232 0.234 0236 0.237 0.239 0.241 0.243 0.245 0.247 0.249 0.251 0.253 0.255 0.257 0.259 0.261 0.263 0.265 0.267 0.269 0.271 0.273 0.275 0.277 0.279 0.281 0.283 0.285 0.200 0.207 0.209 0.212 0.214 0.216 0.218 0.220 0.222 0.225 0.227 0.229 0.231 0.233 0.235 0.237 0.239 0.242 0.244 0.246 0.248 0.250 0.252 0.254 0.256 0.258 0.260 0.263 0.265 0.267 0.269 0.271 0.273 0.275 0.277 0.279 0.281 0.283 0.285 0.288 0.290 0.292 0.294 0.296 0.298 0.300
Fig 5-3-17 Minimum length of section to be removed (LC) for a mid span attack
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5-3-26. a. b. c.
Example Bottom Attack. Category. Simply Supported, Steel Beam, Deck Bridge, Bottom Support. Reconnaissance Measurements. L = 25 m, H = 2.25 m, E = 0.45 m. Method of Attack. The method of attack recommended in Annex A is Bottom Attack, provided that E is greater than ER. To determine this, the following calculations are required: (1) H/L = 2.25/25 = 0.09; (2) From Figure 5-3-16, using H/L =0.09, determine the end clearance required which is 0.016; (3) ER = 0.016 x L = 0.016 x 25 = 0.4 m; and (4) Since 0.45 m is greater than 0.4 m, a bottom attack can be used without any likelihood of jamming during collapse.
5-3-27. a. b. c.
Example Top Attack. Category. Simply supported, bowstring, normal. Reconnaissance measurements. L = 62 m, H = 8.5 m, LS = 1.15 m. Method of Attack. The method of attack recommended in Annex A is top attack. It is necessary to ensure that the length of top attack is adequate. To determine this, the following calculations are required: (1) H/L = 8.5m/62m = 0.137; (2) Ls/L = 1.15m/62m = 0.0186;
(3) From Fig 5-3-17, the calculated values for H/L and LS/L are rounded up to the nearest value listed on the table. In this case H/L becomes 0.019 and LS/L becomes 0.019. If either or both of the H/L or LS/L values exceed those listed on the table, the LCL value may be calculated using the equation at para 5-3-25. This equation may also be used to give a more precise LCL value for any H/L or V values.
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(4) LcL= 0.079 therefore LC = 0.079 x L = 0.079 x 62 m = 4.898 m (rounded to 4.9 m); and (5) From the value at (4), cuts will be required 2.45 m on either side of midspan. CATEGORIZATION OF CONTINUOUS BRIDGES
Fig 5-3-18 Continuous bridge categorization chart 5-3-28. Categories. The categorization chart for continuous bridges is in Fig 5-3-18. The chart is used in the same manner as the chart for simply supported bridges. There are six main sub-categories: Cantilever, Cantilever and Suspended Span, Beam/Truss, Portal, Arch, and Masonry Arch. It is necessary to differentiate between steel and concrete construction for the first five subcategories as different methods of attack exist for each. If a continuous bridge is of steel and concrete construction (e.g. steel beams supporting a reinforced concrete deck), the decision whether the bridge is continuous steel, or continuous concrete will be dependent on the material of construction of the main longitudinal load bearing members. 5-3-29. Cantilever bridge. This category of bridge is shown at Fig 5-3-19 and is identified by the mid-span shear joint. The full lengths of the anchor spans may on rare occasions, be built into abutments, making identification of the cantilever principle difficult. Fig 5-3-19 Cantilever bridge Review construction
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drawings whenever these drawings exist, so that details hidden from view can be considered during categorization. 5-3-30. Cantilever and suspended span bridge. This category of bridge is illustrated in Fig 5-3-20. If the length of suspended span creates a 40 m gap, then it shall be attacked as the work involved in preparation is less. In such a case, use the simply supported cate-gorization chart. 5-3-31. Beam/truss bridge. It is necessary to differentiate between a beam/truss bridge with all spans of similar length Fig 5-3-20 Cantilever and suspended span and one with a short side span. bridges The short side span is defined as being less than three-quarters of the length of the next span. Examples of the beam/truss bridge are in Figs 5-3-21, 5-3-22 and 5-3-23.
Fig 5-3-21 Continuous, steel beam, without short side span
Fig 5-3-22 Continuous, steel beam, with short side span
Fig 5-3-23 Continuous, steel truss
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5-3-32. Portal bridge. Typical portal bridges are shown in Fig 5-3-24. It is necessary to differentiate between portals with fixed or pinned footings as this affects the method of attack. Where doubt exists, a fixed footing is assumed. The Fig 5-3-24 Typical portal bridge portal bridge can be differentiated from the arch bridge by the fact that in all portal bridges, there is not a smooth curve between the leg of the span and the span itself. 5-3-33. Arch bridge. It is necessary to specify whether or not an arch bridge has an open or solid spandrel, and fixed or pinned footings. Again, where doubt exists, a fixed footing is assumed. Fig 5-3-25 illustrates typical arch bridge shapes. Fig 5-3-26 shows an solid spandrel Fig 5-3-25 Typical arch bridge shapes arch and Fig 5-3-27 shows a open spandrel arch.
Fig 5-3-26 Continuous, concrete arch, solid spandrel pinned footing
Fig 5-3-27 Continuous, concrete arch, open spandrel, pinned footing
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5-3-34. Masonry arch bridge. This category is identified by the segmental arch ring (Fig 5-3-28). Many reinforced concrete bridges are faced with masonry and this could lead to incorrect categoriFig 5-3-28 Continuous masonry arch zation. Therefore always look at the underside of the arch which is rarely faced unless the bridge is a true masonry arch. DEMOLITION OF CONTINUOUS BRIDGES 5-3-35. is: a. b. Reconnaissance. The reconnaissance procedure for continuous bridges categorize the bridge as directed in the preceding paragraphs; take the following measurements (Fig 5-3-29);
Fig 5-3-29 Measurements of continuous bridges (1) span L in metres, for all spans, measured between centrelines of bearings, and (2) for arch and portal bridges, the rise H from springing line or bottom of support leg to deck or top of arch, whichever is the greater, c. d. determine from Annex B to this chapter the method of attack; and take the detailed measurements required for charge calculations.
5-3-36. Points of Attack. No common point of attack rule exists for all categories of continuous bridges.
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5-3-37. Line of Attack. The line of attack rule used for simply supported bridges also applies to continuous bridges. The line of attack will be parallel to the lines of the abutments. Bridges shall be demolished without twisting. If the recommended line of attack involves cutting across transverse beams, the line shall be repositioned to cut between adjacent transverse beams. 5-3-38. Method of Attack. The method of attack for all continuous steel bridges demand complete cuts through the bridge span. Providing charges can be placed where required, continuous bridges can be demolished using a single stage attack. a. If concrete decks on steel beam bridges are particularly deep, the charges designed to sever the deck may not sever all reinforcing steel. If a complete collapse does not result, a second stage attack must be made. Consideration shall be given during reconnaissance to the requirement for a two stage attack for steel beam bridges with deep concrete decks. Continuous concrete bridges are the most difficult of all demolition targets, and shall not normally be reserved demolitions. Some subcategories require complete severance of the span and thus a two stage attack, while for others, the removal of concrete (but not reinforcing) in a single stage attack will suffice. Some concrete arch bridges require an additional attack at the springing line. Details are given in Annex B. Where the removal of steel or concrete over a particular length of the span is required, it is essential to ensure collapse results without jamming. The length of span to be removed can be calculated using the L and H values measured during reconnaissance and Fig 5-3-30. Cuts in continuous bridges shall be angled at about 70o to the horizontal to prevent jamming during collapse. The angles shall allow free rotation if the seesaw collapse mechanism is intended, or an uninterrupted fall for the member without support. For masonry arch bridges, no changes have been made to existing methods of attack. For bridges which have been standing for a long period of time, attacking only the crown may not achieve collapse of the remainder of the bridge. Therefore when time permits, masonry arch bridges should be attacked at both haunches (side of arch between the crown and the pier).
b.
c.
d.
e.
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f.
With the exception of concrete arch bridges, only one method of attack is given in Annex B for each sub-category of continuous bridge. For fixed footing concrete arch bridges, it is necessary to consider all spans separately. If the span exceeds 40 m, removal of all concrete over the mid-span section of length Lc will ensure collapse of the two resulting cantilevered arms. If the span is less than 40 m, removal of all concrete over the mid-span section of length Lc may not be sufficient to cause collapse. In this case, the springing will also be attacked or an alternative method of attack, as described in Annex B, shall be used. For continuous bridges where the recommended method of attack requires the removal of concrete only, the concrete stripping charge may be applied as for the simply supported bridges, and collapse will result. For continuous bridges where the recommended method of attack requires a complete cut through a span, the removal of concrete will achieve only the first stage of a two stage attack. It is not impossible that the concrete stripping charge will achieve sufficient damage to the steel reinforcement to cause collapse. However, in almost all cases where a complete cut is recommended, the second stage attack will be required, and it shall be planned for. LC/L (c) 0.003 0.007 0.013 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.053 0.067 0.083 Ser (a) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 H/L (b) 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 LC/L (c) 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.31
g.
Ser H/L (a) (b) 1 0.04 2 0.06 3 0.08 4 0.10 5 0.12 6 0.14 7 0.16 8 0.18 9 0.20 Based on: Fig 5-3-30
Minimum length of section to be removed for arch and pinned footing portal bridges
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5-3-39. a. b. c.
Example of Calculation. Category. Continuous, concrete, arch, open spandrel, pinned footing. Reconnaissance measurements: L = 58 m, H = 7.5 m. Length of section to be removed from span. The length of span along which concrete shall be removed, Lc is calculated as follows: (1) Calculated H/L = 7.5/58 = 0.129; (2) From Figure 5-3-30. For each H/L value given, a value can be read which represents Lc/L. Interpolation may be used if necessary. For H/L = 0.129, Lc/L = 0.035; and (3) Insert the measured value of L to find Lc. Lc = L x 0.035 = 58 m x .035 = 2.03 m.
d.
Action. For Lc = 2.03 m, the thickness of bridge section should be measured 1.02 m to one side of the mid-span, and charge calculations using the concrete stripping charge formula should be completed.
DEMOLITION OF MISCELLANEOUS BRIDGES 5-3-40. General. Examples are suspension bridges, swing bridges, and lift bridges. These bridges are assessed and attacked using the following principles. 5-3-41. a. Suspension Bridges. Large Bridges. For very large suspension bridges, the cables, towers and anchorages may prove too thick to be attacked effectively. In this case, the most economical method of attack is to cut an approach span, or to cut out a section of deck in the main span. This may be done by cutting the hangers from the main cables and by cutting the deck at each end of the section to be removed. Smaller Bridges. For smaller suspension bridges, the main steel cables shall be cut. If the thickness of the steel is over 75 mm, linear shaped charges shall be used. The cables may be attacked at the top of the suspension towers, as they are easily cut at a point where they are firmly supported. The top of the tower is likely to be destroyed as well. Another suitable method is to cut the suspension cables where they emerge from their buried anchorages. According to the time available, cuts shall be made in the roadway, and the suspension towers and their
b.
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footings shall be destroyed. The pier foundations and the buried anchorages will probably be too massive to attack economically and their destruction shall not normally be attempted. 5-3-42. Swing Span Bridges. Basically, a swing span bridge is a continuous span which can be rotated on its central pier. The arms of a swing span may or may not be of equal length. If the arms are of unequal length, weights are added to balance them. The weight of the bridge is carried on the central pier, usually on rollers which run on a circular track. However, in some designs the roller system is merely a balancing aid and the weight of the bridge is carried on a central bearing. Fig 5-3-31 illustrates a swing bridge. In most cases the swing span can Fig 5-3-31 Swing span truss bridge easily be recognized as a continuous cantilever bridge and can be attacked accordingly. It may also be possible and perhaps desirable to deny use of the bridge by rotating it to the open position and then destroying the operating mechanism. 5-3-43. Lift Bridges. There are two types of lift bridges. The bascule bridge with one or two leafs is illustrated in Figs 5-3-32 and 5-3-33. The vertical lift bridge is illustrated in Fig 5-3-34. 5-3-44. a. Bascule Bridge. A critical examination of Figure 5-3-32 shows that this type of bascule bridge can be categorized as a cantilever bridge. Note that there is a shear joint at mid-span and in this case, instead of an anchor span there is a counter weight. The procedure for attacking this bridge is the same as for a continuous bridge except the counter-weight would be dropped in lieu of severing an anchor span.
Fig 5-3-32 Double leaf bascule bridge
Fig 5-3-33 Single leaf bascule bridge
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b.
Examination of Fig 5-3-33 shows that this older design is merely a single span bridge and it is attacked accordingly.
5-3-45. Vertical Lift Bridge. The vertical lift bridge (right) can easily be recognized as a single span and can be attacked accordingly. As with the swing bridge, it may be desirable to deny the use of lift bridges by opening the bridge and destroying the operating mechanism. Fig 5-3-34 Vertical lift bridge PIERS AND ABUTMENTS. 5-3-46. Abutments. The demolition of bridge abutments as a means of causing collapse of the bridge deck is unlikely to prove effective as an obstacle since the deck structure will probably settle onto the debris of the demolished abutment and remain spanning the gap. Abutment demolition is only useful to increase the width of a gap created by demolition of the bridge and are most easily destroyed by buried charges which are described in Chapter 6. 5-3-47. Piers. The destruction of piers is the lowest priority task when designing a bridge demolition. Masonry and unreinforced concrete piers may be destroyed by means of breaching or borehole charges, or by cutting charges provided the piers are not too thick and there is no shortage of explosives. Large reinforced concrete piers are best attacked by means of borehole charges, perhaps using conical shaped charges. The demolition of piers shall be planned so as to leave nothing that might assist rebuilding.
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SECTION 4 RAILROADS, AIRFIELDS AND PORTS GENERAL 5-4-1. Transportation systems and facilities, such as roads, railroads, airfields and ports are essential to provide logistic support to a military force. In many instances, their capture is the objective of an operation. It is therefore important that engineers be prepared to deny the use of these facilities to the opposing force if it appears they may be captured. Engineers shall also be prepared to rapidly clear and open transportation facilities that the friendly force captures. Annex C provides a summary of the priorities of attack for the denial of airfields, ports and railroads, and the principles explained in Section 6 shall be followed. The destruction of roads and bridges is explained in Sections 2 and 3 to this chapter. RAILROADS 5-4-2. General. The most vulnerable points along a railway are the bridges and tunnels. The method of attacking tunnels is described in Section 2, and bridge demolition is described in Section 3. 5-4-3. Targets. In order for railway track destruction to be effective, it must extend over a considerable distance because if spare rails are available, it can be repaired quickly. The location of rail damage should be sited where repair will be difficult, such as on causeways or at side-hill locations. In rail systems, switches are used to direct traffic to the various tracks. Their destruction will disrupt rail traffic and prevent the use of a rail marshalling area. Other targets for denial or destruction are: the roadbed, rolling stock, communications and other facilities. 5-4-4. Tracks. In order to derail a train, it is necessary to remove about 6 m of straight rail or 3 m on the outside of a curve. Railway lines are most economically destroyed using a cutting charge (Fig 6-2-3) at each alternate rail joint, thus damaging every rail at one end. If time is short, specialized locations such as points, crossings and curved rails shall be attacked. Side-hill cuts are also excellent cratering targets. 5-4-5. Switches. Switches are specially fabricated devices that are not easily replaced because they include two specially machined components. If the switch rail and the frog (Fig 6-2-3) can be destroyed, the switch cannot be used. 5-4-6. Roadbed. If possible, destruction of the roadbed shall also be considered when attacking a railway. The same principles and methods of a road demolition apply.
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5-4-7. Locomotives. Serviceable locomotives and associated equipment are to be prevented from becoming usable to the enemy. Steam locomotives may be severely damaged by the use of explosives to destroy the boiler, fire box, smokebox and attached cylinders, valve mechanisms and driving wheels. Diesel locomotives may be attacked along similar lines, the cylinder block and injectors, pumps, and similar ancillary equipment being removed or damaged. Although electric locomotives can be similarly damaged, electrified systems are best attacked at the power source and by destroying overhead power supply lines. 5-4-8. Communications. Disruption of communications including signals, telephone, telegraph, block instruments, and signal cabins prevents the operation of all but the most basic of services. Although explosives can be used effectively, destruction by sledge-hammer, small arms fire or burning should be considered. 5-4-9. Workshop facilities. Where time permits, all machinery shall be immobilized by the removal of vital parts, or by the destruction of driving motors and power supply. 5-4-10. Key personnel and records. The removal of key personnel and technical records is of great importance since their capture can provide a considerable advantage in the re-opening of rail facilities. Every effort should be made to utilize the expertise and recommendations of railway technicians in planning and executing demolitions on railway systems. AIRFIELDS PRIORITIES 5-4-11. The priority of targets on airfields are the aircraft operating surfaces, the runway lighting systems and communication facilities. a. The aircraft operating surfaces includes runways, taxiways and any other areas which aircraft might use, even temporarily, for landing or take-off. The road system around many permanent military airfields also doubles as an emergency aircraft operating surface. All possible runways, regardless of orientation will be destroyed or denied. Communications and operations facilities which will be destroyed are the operations centre, control tower, radios, telephone switchboards, radio masts, relay and rebroadcast centres, antennas, radars and beacons.
b.
5-4-12. If time is available, the following additional targets shall be considered, in order of priority:
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a. b. c.
Road System. Roads shall be destroyed at all approaches to the airfield in order to delay the arrival of repair equipment and material; Fuel Facilities. Refuelling apparatus and tanks shall be destroyed. Fuel shall be burned or removed; Utilities. Base utilities shall be destroyed or rendered inoperable, including electrical generating and distribution systems, water supply pumps, storage tanks and distribution systems, heating and cooling systems, and sewage systems; Engineer Resources. Material which may be used for the repair of the airfield shall be denied by removal, fire, demolition, or booby-trapping; Workshops and Hangers. Aircraft maintenance equipment and machinery shall be removed or destroyed and the buildings shall be demolished. Hardened aircraft shelters shall also be destroyed; and Administrative buildings.
d. e.
f.
METHOD OF AIRFIELD ATTACK 5-4-13. Effective airfield denial requires a clear definition of the aim; whether the airfield is to be denied or destroyed, and will be balanced against time and resources available and the requirement to conceal the denial. Destruction of the airfield and facilities by use of explosives and fire will warn the enemy of the airfield denial. 5-4-14. The quickest method to deny the use of the aircraft operating surfaces is to place obstructions or surface laid mines on it. Possible obstructions include vehicles, 45 gallon drums, tetrahedrons, debris, trees or wire. 5-4-15. The quickest method of destroying the runway is by ripping the surface to the extent that it is not trafficable. However, in most cases the surface is thick or even reinforced concrete and the task might be beyond the abilities of the ripping equipment. Ripping alone may simply disrupt the running surface but not necessarily making it unusable and hence easily repairable. Therefore, craters shall be blown in addition to nuisance minelaying. Charge calculations for craters are discussed in Chapter 6. In wet conditions, the destruction or blockage of the drainage system may render the airfield inoperable, and can cause great delays in reconstruction.
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5-4-16. Obstructions should be spaced at no less than half the length of the runway, and extending across its full width, however the minimum aircraft operating surface required by enemy aircraft shall be taken into consideration. Rows of craters are very effective, and even more so if placed across the runway at intersections with taxiways. Once the essential minimum effective damage has been done to the runways, similar methods can be extended to the remaining areas, including taxiways and roads on which landing or take-off might be possible. PORT AND INLAND WATERWAYS 5-4-17. The denial of port facilities may be either short or long term. Short term denial involves: a. b. c. d. 5-4-18. a. b. c. d. 5-4-19. a. b. c. the removal of water craft, and material handling equipment, as well as essential parts of machinery; the partial destruction of power sources; denial of buildings and workshop facilities by the use of mines and booby-traps; and the blockage of transportation facilities. The long term denial of ports includes the complete destruction of: water, fuel and power facilities; quays and jetties by craters or buried charges; dry docks, locks and lock gates; and cargo handling equipment such as cranes which can by tipped into the dock by cutting the legs nearest the water. Inland waterways can be denied by: the destruction of locks, dams, weirs and sluices and their related machinery and pumping equipment; the destruction of navigation aids; and blocking by sinking barges and tugs and the destruction of bridges which cross it.
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SECTION 5 PEACETIME PREPARED OBSTACLES GENERAL 5-5-1. Peacetime Prepared Obstacles are obstacles which are designed and constructed in peacetime, designed for rapid execution in times of conflict. They are obstacles that are efficient in time, labour and material to execute, and limit damage to a level required for the maximum effectiveness of the barrier. These obstacles may also be mined after execution to enhance their effectiveness. 5-5-2. Storage of the explosives is usually close to the target. Vehicles are required to transport stores and accessories to the obstacle site. ROAD CRATER 5-5-3. Road craters are formed by the demolition of prepared demolition shafts (measle) constructed into the road systems which are 4 to 6 m deep and 0.6 m in diameter. Upon removing the shaft cover, loading poles are used to lower the required number of 25 kg charges into the shafts. Two underground conduits are Fig 5-5-1 Demolition shafts installed from the shafts to a covered box in the road embankment for the firing circuit. This allows normal road traffic to continue even when the firing circuits are in place. It consists of one group of three craters and requires 60 to 90 minutes for a field section to prepare the demolition. 5-5-4. The craters which are formed interrupt the entire width of the road. Each crater is separated by 1 to 6 m wide area of intact roadway in order to avoid a crater running longitudinally along the traffic facility. BRIDGE DEMOLITION FIXTURES 5-5-5. Demolition fixtures in bridges allow for the rapid preparation of bridge targets and effect considerable economies in labour and material as well as time compared to normal demolition procedures. These fixtures may consist of charge mounting brackets, charge containers, charge chambers, demolition
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shafts/galleries, permanently installed firing circuits, firing circuit conduits, and accessories. 5-5-6. Demolition fixtures and accessories facilitate easy loading and preparation of the firing circuit. These fixtures and accessories can be installed permanently, or under certain conditions, stored together with the explosives and explosive accessories. TUBE EXPLOSIVE DITCH OBSTACLE 5-5-7. Tube explosive ditch obstacles are prepared by installation of tubes of explosives (liquid, solid or gas) at predetermined depths in roads. Applications are comparable with road crater systems and their advantages are that they require less explosives, are camouflaged due to the buried emplacement of the tubes, and are more cost effective in terms of installation and maintenance. 5-5-8. These obstacles form ditches which interrupt the entire width of the road. As ditches will run in an angular direction to the road axis, it will become more difficult to negotiate by means of armoured vehicle launched bridges. THRESHOLD OBSTACLE 5-5-9. Roads designed as peacetime prepared obstacles can have metal baskets built into the drainage channels of the road. These metal baskets are designed to hold shaped or cutting charges. When the obstacle plan is implemented, the obstacle is prepared by placing the charges in the baskets and arming them. The charges are normally command detonated when the target vehicle is directly over the obstacle, but modern sensors and fuzes may be incorporated. The threshold obstacle is particularly suitable for reinforcing other obstacles. FRAGMENTATION OBSTACLE 5-5-10. A fragmentation obstacle is an obstacle created by fixing explosive charges to the outside of guardrails on one or both sides of a road. Premanufatured shaped charge containers with 40 kg of explosives are fixed to the exterior of the guardrails. The fragments formed when the charge is detonated will result in a mobility kill or a complete kill of the vehicle (including main battle tanks) up to a range of 7 m. 5-5-11. The existing guard rail (3 mm thick) is replaced by a specially designed (8 mm) one. The charges are fixed to the fasteners on the outside surface. If no sensor or special fuze is used, the charges are command detonated when the target vehicle is in line with the charge.
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MINE CHAMBER OBSTACLES 5-5-12. Mine chamber obstacles are emplaced in traffic facilities and consist of foundations, individual mine chambers and obstacle accessories. BEAM POST OBSTACLE 5-5-13. The beam post obstacle is designed for blocking roads at defiles without destruction of the pavement. A beam post obstacle consists of three double rows of beams over the entire width of the road surface. The beam receptacles are built into the road foundation, flush with the surface, into which the special alloy metal I-beams are inserted. Each beam has a locking flap which locks the beam into position once placed into the receptacle. During training and exercises, the end of the I-beam with the locking flap is not placed into the receptacle. When installed, the beams extend 1.4 m above ground and are impossible for the enemy to pull out. The obstacle consists of the following: base slab, beam receptacles (shafts), I-beam posts (2.2 m long), barrier accessories (camouflage nets, concertina wire), and obstacle accessories (carrying tongs, lifting hooks). 5-5-14. This obstacle is effective against all types of vehicles. To breach this obstacle, the beams must be removed and due to the design and type of material, this is extremely difficult. The barrier accessories are placed on the opposing force side to make it hard to see the depth of the obstacle. The obstacle may be reinforced with mines, off route mines and other Fig 5-5-2 Beam post obstacle types of obstacles. It will require one section one hour to complete to install the stores and accessories. FALLING BLOCK OBSTACLE 5-5-15. A falling block obstacle consists of one or two falling reinforced concrete blocks mounted on a concrete stand and foundation as well as a demolition beam and steel tube encased in concrete. Placed in an upright position next to a defile, the concrete blocks fall to the ground after the anchoring system has been cut by demolition. The falling block obstacle is designed for the rapid closing of defiles without damaging the road surface. The falling block obstacle is
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suited for areas where it can be inconspicuously integrated into special terrain, existing cultural build-up or the traffic infrastructure such as a tunnel entrance. 5-5-16. The obstacle width of one falling block will be up to 15 m and up to 28 m when using two falling blocks. The falling block obstacle is activated by explosive demolition of the beam supporting the falling block by three sections of Bangalore torpedo. AQUEOUS FOAM OBSTACLE 5-5-17. Aqueous foam obstacles are used as barriers against vehicles and foot soldiers, in tunnels of at least 100 m in length. They may be employed as an independent obstacle or as a Fig 5-5-3 Falling block obstacle barrier reinforce-ment in combination with other types of obstacles. Aqueous foams use the oxygen out of the surrounding air in order to form. The following equipment is required for preparing a foam obstacle: a. b. c. d. e. high expansion foam generator; foaming agent; water supply in the vicinity of the barrier; water hoses; and wooden structure with foil lining for closing the tunnel openings, if required.
5-5-18. The resulting lack of oxygen creates stalled engines and personnel disorientation and respiratory distress. Even in the case of frost, the foam can be produced and the obstacle will still be effective. 5-5-19. The foaming agent and accessories are usually stored in the immediate vicinity of the site. The preparation time for one field section is approximately 30 minutes and the obstacle is effective for 72 hours. By repeating the process
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periodically (at 12 hour intervals), the effectiveness will be maintained. This obstacle is not effective against rail locomotives.
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SECTION 6 DENIAL OPERATIONS GENERAL 5-6-1. Definitions. Denial operations are intended to deny the enemy the use of equipment, stores and facilities left behind after a withdrawal. This aim may be achieved by damage, removal, contamination, destruction or booby-trapping. The authority to order denial operations and to define their scope is usually retained at a high level because of the social and political implications and the effect they could have on our own forces when the offensive is resumed. 5-6-2. The aim of denial operations is not so much to destroy completely, as to stop production or to prevent the use of the facility. To achieve this, target selection and method of attack are critical. The aim must be balanced against time and resources available and the requirement to conceal the denial. Denial by explosives or fire will provide warning to the enemy of the denial operation and withdrawal. 5-6-3. Scope. While this manual deals only with demolitions using explosives, other methods can be effective and may be more efficient in time and materials. Examples are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. fire; water damage or flooding; contamination of materials, fuels and lubricants; inducing self-destruction (overloading, lack of lubrication etc); removal of vital parts and machinery or personnel; weapons fire; and mines and booby-traps, provided authority has been issued by the authorized commander for the booby-traps.
5-6-4. Expert Advice. Whenever possible, advice shall be sought from civilian technicians with specialist knowledge of the industry. Similarly, the removal of key personnel and technical records is of great importance since their capture could provide a considerable advantage in the re-opening of certain facilities.
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TARGETS 5-6-5. a. b. c. d. e. f. Denial targets include: transportation systems such as roads, airfields, railroads, ports and inland waterways; industrial facilities such as factories, oilfields and refineries, mills, mines, and quarries; untilities such as power generating stations, water facilities, sewage treatment, and gas lines; communications facilities and equipment such as telephone, radio, television, and satellites; ammunition and explosives; and accommodation facilities which could be used for troop accommodation, storage or workshops.
5-6-6. The destruction and denial of roads, airfields, railroads and ports is covered in Sections 2, 3 and 4 of this chapter. Annex C to this chapter provides a summary of priorities for denial operations. INDUSTRIAL DENIAL 5-6-7. The aim of industrial demolitions is not to destroy the target completely, but to stop production, or to deny the use of a facility such as a port. Correct target selection is of utmost importance. For continued operation, industry and utilities rely on transportation systems, electric power and fuel. Of these, electric power is the most vulnerable. A few well conceived attacks may achieve widespread paralysis. 5-6-8. a. b. c. d. Industrial demolition techniques are guided by the following principles: destroy machinery specially made for an installation; destroy the source of power; prevent cannibalization by attacking the same part on all equipment; and destroy transportation systems.
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5-6-9. Mines. Mines can be effectively denied by destroying the mechanical machinery such as pumps at the bottom of "wet" mines, ventilating fans, conveyors, crushers, extractors, winding drums and the steam engines or electric motors driving them, large special-purpose equipments or machines which will be diffficult to replace or install. 5-6-10. Mills. Steel mills can be denied by destroying the power source, exhaust and cooling water pumps, furnaces, centrifugal blowers, extractor pumps to remove the furnace gas, and transportation and material handling equipment. ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM 5-6-11. Components. The system of supplying electricity to industry consists of: power generating stations, substations, the distribution lines, and the electrical machinery at the factories. a. Power stations. The major items of equipment consist of boilers and steam turbines, diesel engines, water turbines and control gear, the generators, and substations containing step-up transformers and switching gear for passing on the electricity to the distribution system. Most of this machinery is unique to each power station and would take a long time, possibly years, to replace; Distribution system. The two chief components are overhead lines which are not difficult to replace, or underground cables which are difficult to locate, and secondary substations containing transformers. The distribution system is generally interconnected, so that industry is not solely dependent upon any one power station; Factories. Factories contain transformers and electric motors. Important factories are connected to two or more sources of supply or generate their own power and may therefore be independent in this respect. Most factories are provided with a stand-by plant.
b.
c.
5-6-12. Area to Attack. Since the aim of attacking electricity sources is the interruption of industry, the following principles shall be observed: a. if a single factory, or a specific group of factories is to be denied, it would require less effort to atack the factory or factories than the electrical supply;
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b.
if industry over a wide area is to be interrupted, it may be best to attack the power stations. Stand-by facilities for individual factories or groups of factories may have to be destroyed as well; in attacking power stations, all those supplying an area shall be eliminated simultaneously; and the distribution system is the least promising target because effective interruption requires extensive damage throughout the area.
c. d.
WATER SUPPLY 5-6-13. Most water supply systems include a treatment and storage facility such as tanks or a reservoir, pumps, valves, a control system and a distribution system. Denial targets and methods are: a. b. c. the pumps, valves and control system are the most vulnerable points of attack and are usually located in one central pumphouse; earth-walled reservoirs are best destroyed by buried charges placed in the walls;. water tanks may be destroyed by non-explosive means or by small arms fire. If explosives are used, 1 kg of plastic explosive per 6 m3 water capacity of the tank, fired inside it when full of water will be sufficient; and pipelines, if unburied, are simple to demolish. Junctions and bends are the most suitable points to attack. Charges are placed at alternate joints. Lengths of buried pipeline may be destroyed by running off the water and firing a charge of explosive within them, or by digging them up and smashing them by hand. However, the damage that can be inflicted seldom justifies the effort required.
d.
5-6-14. Wells. In some cases, it is preferable to conceal the well by filling it in and disguising the surface, rather than to draw attention to the site by an obvious demolition. Other denial measures include: a. wells sunk in shifting or unstable soils may be damaged beyond repair by cutting the lining. If time permits, the well should be filled with earth before firing the charges; wells in hard soil or rock having little or no lining are best destroyed by exploding a buried charge, sufficient to create a 5 to 10 m diameter
b.
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crater, at a depth 2 to 6 m and about 3 m from the edge of the well. This will obliterate the exact location of the well. Logs, machinery, or any bulky item at hand can be thrown down the well before firing the charge. In a heavily shelled area it may often be advisable to use a smaller charge at a lesser depth, in order that the crater formed may pass for an ordinary shell-hole; and c. deep boreholes may be destroyed by firing a 1 kg charge in the lining at a considerable depth below the surface, but above the natural water level.
DAMS 5-6-15. For demolition purposes, dams may be divided into three main types: masonry or concrete gravity dams, multiple arch dams, and earth fill dams. 5-6-16. Masonry or concrete gravity dams (Fig 5-6-1). Gravity dams are best destroyed by detonating a large breaching charge or charges underwater in contact with the face of the dam. 5-6-17. Multiple arch dams have very thin arches of reinforced concrete, the greatest thickness of any arch known being less than 1.80 m. A large breach in an arch can be effected by lowering a charge down the water face so that it rests in contact with the arch either at the crown or at the haunch. Whenever possible, several arches shall be attacked simultaneously. Every effort will be made to ensure as close a contact as possible is made between the explosive and the arch. The lowest part of some arches in certain dams have been filled with masonry. If these dams
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are attacked, if possible an unfilled arch should be chosen or the charge placed so that it is above the level of the filling. 5-6-18. Earth fill dams. In dams partly or wholly constructed of earth fill, it may be possible to ditch or crater below the existing waterline and thus allow the water itself to erode and destroy the dam.
Fig 5-6-1 Demolition of dams COMMUNICATIONS FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT 5-6-19. The destruction or removal of communications equipment to prevent it falling into enemy hands is normally performed by communications personnel. In general, it is only during offensive operations, such as a patrol into hostile territory, that this task is completed by engineer demolition parties. If possible one or more lineman and electricians are to be attached to the demolition party. 5-6-20. Telephone exchanges are the most vulnerable parts. Computer, instruments, batteries, exchange boards and automated switching equipment shall be removed or smashed, and wires cut and tangled together. Main telephone cables are cut where they enter the building or just outside the building if they can be exposed. All papers and records of messages should be preserved and forwarded through intelligence channels. 5-6-21. Lines may be destroyed by felling the poles, cutting all the wires or cables at intervals, and twisting them so as to render them useless. The poles shall be cut about half-way along their length so they are too short for use in the repaired line. If possible, use locations where mobile line laying equipment is not employable. Microwave relay towers shall be destroyed in a manner similar to the telephone poles. Antenna dishes shall be destroyed or removed. Satellite transceiver centres shall be destroyed by means similar to telephone exchanges and the antenna dishes destroyed or removed
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AMMUNITION AND EXPLOSIVES 5-6-22. The primary denial measure to prevent ammunition and explosives from falling into the hands of the enemy is removal. The denial of ammunition and explosives by detonation or burning is not to be confused with the destruction of munitions during battlefield munition or explosive ordnance disposal. 5-6-23. Detonation. The shells and bombs may be detonated as described in Chapter 3. The detonation of one of a group of shells placed in close contact with another is sufficient to fire the group if the filling is TNT. Where there is any doubt on the filling, the advice of qualified personnel is required. 5-6-24. Burning. High explosives may often be destroyed by burning, but if the fire becomes too fierce, the remaining explosive may detonate. Gasoline, kerosene or diesel will assist combustion. Some forms of high explosive will not burn, especially if wet. The charge in such cases is best rendered harmless by scattering it over the ground. Waste explosive shall not be thrown into ponds or down wells as it may poison the water. 5-6-25. Small Arms Ammunition. Small arms ammunition boxes shall be stacked in close contact, soaked with gasoline or kerosene, and ignited. Explosives cannot be used effectively to destroy small arms ammunition. .
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ANNEX A METHODS OF ATTACK SIMPLY SUPPORTED BRIDGES Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 1 Steel beam Through bridge I Method of attack (d)
Lc
Remarks (e)
Steel beam
Through bridge II
Top attack 1. Cut at mid-span 2. Cut beams including bottom flange in "V" 3. Deck need NOT be cut Bottom attack E is greater than ER
H .75 H
Steel beam
Through bridge III
1. Cut at mid-span to depth 0.75 H as shown 2. Deck must be cut across full width of bridge Angled attack
End clearance is NOT a consideration
Steel beam
Through bridge IV
1. Cut between 1/3 span and mid-span 2. Cut angle at approx 70 to beam flange 3. Deck must be cut across full width of bridge Bottom Attack E is less than ER 1. Cut at mid-span to depth 0.75 H as shown in Ser 2 2. Deck must be cut across full width of bridge 3. Attack the end of the bridge or one pier/abutment to create sufficient end clearance
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 5 Steel beam Through bridge V (Where deck is located well above the level of the bottom of the beams)
Method of attack (d) Top Attack E is less than ER

Lc
Remarks (e)
Steel beam
Deck bridge top support
1. Cut at mid-span 2. Use cuts as shown 3. Deck need NOT be cut Angled attack
1. Found in cantilever and suspended span bridges 2. End clearance is NOT a consideration
Steel beam
Deck bridge bottom support I
1. Cut between 1/3 span and mid-span 2. Cut entire beam at approximately 70 to beam flange 3. Deck must be cut across full width of bridge Bottom attack E is greater than ER
Steel beam
Deck bridge bottom support II
1. Cut at mid-span 2. Cut full depth of web and both flanges 3. Deck need NOT be cut Bottom attack E is less than ER 1. Cut at mid-span 2. Cut full depth of web and both flanges 3. Attack the end of the bridge or one abutment/pier to create sufficient end clearance 4. Deck need NOT be cut
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 9 Steel beam Deck bridge bottom support III
Method of attack (d) Angled attack
Remarks (e) End clearance is NOT a consideration
10 Steel truss
Through bridge I
1. Cut between 1/3 span and mid-span 2. Cut entire beam at approximately 70 to beam flange 3. Deck must be cut across full width of bridge Top attack E is less than ER
Lc
11 Steel truss
Through bridge II
1. Cut at mid-span 2. Cut top chord twice, vertical (if necessary), diagonal and bottom chord 3. Wind bracing at top chord level must be removed over LC 4. Deck need NOT be cut Angled attack
1. Cut between 1/3 span and mid-span 2. Cut top chord, diagonals and bottom chord in one bay only. Cut is to be angled at 70 to top chord 3. Deck must be cut across full width of bridge
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 12 Steel truss Deck bridge top support
Method of attack (d) Bottom attack
Remarks (e)
13 Steel truss
Deck bridge bottom support I
1. Cut at mid-span 2. Cut top chord, diagonals and bottom chord in one bay only 3. Deck need NOT be cut Bottom attack E is greater than ER
14 Steel truss
Deck bridge bottom support II
1. Cut at mid-span 2. Cut top chord, diagonals and bottom chord in one bay only 3. Deck need NOT be cut Bottom attack E is Less than ER 1. Cut at mid-span 2. Cut top chord, diagonals and bottom chord in one bay only 3. Attack the end of the bridge or one pier/abutment to create sufficient end clearance 4. Deck need NOT be cut Angled attack
15 Steel truss
Deck bridge bottom support III
End clearance is NOT a consideration
1. 2. 3. 4.
Cut between 1/3 span and mid-span Cut angled at approximately 70 to top chord Deck must be cut across full width of bridge Cut top chord diagonals and bottom chord in one bay only
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 16 Concrete Through bridge
Method of attack (d) Bottom attack
Remarks (e)
17
Concrete
Deck bridge top support
1. Cut at mid-span 2. Complete cut through beam 3. Deck must be cut across full width of bridge Top attack Lc
1. Found in cantilever and suspended span bridges 2. Remove concrete over length LC to full width and depth of beams
18
Concrete
Deck bridge bottom support
Attack at mid-span using concrete stripping charge Bottom attack, E is greater than ER
1. Applies to slab bridges only 2. This cuts sufficient rein-forcing bars in reinforced concrete slabs to cause collapse
Cut at mid-span 19 Concrete Deck bridge bottom support II Bottom attack E is less than ER 1. Cut at mid-span 2. Attack the end of the bridge or one pier/abutment to create sufficient end clearance Top attack E is less than ER 1. Applies to slab bridges only 2. Same as above
20
Concrete
Deck bridge bottom support III
Remove concrete over length LC to full width and depth of beams. Plan for a two stage attack to cut the anchor span although failure may occur after the first stage.
Attack at mid span using concrete stripping charge
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Ser Sub-category (a) (b) 21 Bowstring Normal
Type (c) Top attack
Method of attack (d)
Remarks (e)
1. 2. 3. 4. 22 Bowstring Reinforced
Cut at mid-span Cut bow in two places Cut any hangers between bow cuts Deck need NOT be cut
Top attack plus girders
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Cut at mid-span Cut bow in two places Cut any hangers between bow cuts Deck need NOT be cut Cut longitudinal reinforcing beams/trusses as shown
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ANNEX B METHODS OF ATTACK CONTINUOUS BRIDGES Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 1 Concrete Cantilever Method Of Attack (d) Two complete cuts
SHEAR JOINT
Remarks (e) 1. Plan for a two stage attack to cut the anchor span although failure may occur after the first stage. 2. Use concrete stripping charge for first stage.
Concrete
Cantilever and suspended span
1. Cut anchor span as near pier as practical 2. Cut mid-span shear joint One complete cut
Plan for a two stage attack to cut the anchor span although failure may occur after the first stage. Use concrete stripping charge for first stage. If demolition of the suspended span alone will create the desired obstacle, regard the suspended span as a simply supported bridge, then categorize and attack accordingly
Concrete
Beam/truss with short side span
1. Cut anchor span as near pier as practical One complete cut

X Y
Plan for a two stage attack to cut the longer span although failure may occur after the first stage. Use concrete stripping charge for first stage
1. Cut interior span so that Y is greater than 1.25X 2. If necessary cut other interior spans as in Ser 4
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 4 Concrete Beam/truss, without short span
Method Of Attack (d) Two or more complete cuts

X Y X Y
Remarks (e) Plan for a two stage attack although failure may occur after the first stage. Use concrete stripping charge to achieve first stage.
Concrete
Portal, fixed footing
Cut spans so that Y is greater than 1.25X Two complete cuts
Plan for a two stage attack although failure may occur after the first stage. Use concrete stripping charge to achieve first stage.
Concrete
Portal, pinned footing
Cut span twice close to piers Stripping of Concrete
Lc
1. Plan for a two stage attack although failure may occur after the first stage. 2. When footing conditions are unknown, method of attack must be as for Ser 5
Lc
Remove concrete from mid-span over length Lc using concrete stripping charge
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 7 Concrete Arch, open spandrel, fixed footing I
Method Of Attack (d) Stripping of Concrete
Lc
Remarks (e) 1. This applies to arches of span greater than 40 m only. 2. Plan for a two stage attack although failure may occur after the first stage.
Concrete
Arch, open spandrel, fixed footing II
1. Remove concrete over length Lc, using concrete stripping charge Stripping of Concrete
Lc
1. This applies to arches of span less than 40 m. 2. Plan for a two stage attack to cut the anchor span although failure may occur after the first stage.
Springing Line
Concrete
Arch, open spandrel, fixed footing III
1. Remove concrete from midspan over length Lc using concrete stripping charge formula 2. Attack Springing Line against top face of arch ring Four complete cuts
1. This method is an alternative to Serial 8 and applies to arches of span less than 40 m 2. Plan for a two stage attack although failure may occur after the first stage. 3. Use concrete stripping charge to achieve first stage
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 10 Concrete Arch, open spandrel, pinned footing
Method Of Attack (d) Stripping of concrete
Lc
Remarks (e) Plan for a two stage attack although failure may occur after the first stage.
11 Concrete
Arch, solid spandrel, fixed footing I
1. Remove all concrete over length Lc, using concrete stripping charge Stripping of Concrete 1. This applies to arches of span less than 40 m 2. Plan for a two stage attack although failure may Lc occur after the first stage.
Remove concrete from midspan over length Lc using concrete stripping charge
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 12 Concrete Arch, solid spandrel, fixed footing II
Method Of Attack (d) Stripping of Concrete
Lc
Remarks (e) 1. This applies to arches of span less than 40 m 2. Plan for a two stage attack although failure may occur after the first stage.
Springing Points
13
Concrete
Arch, solid spandrel, pinned footing
1. Remove all concrete over length Lc 2. Attack both springing points by removing concrete using concrete stripping charges either: a. against bottom face of arch ring, or b. against top face of arch ring, having removed spandrel fill beneath roadway. Stripping of concrete
Plan for a two stage attack although failure may occur after the first stage.
14 Steel
Cantilever
Remove all concrete over length LC using the concrete stripping charge Two complete cuts
Cut anchor span as near pier as practical 1. Cut mid-span shear joint
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 15 Steel Cantilever and suspended span
Method Of Attack (d) One complete cut
Remarks (e) If the demolition of the suspended span alone will create the desired obstacle, regard the suspended span as a simply supported bridge, and categorize and attack accordingly
16
Steel
Beam/truss with short side span
Cut anchor span as near pier as practical One complete cut
17
Steel
Beam/truss without short side span
.1. Cut interior span so that Y is greater than 1.25X 2. If necessary, cut other interior spans as in Ser 17 Two or more complete cuts
18
Steel
Portal, fixed footing
Cut interior spans so that Y is greater than 1.25X Two complete cuts
Cut span twice close to piers
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Ser Sub-category Type (a) (b) (c) 19 Steel Portal, pinned footing
Method Of Attack (d) Two complete cuts
Remarks (e) When footing conditions are unknown, use the method of attack in Ser 18.
20 Steel
Arch, open spandrel, fixed footing
Remove section from mid-span over length LC Four complete cuts
21 Steel
Arch, open spandrel, pinned footing
Two complete cuts
Remove section from mid-span over length LC
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Ser Sub-category (a) (b) 22 Masonry arch I
Type (c) Two complete cuts
Method Of Attack (d)
Remarks (e)
23 Masonry, arch II
Cut at haunches Arch ring, spandrel walls and parapet shall all be attacked One complete cut
Use this method as an alternative to Ser 22 only when time is insufficient to allow attack at haunches
Breach arch ring at crown
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Demolitions
ANNEX C PRIORITIES OF DENIAL OPERATIONS Ser Equipment 1 Roads system Priority 1 2 3 Airfields 1 2 3 4 Railroads 1 2 3 4 Ports 1 Short term 2 3 4 Long term 1 2 3 4 Inland waterways 1 2 3 4 5 6 Industrial 1 facilities,2 (mechanical) 3 4 Industrial 1 facilities 2 (electrical) 3 4 Water supply: 1 Pipes & 2 storage 3 Parts to attack Destroy bridges and other crossing sites Crater at defiles or crossroads Rip roads, or create abatis at defiles or crossroads Destroy or deny all aircraft operating surfaces Destroy communications and operations equipment Destroy fuel facilities and other utilities Destroy access roads, hangers and workshops, and engineer resources Destroy railroad tracks and switches by using cutting charges Destroy the roadbed by using cratering charges (in restricted areas) Remove or destroy locomotives Destroy communications and workshop facilities Remove watercraft, floating cranes, dredgers, etc Partially destroy power and clean water sources Destroy road and rail systems Remove essential machinery parts Disrupt power stations servicing the port Destroy quays and jetties Destroy dry docks, locks and lock gates Destroy crane legs and supports so cranes will fall in the direction of the water Create obstructions by sinking tugs and barges Remove or destroy vital parts of locks and sluice gates Destroy aqueducts by concussion charges Destroy earth dams retaining water at a higher level than the surrounding area Destroy road and rail bridges over waterways Mine and booby-trap defiles and landing sites Remove or destroy special machinery by explosives or inducing self-destruction Destroy power and water sources Destroy road and rail system Destroy material handling equipment Destroy or remove special electrical machinery Destroy stand-by power sources Destroy all power stations supplying the area to be denied Destroy power distribution network supplying the area Destroy pumps, valves, and control system Destroy reservoirs and holding tanks Destroy pipelines (joints and bends if accessible)
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Demolitions
Ser
Equipment Wells
Dams
Priority 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 2
10 Communication facilities
11 Ammunition and explosives
1 2 3 4 5
Parts to attack Block access to well by throwing machinery and agriculture implements down it Crater 3 m from the well to collapse and conceal the entrance Destroy deep wells by suspending charges above water line Disconnect or destroy rising pipes and pump rods Destroy masonry or concrete dams by submerging a breaching charge in contact with the face Destroy multiple arch dams by submerging a breaching charge in contact with the crown or the haunch of the wall (If possible, several arches should be attacked simultaneously) Destroy earth filled dams by crating to below the water line Destroy computers, instruments, batteries, and exchange boards, within exchanges and central offices and in satellite transciever stations Destroy lines and relay sites by felling poles and towers, cutting near the centre so they cannot be re-used and in an area difficult for mobile line laying equipment. Destroy or remove dish antennas Recover or remove munitions Stack shells in close contact and detonate as many exposed ones as possible. This will destroy or disperse the shells leaving an unsafe environment. Detonate explosives by normal means Stack small arms ammunition in boxes, soak with gasoline or kerosene, and ignite Burn explosives (gasoline or kerosene will assist combustion)
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Charge Placement and Calculation
CHAPTER 6 CHARGE CALCULATION AND PLACEMENT SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION GENERAL 6-1-1. Explosive charges can be used to cut/shatter, lift/heave, breach and strip a variety of targets. To ensure that the charge successfully detonates and the maximum effect is achieved, the following factors shall be considered: a. b. c. d. Charge placement and close contact with the target. The direction of initiation. Tamping and stemming. Correctly calculated charge quantities.
CLASSIFICATION OF CHARGES 6-1-2. It is convenient to classify explosive charges according to their uses in demolition tasks, as each charge has its own method of calculation and application. This chapter discusses the use, calculation and placement of the following types of charges: a. b. c. d. e. f. cutting charges. breaching charges. pier Footing. borehole charges. mined charges. concussion charges.
6-1-3. These charges can be used against targets as indicated in the table at Fig 6-1-1.
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Demolitions 6-1-4. Chapter 8 of this manual covers demolitions in an under water environment and ice demolition charges. Underwater demolitions are also discussed in B-GL-320-008/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 8, Combat Diving. B-GL-320-009/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 9, Demolition, Part 1, All Arms, discusses the use of explosives in construction tasks such as weapons pits and shelters. B-GL-320-012/ FP-004, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 12, Horizontal Construction, Part 4, Pits and Quarries, discusses quarrying and rock blasting. Ser (a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Type of charge (b) Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting (concrete stripping) Breaching Target (c) Rectangular steel Steel rails Bars and cables Rectangular timber
Round timber & abattis Unreinforced concrete
Description of method (d) Section 2 Section 2 Section 2 Section 2 Section 2 Section 2 Section 2 Section 2
Tabular answers (e) Annex A Annex B Annex C Annex D Annex E Annex F Annex G
Reinforced concrete arches Reinforced concrete beams and slabs
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Concrete and masonry obstacles, walls, piers Pier footing Masonry and unreinforced concrete piers Borehole Bridge Piers Borehole Reinforced concrete eams Borehole Masonry walls Borehole Timber Mined/crater- Roads and airfields ing charges Mined charges Ditching Mined charges Continuous charge underground Mined charges Masonry piers Mined charges Abutments and retaining walls Mined charges Tree roots
Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Section 5 Section 5 Section 5 Section 6 Section 6 Section 6 Section 6 Section 6 Section 6
Annex H Annex I
Annex K Annex L Annex L Annex M Annex M Annex M
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Ser (a)
Type of charge (b)

Boulders
Target (c)
Description of method (d) Section 6 Section 7
Tabular answers (e)
21 Mined charges 22 Concussion Buildings and fortifications Fig 6-1-1. Explosive charge index. CALCULATION OF CHARGES
6-1-5. Charge calculations in this publication are determined by the target type, size and method to be used. Each target has an example calculation. Tabular answers, based on deliberate formulas, are attached as annexes to this chapter. The rule in charge calculation is to round up to the nearest quarter block and when calculating charge end cross section (Cx), Cx will not be less than one. 6-1-6. In 1994, the dimensions of a block of C4 explosive were researched and documented to alleviate any further discrepancies in calculations. They are as follows: a. b. c. d. e. Block length is 27.94 cm rounded to 28 cm. Block width is 5.08 cm rounded to 5 cm. Block thickness is 2.54 cm rounded to 2.5 cm. Block weight is 0.558 kg rounded to 0.56 kg. Block volume is 350 cm3.
6-1-7. Measurements in this manual are in centimetres (cm) or metres (m) and weights in kilograms (kg). All existing formulas have been recalculated mathematically to be easier to work with. 6-1-8. Rounding off/up errors have always been a problem or point of controversy in instruction and calculations. The simplest way to correct this problem is to create a common standard by adopting the following rules: a. b. All calculations in a given formula shall be done in cm or m, and kg. Rounding off to two decimal places shall be done at each step of a calculation.
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Demolitions c. d. e. Conversion from kg to blocks of C4 is accomplished by dividing answers in kg by 0.56 (the weight of a block of C4). Then rounding up to the nearest quarter block. All charge calculations are then totalled for the quantity of explosive required for the task. At the final stage (i.e. squadron level), the final charge quantity is calculated by adding an extra 10 % to compensate for charge placement and waste.
FORMULA NOTATIONS 6-1-9. There are many symbols in the formulas used to calculate charge quantities. Depending on the target and the type of charge being calculated, it is very critical that the correct symbol, method and chart is used. Ser (a) 1 2 3 4 Symbol (b) A C CT CW Meaning (c) Area Charge required Weight of tamping charge Weight of charge per m of bridge beam or slab (concrete tripping charges) Charge end cross section Circumference Depth Diameter Structural factor (concussion charges) Height Length Minimum length of section to be removed (Sheifield tudy) Line or length of cut Line of least resistance Number of charges Radius Charge spacing Thickness Unit of measurement (d) cm2 or m2 kg or no of blocks kg kg/m
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Cx c D d K H L LC LC Lr N r S T
block cm cm or m cm or m
cm or m cm or m cm or m cm or m cm or m cm or m cm or m cm or m
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Ser (a) 19 20 21 22
Symbol (b) VOD V W Wd
Meaning (c) Velocity of detonation Volume Width Width of ditch
Unit of measurement (d) m/s cm3 or m3 cm or m cm or m
Fig 6-1-2. List of formula notations. EXPLOSIVE FACTORS 6-1-10. Explosives vary not only in their velocity of detonation (VOD), but also in other characteristics, such as density, brisance, power and energy output, which can affect their effectiveness for various demolition applications. The Explosive Factor is based upon the shattering effect, brisance, of an explosive in relation to C4 plastic explosive. The shattering effect of a high explosive is related to its VOD. With cratering charges, the explosives ability to lift and heave is of greater importance than a high VOD. The system used in the past was the Relative Effectiveness (RE) factor based upon the shattering effect of an explosive in relation to TNT. For example, TNT was designated the standard 1.0 explosive base line factor, and C4 was given a relative effectiveness factor of 1.34. The system has been changed to C4 explosive as the standard 1.0 explosive base line factor. Table 6-1-3 shows the explosive factors by which charge calculated in kg of C4 is multiplied in order to obtain the required amount of explosive. Explosive Factors Mined and Borehole cratering charges charges (d) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.2 1.25 (e) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.2 1.25
Ser (a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Explosive (b)
C4 (US, CA)
Cutting charges (c) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.2 1.25
PE 2 / PE 4 852 PETN (GE) Hexolite (FR) Tolite (FR) RDX/ TNT (BE) CETN (BE, GE) Tetrytol (US) TNT, cast/pressed (BE)
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Demolitions Explosive Factors Mined and Borehole cratering charges charges 1.25 1.25 1 1 1 1 1 1.25 1.25 1 1 1 1 1 -
Ser 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Notes
Explosive 808 TNT, loose flake (BE) Gelinite (US) PAC Dynamite Trigran (CA) ANFO Brixal 70/30 DM 12
Cutting charges 1.33 1.5 2 2 -
BE-Belgian,CA-Canada, FR-French, GE-German, US- American Manufactured
Fig 6-1-3. Explosive Factors. CHARGE PLACEMENT 6-1-11. Charge placement is very important and must be emphasized in all demolition work. Whatever the method of calculation adopted, the rules for placing and affixing charges to targets are similar. These rules are explained by charge type throughout this chapter. 6-1-12. If part of a target is inaccessible, it may not be possible to place a charge where it will produce the maximum effect. This limitation may make it necessary to increase the size of the charge. Examples are described under the targets to which they apply. The use of bolt guns could be replaced by wire, gun tape or strapping material.
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SECTION 2 CUTTING CHARGES USE 6-2-1. Cutting charges are usually the quickest to place because no tamping is necessary, though sometimes they have to be placed in awkward positions. The shattering effect of cutting charges produces desirable results against hard materials such as timber, steel, and concrete, but beyond certain thicknesses their use becomes uneconomical owing to the vastly increased amount of explosive required. 6-2-2. The following rules regarding charge calculation and placement shall be observed to achieve the most effective results: a. b. The charge must be continuous over the complete line of cut. Close contact between the charge and target is essential. In the case of uneven or irregular targets, such as riveted girders, plastic explosives shall be used with the explosive moulded to the surface of the target so as to leave no air gaps. The proportions of the charge end cross-section (Cx) shall be such that the width (W) is between one and three times the thickness (T). In any case, charges more than 15 cm thick shall be avoided as better effect is obtained by increasing the width. If a number of charges are utilized to make a single cut, ensure that they all initiate simultaneously. Boards or another form of packing shall be used to ensure that any strapping does not cut into the explosive. If charges are placed on both sides of the target, they shall be staggered, with a slight overlap not to exceed 0.3 cm, so that they have a scissor effect. This rule does not apply to conical or linear-shaped charges. For long linear charges, there shall be one initiation point every 1.5 m. The direction of initiation shall be perpendicular to the target, with the initiation point placed on the face of the charge opposite to the target.
c.
d. e. f.
g. h.
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Demolitions STEEL, RECTANGULAR STEEL SECTIONS 6-2-3. General The configuration of the steel in the structure will determine the type and amount of explosive charge necessary. Examples of structured steel includes I-beams, wide-flange beams, channels or steel plates used in bridge or building construction. 6-2-4. Calculations. Charges for cutting rectangular structural steel sections are calculated using the following formulas: Cx = T2 x length of block (cm) 380 weight of block (kg) and C= LC x Cx length of block Where Cx = charge end cross section T = target thickness (cm) C = charge required (blocks of C4) LC= length of cut (cm)
a. b.
Determine Cx using the formula given and round up to the nearest quarter block. Cx is then multiplied by the length of cut divided by the length of a block of explosive, and then rounded up to the nearest quarter block to give the total charge required (C). For steel girders and universal steel beams, the charges for each part, i.e. the top flange, web and bottom flange, must be calculated separately. There may be rivet heads and angle pieces (joining the flange to the web) to contend with. In such cases, the flange thickness is taken to be the maximum thickness over the whole width of the flange, i.e. the total thickness of one rivet head, plus plates, plus angle piece. The thickness of the web is measured at its thinnest point, i.e. the plate ignoring rivet heads and angle pieces. For lattice girders, the calculations for the flanges follow the same rules as for the flanges of other beams and built up girders. The web lattice is cut by placing a charge of the required size on each lattice member, on the line of cut. For steel rails, a charge of 0.5 kg of plastic explosive can normally cut the heaviest rail, and create a gap of 0.5 m. If a fish-plate must be cut with the rail, a charge of 0.75 kg of plastic explosive is required. See Fig 6-2-3.
c.
d.
e.
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f.
Note: It is a recognized fact that a unique situation exists in this formula such that the value of Cx shall never be less than 1.
6-2-5. Example. Calculate the charge required to cut the steel girder at the right using C4. Note that when calculating steel cutting charges, each section is calculated separately. The following is an example in which the steel girder is treated as three separate steel sections a. Top Flange. T = 4.5 cm, LC= 52.0 cm, length of block = 28.0 cm (1)
Fig 6-2-1 Calculations - cutting charge for steel girder. 2 Cx = (4.5 cm) x 28 cm = 2.66 380 0.56 kg rounded up to nearest 1/4 block, 2.75
(2) charge required C =
LC x Cx length of block = 52 cm x 2.75 = 5.11 28 cm rounded up to the nearest block = 5.25 blocks b. Web. T = 2 cm, LC= 110 cm, Cx = (2 cm)2 x 28 cm = 0.53 380 0.56 kg rounded up to nearest block, = 0.75 Note: Cx must not be less than 1 therefore use 1 (1) (2) charge required C= LC x Cx length of block = 110 cm x 1.0 = 3.93 28 cm rounded up to nearest block 4.0 blocks
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Demolitions c. Bottom Flange. T = 7.5 cm, LC= 65 cm,
(1) Cx = (7.5 cm)2 x 28 cm =7.40 380 0.56 kg rounded up to nearest block, = 7.50 (2) charge required C = LC x Cx length of block = 65cm x 7.5 =17.41 28cm rounded up to nearest block = 17.5 blocks
d.
Total explosives required for line of cut: C= 5.25 + 4.0 + 17.5 = 26.75 blocks.
6-2-6. Limitations. Linear shaped charges shall be used for rectangular steel targets thicker than 12.3 cm. 6-2-7. Charge Placement. Fig 6-2-2 shows methods of placing charges when various parts of the target are inaccessible. Except for the case shown in Fig 6-2-2 (d), flange charges shall be off-set either side of web charges so as to avoid opposition-of-charge effects through the flanges. All charges shall be secured tightly against the target. There shall be no air space left between the explosive and the target.
Fig 6-2-2 Charge placement for steel girder. Note s : 1. C1, C2, C3 = ch arge s for top fl ange , w e b and bottom fl ange re s pe ctiv l e y. 2. - initiation points and direction. 3. (a) - both flanges accessible. 4. (b) - top flange inaccessible. 5. (c) - both flanges inaccessible.
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6.
(d) - both flanges and one side of web inaccessible. (Flange charges are doubled, but will not completely cut top flange if over 2.5 cm thick)
6-2-8.
Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex A of this chapter.
Fig 6-2-3. Charge Placement for Steel Rail. ROUND STEEL BARS, CABLES AND CHAINS 6-2-9. General. Round bars and cables are classified as either Mild Steel (MS), High Carbon Steel or Steel Wire Rope (SWR). 6-2-10. Calculations. The charge size is calculated using the formulas on the next page:
C = c2 550 Steel cables. C = c2 450 Steel chains. see limitations Steel bars.
where C = size of charge (kg) c = circumference (cm)

(maximum 31.4 cm)
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Demolitions a. b. Determine the charge weight by using the above formula. (See limitations at para 6-2-12.b. below.) Divide the charge weight (kg) by the weight of explosives to be used, to determine the amount of blocks required.
6-2-11. Example. Calculate the charge size (C4) required to cut a cable of 18.0 cm circumference: a. b. C= c2 = (18 cm)2 = 0.72 kg 450 450 C= 0.72 kg=1.29 rounded to 1.5 blocks of C4 0.56 kg
6-2-12. Limitations. The following limitations apply to cutting round steel bar, cables and chains: a. The above calculation formulas give charge quantities for most structural and cable steels up to 31.4 cm circumference (10.0 cm in diameter). For larger targets, the charge quantity required varies closer to the cube than the square of the diameter. This makes the normal cutting charge method uneconomical. In such cases, shaped charges shall be used. The above formulas can also be used against high carbon steel and alloy targets up to 15 cm in circumference. Once the charge per kg is calculated, it is then multiplied by 2.5. Charge Placement. For bars over 23.0 cm, and cables over 22.0 cm in circumference, half of the charge shall be placed on each side of the target and slightly overlapped not to exceed 0.3 cm, so as to produce the maximum shearing effect (see Fig 6-2-4).
b.
6-2-13. a.
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Fig 6-2-4 Charge Placement for a Steel Wire Rope of Circumference Greater than 22.0 cm. b. For smaller targets, the charge is placed on one side. Charges must be securely fastened, with as much surface area as possible in close contact with the target . The size of steel chain link varies making proper charge placement difficult. Fig 6-2-5 shows charge placement for a chain. If the explosive charge is long enough to bridge both sides of a link, or to fit snugly between the two links, use one charge. If the explosive is not large enough to bridge both sides use two charges calculated as per round steel bar.
c.
Fig 6-2-5. Charge Placement for Steel Chains. 6-2-14. Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex B of this chapter.
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Demolitions SADDLE CHARGES 6-2-15. General. Saddle charges are used to cut round, or rectangular mild steel targets up to 20 cm in thickness or diameter. The charge is a triangular shape (Fig 6-2-6), cut from a block of C4 or detasheet, with a uniform thickness of 2.5 cm.
Fig 6-2-6 Saddle Charge. 6-2-16. Calculations. Charges are calculated using the following formulae: V=LxWxT C= ______V_________
Volume of explosives Where V = Charge volume
L = Charge length W = Charge width T = Charge thickness C = Charge size in blocks or area of detasheet a. b. c. charge length ( L ) is the targets circumference or thickness. charge width ( W ) is one half the targets circumference or thickness. charge thickness ( T ) is always 2.5 cm.
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d.
charge volume ( V ) is L x W x T.e. Divide the charge volume by the volume of explosive to be used such as C4 ( 350 cm3 ) or Detasheet ( 5833 cm3 ).
6-2-17. Example. Calculate, for C4, the size of saddle charge to cut a mild steel bar 56 cm in circumference. a. b. c. d. e. L = the circumference of the target = 56 cm. W = half the circumference = 56 cm x .5 = 28 cm. T = 2.5 cm. V=L x W x T = 56 cm x 28 cm x 2.5 cm = 3920 cm3. C = V ) volume of C4 = 3920 cm3 ) 350 cm3 = 11.2 or 11.25 blocks.
6-2-18. Limitations. The saddle charge can not be used on targets greater than 20 cm thick. 6-2-19. Charge Placement. The following charge placement applies to the saddle charge: a b. c. Charge shall be initiated at apex end ( pointed end ) of the long axis. The long axis of the charge shall be placed parallel with the long axis of the target. The charge shall be securely taped to the target.
RECTANGULAR TIMBER 6-2-20. General. Cutting charges for timber may be used to destroy wooden trestles, bridges or timber structures, as well as land clearing. Timber cutting charges may be used effectively against large diameter targets, however they tend to be uneconomical in explosives required. Therefore, if time to prepare the target is not critical, borehole charges (see Section 5) are more economical.
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Demolitions 6-2-21. Calculation. Charges for cutting rectangular timber are calculated using the following formulas: Cx = T2 x length of block(cm) 42,000 weight of block (kg) C= LC(cm) x Cx where Cx = the charge end cross section T = the thickness of the target (cm) C = charge required (blocks of C4) LC = length of cut (cm)
length of block
a. b.
Determine Cx by using the formula given and round up to the nearest quarter block. Cx is then multiplied by the length of cut divided by the length of block of explosive, and then rounded up to the nearest quarter block to give the total charge required (C). It is a recognized fact that a unique situation exists in the formula that the value of Cx shall never be less than 1.
c.
6-2-22. Example. Calculate the charge required to cut a rectangular timber post measuring 50.0 cm wide by 60.0 cm thick using C4. a. Cx = (60 cm)2 x 28 cm = 4.29 42,000 0.56 kg rounded up to the nearest block, 4.50 charge required C = LC x Cx length of block = 50 cm x 4.50 = 8.04 rounded to 8.25 blocks 28 cm Limitations. The following limitations apply when cutting rectangular For timber thicker than 0.76 m cutting charges are uneconomical and borehole charges shall be used. A method for cutting timber piles under water is shown at Figure 6-2-7 and described in para 6-2-29.b. of this section.
b.
6-2-23. timber: a. b.
6-2-24. Charge Placement. The charge must be placed in direct contact with the target.
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6-2-25.
Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex C of this chapter.
ROUND TIMBER/ABATTIS 6-2-26. General. Due to the variety of wood types, the calculated charge size obtained from the formula in para 6-2-27 could have varying results. Trees generally rot from the core out which may not be visible, therefore test shots are highly recommended. 6-2-27. used: Calculations. For cutting round timber the following formulas shall be
C(kg) = 32 x (c (100 )3 )
or
C = 32 d3
Where C = the total charge (kg or blocks) c = the circumference of the target (cm) = pi = 3.14 d = the diameter of the target (m)
a. b. c.
Determine the charge weight by using the above formula. Divide the charge weight (kg) by the weight of your explosives to be used, to determine the amount of blocks required. The charge size suggested to create abatis, leaving the trees attached to the stump, is 80% of the charge determined by the above calculation.
6-2-28. Example. Calculate the charge required to cut a piece of round timber 87 cm in circumference using C4: a. b. C(kg) = 32 (c ) (100 x )3 ) C(kg) = 32 (87 cm ) (100 x )3 = 0.68 kg ) C(blocks) = total charge weight in kg weight of block in kg C(blocks)=0.68 kg=1.21 blocks rounded to 0.56 kg 1.25 blocks of C4
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Demolitions 6-2-29. timber: a. b. Limitations. The following limitations apply when cutting round For timber thicker than 2.35 m in circumference cutting charges are uneconomical and borehole charges shall be used. A method of cutting timber piles underwater is shown below. The charge is placed against the upstream side of the pile and near the bottom to obtain the full tamping effect of the water. In this case, the tamping compensates for any lack of close contact between the charge and the pile. Plastic Fig 6-2-7. Charge placement for timber piles explosives are ...................................................... normally used.
6-2-30. Charge Placement. On round timber, the charge must be placed in close contact with the target. If the target is a tree, the bark must be removed and the charge moulded to the same curvature of the tree to
ensure the close contact between the explosive and solid wood. If the tree is leaning the wrong way to the desired direction of fall, or is affected by a strong wind, a "kicker" charge of approxi-mately 0.5 kg (1 block of C4) is placed two-thirds of the way up the tree on the opposite side of the main charge, and initiated simultaneously as shown at right
Fig 6-2-8. Charge placement for tree felling. 6-2-31. Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex D of this chapter.
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MASONRY AND UNREINFORCED CONCRETE 6-2-32. General. Cutting charges provide a quick and effective method of attacking masonry, i.e. brickwork and stone-work, and unreinforced concrete targets. However, they are relatively expensive in explosives and shall not be used for targets thicker than 1.5 m. Although slow to prepare, borehole charges are much more economical and can be used effectively against larger targets. 6-2-33. Calculations. Charges for cutting masonry and unreinforced concrete parapet and spandrel walls, piers, and arch rings are calculated separately using the following formulas, and then added together to give a total charge required. a. Walls: Where: CX = Charge end cross-section T = Wall thickness (m)
C = Total charge quantity
CX =8 T2 x length of explosive (cm) 100 weight of explosive (kg) C = CX x LC(cm) length of explosive (cm)
(blocks) LC = Length of cut (cm)
b.
Piers:
CX = 32 T2 x length of explosive (cm) Where: 300 weight of explosive (kg) CX = Charge end cross-section T = Pier thickness (m) C = CX x LC(cm) C = Total charge quantity length of explosive (cm) (blocks) LC = Length of cut (cm) c. Arch Rings: Where: CX = Charge end cross-section T = Wall thickness (m) C = Total charge quantity (blocks) LC = Length of cut (cm)
CX=12 T2 x length of explosive (cm) 100 weight of explosive (kg) C = CX x LC(cm) length of explosive (cm)
6-2-34. As a general rule in the calculations for masonry and unreinforced walls, piers and arch rings the following applies: a. Determine CX using the formula given and round up to the nearest quarter block.
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Demolitions b. CX is then multiplied by the length of cut required (LC divided by the length of the block of explosive, and the answer is rounded up to the nearest quarter block to give the total charge required. The value of CX shall never be less than 1.
c.
6-2-35. Example. Calculate the charge required to cut an unreinforced concrete wall measuring 0.52 m thick and 2.1 m high, using C4. a. CX = 8 T2 x length of explosive 100 weight of explosive CX = 8 x (.52m)2m x 28 cm 100 0.56 kg CX = 1.08, rounded up to 1.25 blocks of C4 C = CX x ____LC_____ length of block C =1.25 x 210 cm 28 cm C = 9.37, rounded up to 9.5 blocks of C4
b.
6-2-36. Limitations. The only limitation which applies to cutting masonry and unreinforced concrete walls, piers and arch rings is that target depth/thickness must not exceed 1.5 m. 6-2-37. a. Charge Placement. The following rules apply: Walls: (1) (2) b. Piers: (1) (2) For solid piers, charges shall be placed along the bottom of the pier across its full width. For rubble filled piers, the filling will rarely be consolidated well enough to transmit the detonation wave completely through the pier. Charges shall therefore be placed on opposite sides of the pier, slightly offset from each other, to produce a shearing effect. Charges shall be placed along the bottom of the wall across the full width of the desired cut. The width attacked must not be less than the height of the wall.
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Each charge shall be one half of the total charge quantity calculated and both charges must be initiated simultaneously. c. Arch rings: (1) Charges must be calculated to cut the full width of arch ring, including the position beneath the parapet walls. The spandrel and parapet wall may also have to be cut, see Chapter 5, Section 3. If the span is to be attacked from the top, then digging down to the arch ring through the roadway and filling will be necessary. In this case, the portions of the arch ring beneath the spandrel walls will be inaccessible; the charges calculated for the spandrel walls must be placed against the base of the spandrel wall at each end of the line of cut as shown in Fig 6-2-9. If the span is to be attacked from the bottom without removing the filling from above the arch ring, the charge must be increased to allow for the support given to the masonry by the filling. (a) If the filling is of solid concrete, its full thickness must be added to the thickness on the arch ring when calculating the charge. (b) If the filling is well consolidated earth or rubble, topped by an aggregate pavement, one-half of the filling thickness must be added. (c) When the filling consists of loose earth or rubble, only onequarter of its thickness need be added.
(2)
(3)
(d) Skew arches. Considerations of economy of explosives require the charge be at right angles to the centre line of the bridge; but this involves deeper trenches and some curvature to the charge which might make it difficult to keep the explosive blocks in close contact with each other, especially when only one layer of blocks is required. With required. With arches of small radius or pronounced skew, it may be necessary to emplace the charge nearly parallel to the axis of the vault (see Fig 6-2-9), though in some cases an intermediate position may be found.
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Demolitions
Fig 6-2-9. Line of Cut. 6-2-38. Tabular Answers. For tabular answers see Annex E of this chapter.
REINFORCED CONCRETE 6-2-39. General. Cutting charges are an uneconomical method of attacking reinforced concrete; they are reliable only against small beams and slabs up to 22.5 cm thick. An alternative method is to use a shaped charge, but all shaped charges have their limits of performance. The methods of calculating normal cutting charges are set out below. 6-2-40. Calculations. Charges for cutting small reinforced concrete beams and slabs are calculated as follows:
a.
Reinforced concrete slabs up to 22.5 cm thick.
Where: CX = 3.2 T2 x length of explosive (cm) CX = Charge end cross-section weight of explosive (kg) T = Slab thickness (m) C = Total charge quantity C = CX x LC(m) (blocks) Length of explosive (m) LC = Length of cut (m)
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b.
Reinforced concrete beams up to 22.5 cm thick. Where: CX = Charge end cross-section T = Beam thickness when attacked from the side, i.e. depth of beam (m) C = Total charge quantity (blocks) LC = Length of cut (m)
CX = 6.4 T2 x length of explosive (cm) weight of explosive (kg) C = CX x LC(m) length of explosive (m)
6-2-41. In calculating the charges required for reinforced concrete slabs and beams, the following general rule applies: a. b. Determine CX using the formula given and round up to the nearest quarter block. CX is then multiplied by the length of cut required (LC divided by the length of the block of explosive, and the answer is rounded up to the nearest quarter block to give the total charge required. The value of CX shall never be less than 1. For T-beams, i.e. composite beam and slab construction, the beams are cut using the formula in paragraph 40. b, while the slabs between the beams are cut using the formula in para 6-2- 40.a. This procedure applies only for T-beams in which neither the thickness (depth) of the slab nor the thickness (width ) of the beam exceeds 22.5 cm.
c. d.
6-2-42. Example. Calculate the charge required to cut a reinforced concrete beam measuring 32 cm thick/deep and 12 cm wide, using C4. a. CX = 6.4 T2 x length of explosive weight of explosive CX = 6.4 x .122 x 28 cm 0.56 kg CX = 4.61, rounded up to 4.75 blocks of C4.
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Demolitions b. C = CX x ___LC___ length of block C = 4.75 x 32 cm 28 cm C =5.43, rounded up to 5.5 blocks of C4
Note, that because of charge placement for beams, the 12 cm width becomes the thickness to be cut, and the 32 cm thickness becomes the continuous length of cut (LC). 6-2-43. Limitations. The only limitation which applies to cutting reinforced concrete slabs and beams is that target depth/thickness must not exceed 22.5 cm. 6-2-44. a. b. Charge Placement. The following rules apply: When cutting reinforced concrete slabs, the charge must be continuous over the full width of the slab. When cutting reinforced concrete beams, the charge is placed on the side of the beam, and must be continuous over the full depth of the beam. Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex F.
6-2-45.
CONCRETE STRIPPING CHARGES 6-2-46. General. The difficulty of attacking large reinforced concrete beams and slabs is to cut the steel reinforcing bars buried in the concrete. Shaped charges are limited in their ability to cut through reinforced concrete. The best that can be achieved is to strip the concrete away from the reinforcing bars, attacking the target from the top. When a top attack is recommended, all concrete within the indicated wedge-shaped section must be removed, but it is not necessary to cut the steel reinforcing rods. Such an attack so weakens the structure (specifically, a simply supported span) that it will collapse under its own weight. Concrete stripping charges are bulk, surface-placed charges designed to remove concrete from reinforced concrete beams and slabs to reveal all the steel reinforcement. Although some damage will be caused to the main steel reinforcement, it is not
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possible to predict the extent of the damage. The effect of a concrete stripping charge, as illustrated here, providing it is calculated for the correct depth of target, is: Fig 6-2-10. Effect of a concrete stripping charge a. b. c. d. To remove all concrete down to the main reinforcement, To remove all concrete below the main reinforcement by spalling. To destroy minor reinforcement near the surface on which the charge is placed. To damage the main reinforcement to some extent.
6-2-47. Reinforced concrete - large beams and slabs: Reinforced concrete bridges can come in various configurations and sizes from concrete slab to concrete T-beams. A charge must be calculated for each individual component, i.e. for T-beam construction, each beam of a different size and each slab of a different size must be calculated separately, using the formula for CW and then C. Once the C for each beam and slab section is known, the total charge quantity can be determined. CW = 1.5 x (3.3 T + 0.5)3 C = _____CW x W______ weight of explosive (kg) WD = 2T + 0.3 Where : CW = the size of charge per metre across the bridge (kg/m)
T = the overall depth of beam (includ-
ing roadway depth) or slab (m). The minimum value is 0.3 m. C = the total charge required to cut a beam or section of slab (kg) W = the width of the beam or section of slab to be cut (m) WD = ditch width
a. b.
Find the T for the beam and slab. Determine Cw for the beams and slab by using the formula.
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Demolitions c. Determine the WD by using the formula given and comparing it to the LC (see Chapter 5, Section 3). Decide if charge has to be increased or decreased IAW the direction at para 6-2-47.g. Determine the charge quantity in kg required for each construction by multiplying the number of units (beams or slab sections) by its C (i. e., 5 (five beams) x C). Determine the total amount of charge (kg) required by adding all charge quantities together, taking into account the effects of WD and tamping (see para 50. b), add or decrease where necessary. Determine the total quantity of explosive required in unit of issue by dividing the total charge quantity in kg by the weight of explosive (i.e. a block of C4 is 0.56 kg). Ditch Width. A ditch of known width (WD) will be created across the width of the bridge by the line of charge. In order to cause a simply supported bridge to collapse without jamming, the length of section of the bridge to be removed (LC), which permits the reinforced concrete bridge to collapse, must be compared to the ditch width (WD): (1) If LC ( Chapter 5 ) is in the order of twice WD, it will be necessary to place two rows of charges, each of the full mass calculated above. (2) If LC is greater than WD, the charge shall be increased by 10%. (3) If LC is less than WD, the mass of charge calculated above must not be reduced. 6-2-48. Example. For the simply supported RC beam and slab span shown in Fig 6-2-11, calculate the stripping charge required to demolish the target, using C4. given that LC = 1.0 m. a. For each beam (T = 1.2 m, Width = 0.35 m) CW = 1.5 x (3.3 T + 0.5)3 = 1.5 x (3.3(1.2) + 0.5)3 = 133.07 kg/m run C = 133.07 x 0.35 ) 0.56 = 83.17, rounded up to 83.25 blocks of C4
d.
e.
f.
g.
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Fig 6-2-11. Section of bridge at midspan showing placement of concrete stripping charges. b. For each slab ( T = 0.3 m, Width = 0.9 m) CW = 1.5 x (3.3 T + 0.5)3 CW = 1.5 x (3.3(0.3) + 0.5)3 = 4.96 kg/m run C = 4.96 x 0.9 ? 0.56 = 7.96, rounded up to 8 blocks of C4 Determine ditch width (T = 1.2 m) WD = 2 T + 0.3 WD = 2 x 1.2 + 0.3 WD = 2.4 + 0.3 WD = 2.7 m, therefore WD is greater than LC (1.0 m) and only one line of charge is required Total charge required for 5 beams and 5 slabs = (5 x 83.25) + (5 x 8) = 456.25 blocks of C4 Reinforced concrete - arches: Where the concrete arch is part of a bridge to be demolished, and a complete cut across the roadway is needed, then a concrete stripping charge, calculated as per the formulas at para 6-2-47.a , shall be used on the arch ring and placed as for unreinforced concrete (see para 6-237.c). Where the concrete arch is part of a structure such as a multiple arch dam, where the requirement is to punch a hole in the arch,
c.
d. 6-2-49. a.
c.
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Demolitions and the charge will be well tamped by the water, the size of charge required is calculated using the following formula:
C = 32 x Tr
Where: C = weight of charge (kg), and Tr = thickness of arch ring at the point of attack (m3)
6-2-50. Limitations. Concrete stripping charges are only recommended for targets less than 2 m deep. Prestressed concrete is not susceptible to major damage from stripping charges. 6-2-51. a. Charge Placement. Concrete stripping charges are placed as follows: Charges must be placed in a continuous line across the full width of the bridge at the point of attack. The shape of the end cross-section of the charge shall be such that the width is between one and three times the height. No tamping is required for concrete stripping charges. However, by tamping with two sandbags per kg of explosive, the charge may be reduced by one-third (1/3). The width of ditch formed remains the same as for the original charge. The ditch width (WD) must be checked against Lc for the particular bridge construction, and the charge increased if necessary. Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex G of this chapter.
b.
c. 6-2-52.
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SECTION 3 BREACHING CHARGES USE 6-3-1. Breaching charges are used mainly to destroy masonry, concrete and reinforced concrete (RC) slab bridges, bridge beams, piers, abutments, and field fortifications. The size, shape, placement, and tamping are critical factors. 6-3-2. The size of charge and charge placement are critical because of the strength and bulk of the material to be demolished. High explosive charges detonated in or against a target must produce and transmit enough energy to the target to crater or spall the material. The metal reinforcing bars (rebar), in reinforced concrete are not necessarily cut. If it is necessary to remove or cut the reinforcement, the applicable steel cutting charge formula is required to calculate the second stage of the attack. CONCRETE BREACHING CHARGE. 6-3-4. General Breaching charges make use of the shattering effect of high explosives. They provide a rough and ready method of destroying reinforced concrete piers and obstacles, such as dragon's teeth, cubes, and walls, but are very expensive in explosives. Breaching charges are suitable for attacking RC piles, trestles, and RC piers (up to 1 m thick), as an alternative to the use of shaped charges. 6-3-5. Charge Calculations. Breaching charges are calculated in accordance with the table at Fig 6-3-1. a. Determine the kg/m3 by the type of target in table at Fig 6-3-1 and multiply by the cubic meters of the target to be destroyed to get the charge quantity in kg. Divide the charge quantity by the weight of explosive to be used, to get the total charge quantity in units of issue, i.e. blocks of C4.
b.
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Demolitions Ser Target Weight (kg) of explosive per m3 of material to be removed (c) 16 Remarks
(a) 1
(b) RC obstacles, e.g. blocks, dragon's teeth, and cubes Masonry walls with no reinforcement RC walls with reinforcement not denser than 23 cm spacing RC piers, and walls with reinforcement denser than 23 cm spacing
(d) If reinforcement is heavy, double charge Length of wall attacked shall not be less than height As for Serial 2
16
32
64
As per Serial 2
6.
Fig 6-3-1. Breaching charges for reinforced concrete obstacles and walls. Examples a. Small Obstacle (dragon's tooth) Calculate the charge required to demolish a dragon's tooth (tetrahedron) whose base is 1 m wide, and 1 m thick and whose height is 1 m. Solution: (1) V (Volume of tetrahedron) = base area x height 3 V = (1 m x 1 m) x 1 m 3 V = 0.33 m3 (2) C (weight of explosive to breach concrete target) = 16 kg/m3 V C = 16 kg/m3 x 0.33 m3 C = 5.28 kg of C4, 5.28 = 0.56 C =. 9.43, rounded to 9.5 blocks of C4
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b.
Wall. Calculate the charge required to breach a wall ( with reinforcement bars at 20 cm spacing ) that is 2 m high and .3 m thick, so as to provide a gap 4.5 m wide. (1) V (Volume of concrete to be removed) = W x H x T V = 4.5 m x 2 m x .3 m V = 2.7 m3 (2) C (weight of explosive to breach the wall) = 64 V C = 64 kg/m3 x 2.7 m3 C = 172.8 kg of C4, 172.8 = 308.57, 0.56 rounded to 308.75 blocks of C4
c.
Reinforced Concrete Pier. Calculate the charge required to breach a reinforced concrete pier (unknown reinforcement, so treat as if heavily/densely reinforced) that is 1 m thick, and 5 m wide. (1) In calculating the volume of concrete to be removed the width taken must be the full width of the pier, and the height must be at least equal to the pier thickness. Therefore: V (Volume of concrete to be removed) = W x H x T V=5mx1mx1m V = 5 m3 (2) C (weight of explosive to breach the wall) = 64 V C = 64 kg/m3 x 5 m3 C = 320 kg of C4, 320 = 571.42, 0.56 rounded to 571.5 blocks of C4
6-3-7. Charge Limitations. For concrete piers over approximately 1 m thick, breaching charges become very expensive in explosives, and borehole charges shall normally be used instead. Also, in calculating the volume of concrete to be removed the width taken must be the full width of the pier, and the height must be at least equal to pier thickness. 6-3-8. Charge Placement. Breaching charges shall be placed so that there is a free reflection surface (surface exposed to open air) on the opposite side of the target. This free reflection surface is necessary for spalling to occur.
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Demolitions a. Small Obstacles (dragon's teeth, cubes, etc) (1) The charge is spread so as to keep the ratio of width to thickness at about 4:1; but the thickness shall not exceed the thickness of one full box of explosive. (2) The centre of the charge shall be at about one-third the height of the obstacle. b. Fig 6-3-3 Dragon's teeth prepared for destruction
Walls (including reinforced concrete): (1) The charge calculated in the table at Fig 6-3-1 is placed on the face of the wall to cover the area of the breach required. (2) The bottom edge of the charge must be at least 30 cm above the ground level. (3) For best results, threequarters of the charge shall be placed to outline the area of the breach required (ABCD in Fig 6-3-4) and the remain-der Fig 6-3-4 Breaching walls. shall be placed in the centre (E).
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(4) The charge shall be spread so as to to keep the ratio of width to thickness at about 4:1; but the thickness shall not exceed the thickness of one full box of C4 or equivalent explosive. When exceptionally large charges are used, this maximum may be exceeded in order to get enough explosives in the right place. c. Reinforced Concrete (RC)Piers: (1) The charge shall be continuous across the full width of the pier as shown in Fig 6-3-3, with the centre of the charge at a height above ground level at least equal to the pier thickness. The only exception to this is where the pier is standing in water, in which case the charge may be placed just above water level, for ease of fixing, but preferably as deep as possible below the surface. (2) Explosives are normally kept in their boxes for ease of fixing to the target; the maximum thickness of charge is one wooden box of C4 or equivalent.
Fig 6-3-5 Breaching reinforced concrete piers. 6-3-9. Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex H of this chapter.
EAR-MUFF CHARGES 6-3-10. Ear-muff charges, once known as counterforce charges are a special breaching technique effective against rectangular shaped masonry or unreinforced concrete columns less than 1.2 m thick. The obstacle must have at least three free faces or be freestanding. If plastic explosives (C4) is used, and properly placed and detonated, ear-muff charges produce excellent results with a relatively small
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Demolitions amount of explosive. Effectiveness results from the simultaneous detonation of two charges placed directly opposite each other and as near the centre of the target as possible. The size of charge is 2.24 kg (4 blocks of C4) per metre of target thickness. The total charge is divided in half for each side of the target.
Fig 6-3-4 Ear-muff charge
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SECTION 4 PIER FOOTING CHARGES 6-4-1. General. Pier footing charges are used to demolish masonry and unreinforced concrete piers. The method makes use of both the shattering and lifting effects of high explosives, but when compared to borehole charges requires much more explosive. However, a pier footing charge is much quicker to prepare and emplace. 6-4-2. Calculations. Charges for demolishing masonry and unreinforced concrete piers are calculated using the following formulas: a. Piers less than 1.8 m thick: Where: C = Quantity of individual charges of C4 (blocks) T = Pier thickness(m) N = Number of individual charges required W = Pier width (m)
C = ______15 T_______ Weight of Explosive N=W T
(1) Determine the weight of individual charges (C) based on pier thickness. This weight is converted to blocks of C4 by dividing the total weight by 0.56 kg (the weight of a block of C4) and round up to the nearest quarter block. (2) Determine the number of individual charges required (N) to demolish the pier by dividing the pier width (W) by pier thickness (T), rounded off to the next highest whole number. (3) Determine the total quantity of C4 explosive required to demolish the pier by multiplying the individual charges (C) by the number of charges required (N). b. Piers 1.8 m to 2.7 m thick: Where: C = Quantity of individual charges of C4 (blocks) T = Pier thickness(m) N = Number of individual charges required W= Pier width (m)
C = ______30 T_______ Weight of Explosive N=W T
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Demolitions (1) Determine the weight of individual charges (C) of C4 based on pier thickness. This weight is converted to blocks of C4 by dividing the total weight by 0.56 kg (the weight of a block of C4). (2) Determine the number of individual charges required (N) to demolish the pier by dividing the pier width (W) by pier thickness (T), rounded off to the next highest whole number. (3) Determine the total quantity of C4 explosive required to demolish the pier by multiplying the individual charges (C) by the number of charges required (N). 6-4-3. Example Calculate the charge required, in blocks of C4, required to demolish the masonry pier shown at the right, where T = 1.8 m and W = 5 m.
Fig 6-4-1 Example masonry pier a. For a pier 1.8 m thick: C= ____30 T____ weight of explosive C = 30 kg x 1.8 m ) 0.56 m C = 96.42 rounded up to 96.5 blocks of C4
b.
N= N=
W T 5 m/1.8 m
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N= c.
2.8, say 3.
Total explosive required = C x N = 96.5 x 3 = 289.5 blocks of C4 Spacing is as shown in Fig 6-4-1.
d.
6-4-4. Limitations. Pier footing charges are employed with the following limitations: a. b. Pier footing charges are only used against masonry and unreinforced concrete piers up to 2.7 m thick. The required amount of charge is much greater than that required for borehole charges. Similarly, by employing full cases vice breaking down cases, the amount of charge used is much greater. Charges must be in close contact with the pier and well tamped.
c.
6-4-5. Charge Placement. There are three methods of placing the charges depending upon the location of the pier to be attacked: a. When the pier is on a slope. Charges shall be placed in contact with the pier on the uphill side, either at ground level or buried just below ground level. The latter assists in the tamping of the charge. The charge shall be well tamped and the difference in height between the bottom of the charge and the ground level Fig 6-4-2 Charge placement for pier on slope. on the other side of the pier must be not less than 0.45 m. When the pier is on level ground. The charges shall be placed on the ground surface on one side of the pier. They shall be in close contact with the pier and well tamped, i.e. one filled sandbag per 0.5 kg of explosive. As an alternative to the use of sandbags an equivalent thickness of earth may be placed directly over the charges. This
b.
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Demolitions expedient shall be used only when time is short, and special care must be taken to protect the firing circuit and charges from disturbance. Although the ground is level, the difference in level of 0.45 m between the base of the charge and the ground level, discussed in subparagraph a, must be maintained. Either the charge must be lifted and supported up this distance (see Fig 64-3), or the ground Fig 6-4-3. Charge placement for pier on on the other side level ground must be excavated c. When the pier footing is standing in water. When a pier is standing in water, charges shall be placed under water, but they shall be in close contact with the pier. The depth at which the charges are placed must be equal to, or greater than, the pier thickness (T) measured from the water surface to the top of the charge (see Fig 6-4-4). If this is not possible, the charges may be placed at a lesser depth or above the water, the charges must be increased proportionately to compensate for the reduced tamping. For example, if the charges are placed at a depth equal to one-half Fig 6-4-4 Charge placement for pier .................................................... the pier
thickness, the charge weight shall be increased by one-half. Similarly, if the charges are placed at or above the water surface, they must be doubled.
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6-4-6. a.
As well, pier footing charges must be: Spaced so that the maximum distance between individual charges is equivalent to the thickness of the pier, and with the outer charges being positioned at a distance not greater than one-half the thickness of the pier from the edges of the pier. See Figs 6-4-1 and 6-4-2. Placed in close contact with the pier and well tamped. If tamping is not practicable then the charge must be doubled. Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex I of this chapter.
b. 6-4-7.
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Demolitions SECTION 5 BOREHOLE CHARGES USE 6-5-1. Borehole charges provide an effective and economical method of destroying masonry or mass concrete walls, piers, arch rings, timber supports, and trees. They are not suitable for abutments, where only one face is exposed, as the detonation tends to produce a series of cones on the open side of the abutment without causing collapse. Borehole charges are also unsuitable for attacking hollow or rubble-filled masonry piers. The reasons for this are that the boreholes tend to collapse and cannot be charged; and even if successfully charged, the effects of the detonation may be dissipated in the loose filling. 6-5-2. Borehole charges may also be used to destroy reinforced concrete (RC) beams and piers. This method is also economical in explosives but expensive in time, as drilling the holes is a slow "trial and error" process owing to the need to avoid the reinforcing rods. In the case of heavy reinforced piers, the most effective method of producing boreholes is to use conical shaped charges (Fig 3-2-5). DRILLING AND CHARGING THE HOLES 6-5-3 In this section, tables which list volumes per hole are based on a standard 5.0 cm diameter drill bit, which tapers off in diameter, depending on the depth of hole required. The holes are drilled with either a hydraulic or pneumatic air compressor, or the Pionjar. Actual drill bits and diameters can vary depending on the equipment being used. In some cases, boreholes must be drilled to depths that are beyond the capacity of the service equipment. Special drill shaft and bit attachments might be required. Characteristics of current in-service equipment are as follows: a. Service compressor and Pionjar concrete drill sizes are as follows: (1) Shaft lengths are 0.6, 1.2, and 1.8 m, therefore maximum target thickness attacking one side is 2.7 m, and attacking two sides is 3.6 m. (2) Bit diameters for the compressor range in size from 3.8 cm, 4.4 cm and 5.0 cm. (3) The Pionjar bit diameter size is 2.2 cm.
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b.
For deep boreholes it is advisable to taper the hole in order to prevent the drill from jamming. The recommended depth for each size of bit is as follows: (1) Up to 1.2 m :- 5.0 cm. (2) 1.2 - 1.8 m : 4.4 cm. (3) 1.8 - 2.4 m : 3.8 cm.
6-5-4. To determine the maximum explosive content for uncommon compressor drill bits, use the following formula: C = Volume of hole = x r2 x D Volume of C4 350 cm3 Where: C = charge size (blocks of C4) r = radius of bit (cm) D = depth of hole (cm) = pi = 3.14
6-5-5. Drilling Times. Approximate times for drilling holes are given in Annex J to this chapter. 6-5-6. Charging the Boreholes. For horizontal borehole charges, the only acceptable service explosives suitable are plastic explosives, i.e. C4. The C4 shall be unwrapped before placing small quantities of explosive into the hole and tamped with proper tamping rod and using a proper tamping technique. Under no circumsatnces shll undue force be exerted on thecharge. CONCRETE AND MASONRY TARGETS 6-5-7. General. Boreholing is achieved by either drilling or by the use of conical charges. In the case of heavy reinforced targets, the most effective method of producing boreholes is to use shaped charges (see Fig 3-2-5). When shaped charges are used, allow 30 minutes for the hole and metal slug to cool off. 6-5-8. Charge Calculation. Charge calculation for creating boreholes are calculated using the following procedures:
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Demolitions Number of Vertical horizontal spacing rows of between holes rows (d) (e) 2 2T 3 3 2T 3 Depth of holes
Ser
Material
Thickness
(a) (b) (c) (f) 1 Brick or Up to 2T masonry 1.80 m 3 Up to 2T 2 Plain or 1.80 m 3 reinforced concrete 1.80 m to 3 2T 2T 3 Brick, masonry, 2.70 m 3 3 plain or reinforced concrete 2.70 m to 3 each side 2T T 4 Brick, masonry, 3.60 m 3 2 plain or reinforced concrete 2.70 m to 3 2T 2T 5 Brick, masonry, 3.60 m 3 3 plain or reinforced concrete 3.60 m 3 each 2T T 6 Brick, masonry, to 4.80 m side 3 2 plain or reinforced concrete Note: When using drill rods up to 1.8 m in length, on targets of thickness 2.7 m or less holes can be drilled from one side; however from 2.7 m to 3.6 m thick, holes must be drilled from both sides. Similarly using 2.4 m drill rods targets up to 3.6 m can be drilled from one side, but targets from 3.6 m to 4.8 m must be drilled from both sides. Fig 6-5-1. Borehole Charge Placement a. b. c. Determine the number of rows of boreholes required from table at Fig 6-5-1. Determine the vertical spacing between rows from Fig 6-5-1. Determine the number of boreholes required. They will normally be at one meter intervals, extending across the full width of the target. The boreholes at the end of the rows must be at least 0.5 m from the ends and staggered in every alternating row. As seen in Fig 6-5-3.
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d. e.
Determine the depth of holes required from the table at Fig 6-5-1. Determine the charge quantity per borehole. When starting with a 5.0 cm bit as per para 6-5-3.b.of this section, use the table at Fig 6-5-2. If using an uncommon service bits use the calculation at para 6-5-4 of this section; (1) In masonry and unreinforced concrete targets the boreholes are half filled with explosives. The remainder of the hole is stemmed with damp earth. For reinforced concrete targets the borehole is completely filled with explosives.
(2)
f.
Multiply the charge required per borehole by the total number of boreholes in order to obtain total charge required. Depth of hole (m) (b) 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 Vol per hole (cm3) (c) 785.60 1178.40 1571.20 1964.00 2356.80 2661.00 2965.20 3269.40 3496.20 3723.00 3949.80 C4 Per Borehole Masonry and Reinforced unreinforced concrete concrete kg C4 Blks C4 kg C4 Blks C4 (d) 1.26 1.89 2.51 3.14 3.77 4.26 4.74 5.23 5.59 5.96 6.32 (e) 2.25 3.5 4.5 5.75 6.75 7.75 8.5 9.5 10 10.75 11.5 (f) .63 .94 1.26 1.57 1.89 2.13 2.37 2.62 2.80 2.98 3.16 (g) 1.25 1.75 2.25 3.00 3.5 4.00 4.25 4.75 5.00 5.5 5.75
Ser
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Note: 1.
The blocks of C4 has been rounded up to the nearest quarter. In some instances there may be surplus of explosive when the borehole has been filled.
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Demolitions C4 Per Borehole Masonry and Reinforced unreinforced concrete concrete kg C4 Blks C4 kg C4 Blks C4 (d) (e) (f) (g)
Ser
Depth of hole (m) (b) 2.
Vol per hole (cm3) (c)
(a)
Based on volume of explosive and borehole.
Fig 6-5-2. Volume of explosive per borehole. 6-5-9. Example. A plain unreinforced concrete pier 2 m thick, 8 m wide and 4 m high is to be destroyed. Determine the borehole layout and depth, and the amount of explosive (C4) required: a. b. Number of boreholes rows. From table at Fig 6-5-1, Ser 3 (d), three rows required. Vertical spacing of rows. From table at Fig 6-5-1, Ser 3 (e): Vertical spacing = 2T = 2 x 2 m = 1.33 m. 3 3 Number of boreholes. Holes in alternate rows are staggered, with centre row being "short", therefore need (2 x 8)+ 7 = 23 holes. (See Fig 6-5-3 below.)
c.
Fig 6-5-3 Sketch of borehole layout in concrete (end view at right) d. Depth of holes. From table at Fig 6-5-1, Ser 3 (f): D = 2T = 2 x 2 = 1.3 m 3 3 Amount. of explosive, From table at Fig 6-5-2, Ser 6 (g.), each borehole requires 4.0 blocks of explosive. Therefore 4 x 23 holes = 92 blocks of C4.
e. f.
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6-5-10. Reinforced concrete beams. For beams up to 0.5 m wide, a single 5 cm diameter hole is drilled in each beam from the road surface down to the required two-thirds depth and filled to the top with explosive. For wider beams, 5 cm holes shall be drilled at 20 cm centres across the width of the beam. This effect shatters the beams and causes sufficient damage to the deck to ensure collapse. When drilling, if the drill strikes reinforcing steel near the top of the beam, there is no alternative but to start again in another place. The advantage of this method is that the bridge can remain in use until a few minutes before the charges are fired. Once the depth of the borehole is known, the amount of explosive required is calculated using the table in Fig 6-5-2 of this section. 6-5-11. Limitations. In order to obtain the maximum effect, boreholes in brick or masonry walls shall be drilled at an angle of 30 to 40 degrees to the horizontal, finishing just beyond the centre line of the wall. The charge will then be in the best position for bursting both faces of the wall. The boreholes shall be as low as possible so that the flying debris may be more easily smothered, but they must not be so low that they finish below ground level For example, in brick walls up to 0.45 m thick, the spacing shall be between 0.35 m and 0.45 m. In thicker walls over 0.5 m thick two rows of boreholes are probably advisable to ensure collapse, spaced about 0.6 m apart. In masonry walls, where the material is stronger than brick, it is better to reduce the spacing of the boreholes rather than to increase the charge per hole. For these short holes, tamping is essential. 6-5-12. Charge Placement. The number of borehole charges and their placement depends on the size and nature of the target. The following general rules apply to placing the charges: a. in arch bridges, boreholes must be below the springing line of the arch, that is, the line along which the lower side of the arch meets the vertical face of the pier. Each row of boreholes must be horizontal and extend across the full width of the target at 1 m centres. When two or more rows of boreholes are required, the holes in adjacent rows must be staggered. This normally results in one row having one borehole less than the others. Where three rows are necessary the top and bottom rows shall be "long" rows with the "short" row in the centre. Boreholes at the ends of a row are placed at least 0.5 m from the ends of the target.
b. c.
e.
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Demolitions f. The height above ground level of the first row of boreholes will depend upon the need to remove the target completely or to leave an obstruction. When targets are drilled from one side the depth of hole must be two thirds the target thickness. When drilled from both sides, the depth of each hole must be half the target thickness. Rows of holes on opposite sides must correspond in level, and be staggered horizontally.
g. h.
TIMBER 6-5-13. General. Plastic explosives are ideal for borehole charges, they may be used to destroy wooden trestles, bridges or timber structures, as well as land clearing. Borehole charges are more economical in explosives than external cutting charges and are therefor preferred if time permits. 6-5-14. Charge Calculation. For timber targets, the total charge required is calculated from the following deliberate formulas: Round Timber.
d 2 ) 100 Square/rectangular Timber T 2 C=2( ) 100 C = 2(
Where: C = charge required (kg) d = the diameter of round timber (cm) T = the thickness of square timber (cm)
a. b. c.
For targets up to 50 cm diameter, one hole is required. For larger targets, two holes are required where the total calculated charge is divided between the two holes. The borehole depth will be two thirds of the target thickness .
6-5-15. Example. Determine borehole layout and explosives required in C4 to fell a tree of 1 m diameter: a. b. Two boreholes of depth 0.75 m are required. C = 2 ( d 100 )2 = = 2 ( 100 cm 100 )2 = 2 kg of explosives
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weight of C4 is 0.56 kg, therefore 2 kg 0.56 cm = 3.57 blocks of C4 rounded to 3.75 blocks. c. C4 div d e q ual be tw e e n th e tw o bore h ols . H ols at righ t ide l y e e angls w ith 5.0 cm v rtical pacing. e e s
6-5-16. Limitations. Borehole charges are not for cutting trees to create an abatis obstacle, because the charge destroys the tree by cutting it off the stump. 6-5-17. Charge Placement. Borehole charhges are placed in timber is as follows: a. b. c. For rectangular timber, the hole shall be bored into the thicker dimension of the cross-section. The charge is placed in the hole, and the remainder is stemmed with damp earth. Boreholes are bored at right angles to one another. They must be 5 cm apart vertically (see Figure 6-5-4) and for very large
Fig 6-5-4 Borehole layout in timber trees, it may be necessary to cut away part of the tree trunk before drilling to achieve the required depth. 6-5-18. Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex K of this chapter.
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Demolitions SECTION 6 MINED CHARGES USE 6-6-1. Mined charges are excavated galleries, shafts, boreholes or other subterranean receptacles in which explosives are placed to blow up fortifications, roads, bridge piers and bridge abutments, etc. A cratering charge is a charge placed [below ground level] at an adequate depth to produce a crater (AAP-6). Thus cratering charges are just a form of mined charges which produce a bowlshaped cavity. Mined charges are used for cratering/ditching roads and aircraft operating surfaces, for blowing out retaining walls and bridge abutments, for the destruction of rubble-filled piers, and for clearing land (to remove stumps and boulders in areas designated for the construction of roads, airfields, landing zones or buildings). Mined charges may also be used in a row, or rows, to excavate a piece of ground or to form a ditch (i.e., a continuous line of interconnecting craters). The charges are placed in a variety of ways, and the method selected will depend upon such factors as time available, size of charge needed, depth at which the charge must be placed, soil conditions and equipment available. CRATERING 6-6-2. General. The tactical objective must be considered when determining the size and design of the crater obstacle. As a planning figure, the standard crater obstacle consists of three rows of four craters. The number of craters in each row may have to be adjusted based on the reconnaissance details of the specific site. Specifically, they must be designed to effectively deny or disrupt the freedom of movement to an opposing force, whether it is moving dismounted, in a wheeled vehicle or tracked vehicle, or in an aircraft. The crater obstacle is enhanced and strengthened by laying antitank and antipersonnel mines in and around the area which causes the opposing force to clear the obstacle of mines before it repairs the craters themselves. As a minimum, the crater obstacle design shall include the following: a. b. c. d. a 40 metre gap. be angled 45 degrees across the regular flow of traffic. be strengthened with mines. be covered by direct fire or observed indirect fire.
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6-6-3. A row of craters across a road, inclined at 45 degrees to the centre line of the road, presents a greater hazard to tracked vehicles than does a row of similar sized craters formed at right angles to the centre line of the road. This is because tracked vehicles tend to slip a track when squaring up to climb out of the obstacle. This method is useful in defiles, on embankments, or other restricted sites where tracked vehicles must approach the crater along the axis of the road and cannot change direction to meet the crater at right angles. The 45 degree inclination may also make it more difficult for bridging to be emplaced or built across the gap created. 6-6-4. Calculations. Charges for cratering are calculated using the formulas contained in the following table: Number Minimum charge quantity of (kg) holes (a) (b) (e) (f) 1 Soft W 9 D3 ground S 4 2 Medium 2D 3D W 9 D3 ground S 2 3 Hard D 2D W 9 D3 ground S 2 W = the length of desired cut (m) where: D = depth of hole (m) (Camouflet set D=2 m, Auger D=2.4 m) Fig 6-6-1 Calculation table for craters. Ser Subgrade Hole spacing (s)(m) (c) 2D Expected crater diameter (m) (d) 3D a. For placement of charges use the following procedures: (1) Determine charge depth normally 2 m or 2.4 m and type of ground ( see Charge Placement and Table 6-6-1 ). (2) Determine hole spacing from (c) in table at Fig 6-6-1. (3) Determine expected crater size from (d) in the table at Fig 6-6-1. (4) Determine line of cut. For craters across a road at a 45 degree angle, multiply the width of road by 1.41, ( which is an equal to 1/cosine of 45 degrees). (5) Determine the number holes from (e) table at Fig 6-6-1.
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Demolitions (6) Determine the number of rows required which in most cases would be three and multiply that number by the number of holes. b. For determining charge size carry out the following steps: (1) Determine charge quantity from (f) in table at Fig 6-6-1. (2) Multiply the number of holes by charge quantity (if using Trigran round up to the next hole jug i.e. 9 kg). (3) Multiply 0.5 block of C4 per hole as a priming charge. 6-6-5. Example. Crater a road, using the camouflet method, that is 14 m wide and has soft ground with a subgrade material of sand. Calculate using Trigran explosive. a. Charge Placement. From table at Fig 6-6-1 , using soft ground: (1) Charge depth D = 2 m. (2) Hole spacing S = 2 x 2 = 4 m. (3) Expected crater size = 3 x 2 = 6 m. (4) Line of cut 1.41 x 14 = 19.74 m. (5) The number of holes = 19.74 ) 4 = 4.93 rounded to 5 holes to ensure overlap. (6) b. 3 rows of craters 3 x 5 = 15 holes
Charge Size: (1) Charge quantity per hole C = 9 ) 4 x 23 = 18 kg. (2) 15 holes x 18 kg = 270 kg of Trigran. (3) 0.5 block of C4 per hole as priming charge = 15 x 0.5 = 7.5 blocks. (4) Total = 270 kg of Trigran and 7.5 blocks of C4.
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6-6-6. a.
Limitations. The following limitations apply to cratering: Hole depth is the critical limiting factor in cratering charges because hole depth relates to the amount of space available for the explosive charge itself and the tamping material. The closer to the surface the explosive fills the hole, the greater quantity of explosive power that is wasted as it escapes through the top of the hole. The greater the waste, the less the ground is displaced, and consequently, the smaller the resulting crater size. The formula for hard ground accommodates for this fact by reducing the charge spacing. When cratering "normal" asphalt or concrete paved roads or aircraft operating surfaces, no increase in explosive quantity is required to compensate for the presence of the pavement. Although the pavement is usually stronger than the subgrade material, the pavement actually helps to improve the effect of the charge because of confinement. However, special circumstances that have deemed it necessary for the pavement to be especially thick with concrete or asphalt such as with weak subgrade or reinforced aircraft operating surfaces, the explosive quantity would have to be increased to compensate. This will have to be determined during the reconnaissance. In the past, the calculations worked off the premise of "desired diameter" of the resulting crater without considering the limits or capabilities of the equipment used. The minimum charge required is determined by the depth of the hole and the ground type.
b.
6-6-7. Charge Placement. As previously discussed, there are several factors that affect the methods to place cratering charges in the ground. The following equipment and procedures are used to create chamber and charge holes: a. b. c. d. camouflet set. earth auger and associated hand/hydraulic tools. power auger on both the APC and SEV MLVW. conical shaped charges.
6-6-8. Depending on the ground type and whether asphalt or concrete pavement must be broken first, the number of holes and their spacing could be significant in time and quantity of explosive required to achieve the desired crater size.
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Demolitions 6-6-9. A maximum realistic depth of 2 m can be achieved with the camouflet set and 2.4 m with the auger. These depths will achieve a crater diameter of 6 m and 7.2 m respectively. A practical problem exists when breaking through concrete or asphalt pavement. The use of conical shaped charges may have to be used first. 6-6-10. When cratering a road, the charges are usually placed in a line at 45 degrees to the centre line of the road. 6-6-11. Tabular Answer. For tabular answers, see Annex L of this chapter.
DITCHING 6-6-12. General. Explosives can also be used as an aid to digging ditches, i.e. antitank ditches, fighting and communications trenches. The procedure is to fire a single row of cratering charges along the centre line of the ditch to be formed (see Fig 6-6-2), leaving any further widening to be effected by firing further charges along the lines of the banks of the new channel. The resulting craters must overlap so the distance between the charges shall initially be about the same as their depth, and adjusted later if necessary according to the first results obtained. The charges are normally initiated by a detonating cord ring main.
Fig 6-6-2 Ditching with explosives 6-6-13. Charge Calculations and Tabular Answers. The charge will depend upon the depth and width of ditch required, the nature of the ground and the charge spacing, just as per cratering charge calculations. Therefore, the table at Fig 6-6-1 and Annex L may be applied in the determining ditching charge requirements. CONTINUOUS MINED CHARGES 6-6-14. General. These charges are placed in a horizontal borehole, usually in the form of a pipe or culvert, to produce a continuous crater or trench across a road, aircraft operating surface or embankment, or to blow out the side of a bank.
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6-6-15. a. b.
Charge Calculations. Continuous mined charges are calculated either: To achieve the diameter (d) of the required crater/ditch, or To break through a least line of resistance, Lr, between the charge and the ground surface, based on the existing target profile (i.e. using an existing borehole). Nature of soil (b) Weight of charge (kg) of C4 per m run (c) 4d 25
2
Ser (a) 1
Remarks (d)
Soft ground (sand, gravel, clay) Medium ground Hard ground (rock)
or
2 Lr 3
2 3
8 d2 or 4 Lr2 25 3 16 d2 or 25 8 Lr2 3
1. d = diameter or width of crater (m) 2. Lr = least line of resistance (m) 3. If the surface is a concrete slab or heavy pavement, increase the charge by 50%.
Fig 6-6-3. Continuous mined charges - size of charge. (1) Determine if the weight of charge required is to be based on the diameter (d) of the crater/ditch to be formed, or because the length of least resistance (Lr) is defined by an existing culvert, pipe or borehole. (2) Determine the nature of the soil (soil classification) that must be moved. (3) Determine the weight of charge (kg) of C4 explosive, per m run of target to be cratered/ditched. (4) Convert the weight of charge to volume of charge per m run of target. (5) Verify the volume of culvert, pipe or borehole required to house the charge size determined in sub-paras (1) to (4). Compare this to an existing pipe or culvert, or excavate a borehole of sufficient size.
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Fig 6-6-4 Example for continuous mined charges and tamping in a culvert 6-6-16. Example. Calculate the continuous mined charge required to crater/ditch the road, the cross-sectional dimensions of which are given in Fig 6-64. Given that the existing culvert is of sufficient size to hold the required charge and the nature of the soil is compacted gravel surfaced with asphalt. a. b. The charge will be placed in an existing culvert at a depth of 2.4 m (Lr = 2.4 m). Weight of charge required = 4 Lr2 3 = 4 x 2.42 3 = 7.68 kg per m run If the surface is a concrete slab or heavy pavement, increase the charge by 50%. Therefore, weight of charge required: = 7.68 kg x 1.5 = 11.52 kg/m run To form a continuous ditch, the weight of charge required is: = width of target x charge per m run = 9 m x 11.52 kg/m = 103.68 kg, = 103.68 kg /0.56 kg = 184.25 blocks of C4.
c.
d.
6-6-17. Charge Placement. The charge shall be placed as required by length of run (continuous), or divided into charges and placed in accordance with the spacing rules for cratering charges. 6-6-18. The charges are normally placed in existing pipes or culverts running beneath a road or runway. If these do not exist, and no other method is possible,
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pipes or auger holes may be driven parallel to the surface. With long boreholes, the difficulties of controlling the direction of the bore, and of obtaining complete detonation throughout the length, are disadvantages that have to be allowed for. The loading of long holes needs care, particularly in the arrangements for initiating the charge. One expedient is to bind the detonating cord leads, with a thumb knot every 1.5 m, to a bamboo or light wooden pole, mould the explosive around it, and then insert it in the hole. The depth of the tamping material must be equal or greater than the depth of material above the borehole, or the explosive force will escape along the borehole. Otherwise the depth of tamping material becomes the least length of resistance. MASONRY PIERS 6-6-19. General. Mined charges are used to demolish rubble-filled masonry piers, or solid masonry pier in which demolition chambers have been prepared. 6-6-20. Charge Calculation. The charges required to crater the pier are calculated in the same manner as cratering in hard ground (rock), see Fig 6-6-1. 6-6-21. Charge Placement. The charges are placed in the prepared chambers and well tamped. In masonry arch bridges, the charges are placed below the springing line of the arch (as for borehole charges). MASONRY AND CONCRETE ABUTMENTS AND RETAINING WALLS, MINED CHARGES BEHIND THE TARGET 6-6-22. General. These targets are destroyed by exploding a charge or charges behind them. The charges are prepared as a: a. b. c. continuous mined charge; small mined charges; or cratering charges.
6-6-23. Charge Calculations. Whichever type of charge used, two important measurements are needed when designing the charges. They are Lr, the distance from the centre of the charge to the outer face of the abutment, and D, the distance of the charge below ground level, which must be at least 3 Lr/2 (see Fig 6-6-5).
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Demolitions a. Masonry and Unreinforced Concrete Abutments. (1) Continuous Mined Charges. The charge is calculated as per table at Fig 6-6-3, for hard ground (rock). Its effect is to blow out the wall and produce a crater approximately 2Lr in width. (2) Small Mined Charges. The charges shall be 2Lr3 (kg) each and spaced 4/3Lr m apart. The effect is to blow out the wall without necessarily cratering the ground behind it. (3) Cratering Charges. The charges shall be d3/3 (kg) each, and spaced 2d/3 apart, where d = 2Lr to 3Lr (m). For all charges, the length Lr is determined during reconnaissance, and the corresponding depth D and other information is determined from Annex M. b. Reinforced Concrete Abutments. The charges shall be d3/3 + 10 (kg) each, and spaced 2d/3 m apart, where d = 3Lr (m). The effect of such a cratering charge is to collapse the wall by blowing away the concrete and bending the reinforcing bars. The size of charge and charge spacing may also be determined from Annex M. The number of charges is given by the width of the abutment divided by the charge spacing, rounded to the nearest whole number.
6-6-24. Example. Determine the charge needed to destroy a reinforced concrete abutment 13 m wide and 1.4 m thick using cratering charges. The site reconnaissance found that the centre of the charge can be placed 0.4 m behind the rear face of the wall. a. Lr = 1.4 m + 0.4 m Lr = 1.8 m d = 3Lr d = 3 x 1.8 m d = 5.4 m Weight of Each Charge = d3/3 + 10 (kg) = 5.43/3 + 10 = 62.5 kg of Trigran Spacing = 2d/3 S = 2 x 5.4 m / 3 S = 3.6 m
b.
c.
d.
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e.
Number of charges = W/S N = 13 m / 3.6 m N = 3.61, rounded off to nearest whole number = 4 Total charge required: (1) Trigran = N x Weight of each charge (kg) = 4 x 62.5 kg = 250 kg C4 Priming Charges = N x 1/2 block C4 = 2 blocks Total charges = 250 kg Trigran and 2 blocks of C4
f.
(2)
(3)
6-6-25. Limitations. As per cratering charges. Normally charge placement is limited by the equipment used to excavate boreholes and shafts. 6-6-26. Charge Placement. Charge placement rules are as per cratering charges and continuous mined charge placement. In all cases, the distance Lr is determined during reconnaissance and the depth D at which the charge is placed is equal to 3Lr/2. Fig 6-6-5 and Fig 6-6-6 show charge placement for mined charges. 6-6-27. Tabular Answers. For tabular answers, see Annex M.
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Fig 6-6-5 Mined charges for blowing abutments and retaining walls.
Fig 6-6-6 Charge placement - continuous and small mined charges behind abutments.
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LAND CLEARANCE, TREE STUMP REMOVAL 6-6-28. General. Tree stumps are generally categorized as being either taprooted or laterally rooted. Each type has associated factors that effect the size and location of the charge required. Other factors to be considered are the type of soil the stump is located in, and whether the tree is green or older (or even dead). For example: a. Generally oak and pine have taproots, while poplar and spruce normally have shallow lateral roots. Trees will however adapt their root systems to their particular environment. A green stump requires a larger charge than does a dead stump. Stumps are easier to blast out of firm soils than out of loose sandy soils.
b. c.
6-6-29. Charge Calculation. The simple rule of thumb for calculating tree stump charges is 0.5 kg (1 block of C4) of explosive per 0.3 m of diameter for dead stumps and 1. kg (2 blocks of C4) of explosive per 0.3 m of diameter for live stumps. If removing the complete tree, increase the amount of explosive by an additional 50 percent. If the root system is unknown, assume a lateral root structure (see charge placement) and proceed accordingly. 6-6-30. Charge placement. Charge placement rules are based on the rooting system on the stumps. There are two types of charge placement and they are as follows: a Taprooted Stumps. Two methods are common for removing taprooted stumps. One method (see method (a), Fig 6-6-7), is to drill a hole in the taproot and place the charge in the hole. Another method (method (b), Fig 6-6-7), is to place charges in contact with the roots on both sides of the taproot creating a shearing effect . In both methods, the charges are placed at a depth approximately equal to the diameter of the stump. Laterally Rooted Stumps. When blasting laterally rooted stumps, drill sloping holes between the roots (method (c),
b.
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Demolitions and place the charges as closely to the center of the stump as possible, at a depth equal to the radius of the stump base. Trees with large lateral roots may require additional charges. Place the additional charges directly underneath the large lateral roots.
BOULDER REMOVAL 6-6-31. Blasting is an effective way of removing boulders to facilitate the construction of roads, airfields or buildings. The three methods used are snakeholing, Fig 6-6-7. Charge placement mudcapping and blockholing. for stump blasting 6-6-32. Charge Calculation. Table 6-6-3 lists the charge sizes for the three methods. Ser (a) 1 2 3 Boulder diameter (m) (b) 1.00 1.25 1.50 Charge size (kg) Mudcapping (d) 1.00 1.75 3.00
Snakeholing (c) 0.50 1.00 1.50
Blockholing (e) 0.20 0.25 0.30
Fig 6-6-8. Charge Size for Boulder Removal. a. Snakeholing. This method involves digging a hole beneath the boulder large enough to insert the charge. The charge is packed under and against the boulder. ( Fig 6-6-9 (A))
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b.
Mudcapping. Used on surface or slightly embedded boulders which have an exposed seam or crack that will aid in breakage. The charge is place on the boulder with a layer of clay or mud covering the charge. (Fig 6-6-9 (B)) Boreholing. This methods involves drilling a sufficiently large hole one-third of the way into the boulder. The hole is filled with the charge and Fig 6-6-9. Charge placement for then tamped. (Fig 6-6....................................... 9(C)) Charge Placement. For charge placement, see Fig 6-6-9.
c.
6-6-33.
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Demolitions SECTION 7 CONCUSSION CHARGES USE 6-7-1. Concussion charges are bulk explosive charges placed and detonated inside buildings, making use of pressure build-up produced by the explosion. In order for a concussion charge to be effective, all structural weak spots or air gaps, such as windows and doorways, must be blocked. 6-7-2. General. Concussion charges are ineffective where one side of a building is much weaker than the others. A strong brick building with a light corrugated iron roof, for example, would lose only its roof. Similarly, it is of no use trying to blow down a framed building by this method, because the walls will be blown out and the framework may be left standing. The frame must be demolished by cutting charges, which may first entail stripping off the covering. When the framework is completely concealed within the walls, concussion charges are first used on the ground floor so the exposed frame can then be attacked. 6-7-3. Charge Calculation. Concussion charge calculation is broken down into three categories according to target construction: a. b. c. Unreinforced construction such as, corrugated iron, timber, or brick. Light reinforced construction. Reinforced concrete (RC) such as buildings and defences.
6-7-4. Unreinforced Construction. Unreinforced construction is further broken down IAW the wall thickness: a. For buildings with walls that do not exceed 0.35 m use the following formula: C=V 3 Where C = charge size (kg) V = internal volume (m3)
Note: Charges in buildings of two or more stories need only be calculated for the ground floor. If all openings can be blocked efficiently, the charges based on the formula may be halved. b For buildings with walls that exceed 0.35 m thick use the following formulas:
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C = VT 2
Where C = charge size (kg) V = internal volume (m3) T = thickness of exterior walls in meters
6-6-5. Light Reinforced Construction. For buildings of light reinforced construction use the following formula: C = VT Where C = charge size (kg) V = internal volume of ground floor, including interior walls(m3) T = thickness of exterior walls (m), minimum 0.30 m
6-7-6. RC Buildings and Fortifications. For RC buildings and fortifications use the following formula: C = 16KT / VT Where: C = charge size (kg) K = a factor (table Fig 6-7-1) depending on: (1) the strength of materials used in construction; (2) the shape of the structure; and (3) the number of openings or weak spots in the walls and roof, through which the effect of the charge may be dissipated. T = wall thickness (m). However, if the roof thickness is greater than the wall thickness and is also greater than one-third the internal height, then T = roof thickness (m) V = internal volume of structure (including all internal walls, floors, etc.) (m3)
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Demolitions Ser Type of structure Value of K (c) 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.4 1.0 0.4 0.7 1.1
(a) (b) 3 1 Brick structures up to 30 m internal volume with walls up to 0.6 m thick (surface or semi-buried) 2 Brick structures of internal volume larger than 30 m3 3 4 5 6 7 RC air raid shelters (surface or below ground with not more than 1.5 m of cover) RC tunnels in normal soil (calculate charge for each 30 m run) RC fortifications with walls up to 0.6 m thick RC fortifications with walls over 0.6 m to 1.2 m thick RC fortifications with walls over 1.2 m thick
Fig 6-7-1 Values of K for concussion charges. 6-6-7. Considerations. The following considerations for concussion charges will greatly effect charge size if employed: a. Water concussion charges - Where a building will hold water without collapsing, a charge immersed in the water will destroy the building without the debris flying. The building shall be filled with water to three-quarters of its internal height, in which case a charge of onequarter the size of the calculated charge given by the formula in paragraph 6 is used. If, owing to the danger of excessive flooding, the water level in the building must be restricted to one-third of the internal height, the required charge is equal to one-third of the amount given by the formula. As with normal concussion charges, all openings must be effectively sealed. Precautions must be taken to ensure that the charge, and firing systems are not displaced or damaged by the water. They must be waterproofed as necessary. Explosive tamping charges - In some cases, such as light structures, where the main charges do not exceed 120 kg, the blocking of openings is achieved by firing tamping charges, placed in the openings, and initiated simultaneously with the main charges. This method, which replaces physical tamping with solid materials, saves time but the effect is only momentary, and a strong blast coming from the opening may cause damage to nearby buildings. Therefore, this means of tamping shall be used on unrestricted sites. Tamping charges are calculated from the formula:
b.
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Where: CT = weight of tamping charge (kg) A1 = area of opening (m2) A2 = area of roof, external walls (closed in studded walls are used) and floor of building or room (m2) C = weight of main charge (kg). Note: The tamping charge is suspended in the centre of the opening. For large openings, it must be divided into small charges of approximately 5kg and suspended in a pattern. CT = 5 x A1 x C A2 6-6-8. Charge Placement. The following charge placement factors apply to concussion charges: a. Charges shall normally be broken down into lots of 25 to 100 kg. Lots smaller than 45 kg shall not be used if the wall thickness exceeds 1.80 m. The local shattering effect can also be used to advantage by placing the charges against strong parts of a building such as supporting columns, chimney breasts and buttresses. The best concussion effect is obtained when the charges are placed near the corners of the rooms. If the building has two adjacent rooms of the same size with walls of the same strength, by placing an excess charge in one room and a reduced charge in the other, in the proportions of 2:1, and detonated simul-taneously, the effects are greatly increased. The two charges together shall equal the total calculated charge for the two rooms.
b.
c.
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ANNEX A CUTTING CHARGE RECTANGULAR STEEL, CHARGE END CROSS SECTION FOR BLOCKS OF C4 Cx (C4) Cx (C4) Steel Cx (C4) Steel Steel thickness thickness thickness (cm) (cm) (cm) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) 1 2.7 1 7.4 7.25 10.1 13.5 2 3.0 1.25 7.5 7.5 10.2 13.75 3 3.3 1.5 7.6 7.75 10.3 14 4 3.6 1.75 7.7 8.0 10.4 14.25 5 3.9 2 7.9 8.25 10.5 14.75 6 4.1 2.25 8.0 8.5 10.6 15 7 4.3 2.5 8.1 8.75 10.7 15.25 8 4.5 2.75 8.2 9.0 10.8 15.5 9 4.7 3 8.3 9.25 10.9 15.75 10 4.9 3.25 8.4 9.5 11.0 16 11 5.1 3.5 8.6 9.75 11.1 16.25 12 5.3 3.75 8.7 10 11.2 16.75 13 5.5 4 8.8 10.25 11.3 17 14 5.6 4.25 8.9 10.5 11.4 17.25 15 5.8 4.5 9.0 10.75 11.5 17.5 16 6.0 4.75 9.1 11 11.6 17.75 17 6.1 5 9.2 11.25 11.7 18.25 18 6.3 5.25 9.3 11.5 11.8 18.5 19 6.4 5.5 9.4 11.75 11.9 18.75 20 6.6 5.75 9.5 12 12.0 19 21 6.7 6 9.6 12.25 12.1 19.5 22 6.8 6.25 9.7 12.5 12.2 19.75 23 7.0 6.5 9.8 12.75 12.3 20 24 7.1 6.75 9.9 13 25 7.2 7 10.0 13.25 Fig 6A-1 Cutting charge for rectangular steel charge end cross section for blocks of C4 Ser
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6A-1. Charge Calculation. Charges used for cutting rectangular structural steel sections can be calculated using the formula on the following page: C= LC x Cx length of block Where C = charge required blocks of C4 LC = length of cut (cm) Cx = charge end cross section from table
6A-2. Example. Cut a rectangular piece of steel 6.9 cm thick with an LC of 45 cm, determine the number of blocks of C4 required: a. b. c. 6.9 cm thick requires a Cx of 6.5 blocks of C4 (table). LC is 45 cm divided by 28 cm (C4 length) equals 1.61 blocks. 6.5 x 1.61 = 10.47 blocks rounded to 10.5 blocks of C4.
6A-3. Note: For targets thicker than 12.3 cm use linear shape charges for economical reasons.
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Demolitions ANNEX B CUTTING CHARGE REQUIRED FOR ROUND STEEL BAR AND STEEL WIRE ROPE IN BLOCKS OF C4 Ser Round steel bar circumference (cm) (b) 8.9 12.5 15.2 17.6 19.6 21.5 23.2 24.8 26.3 27.7 29.1 30.4 31.4 Steel wire rope circumference (cm) (b) 8.0 11.3 13.8 15.9 17.8 19.4 21.0 22.4 23.8 25.1 Blocks of C4 (c) .25 .5 .75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 Blocks of C4 (c) .25 .5 .75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 High carbon/alloy steel bar circumference (cm) (d) 5.6 7.9 9.6 11.1 12.4 13.6 14.7 15 Blocks of C4 (e) .25 .5 .75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Ser
(a) 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
High carbon/alloy steel wire rope circumference (cm) (d) 5.1 7.1 8.7 10 11.2 12.3 13.3 14.2 15
Blocks of C4 (e) .25 .5 .75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25
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Steel wire rope Blocks of High carbon/alloy Blocks of circumference C4 steel wire rope C4 (cm) circumference (cm) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 24 26.3 2.75 25 27.5 3 26 28.6 3.25 27 29.7 3.5 28 30.7 3.75 29 31.4 4 Fig 6B-1 Cutting charge required for round steel bar and steel wire rope in blocks of C4
Ser
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Demolitions ANNEX C CUTTING CHARGE RECTANGULAR TIMBER, \ CHARGE END CROSS SECTION FOR BLOCKS OF C4 Cx (C4) Cx (C4) Cx (C4) Timber Timber Timber thickness thickness thickness (cm) (cm) (cm) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) 1 29 1 52.2 3.25 68.0 5.5 2 32.4 1.25 54.2 3.5 69.5 5.75 3 35.5 1.5 56.1 3.75 71.0 6 4 38.3 1.75 58.0 4 72.4 6.25 5 41.0 2 59.7 4.25 73.9 6.5 6 43.5 2.25 61.5 4.5 75.3 6.75 7 45.8 2.5 63.1 4.75 76.7 7 8 48.1 2.75 64.8 5 9 50.2 3 66.4 5.25 Fig 6C-1 Cutting charge for rectangular timber charge end cross section ................................................................................ for blocks of C4 Ser 6C-1. Charge Calculation. Charges used for cutting rectangular Timber can be calculated using the following formula: C= LC x Cx length of block Where C = charge required blocks of C4 LC = Length of cut
6C-2. Example. Cut a rectangular piece of Timber 70 cm thick with an LC of 95 cm, determine the number of blocks of C4 required: a. b. c. 70 cm thick requires a Cx of 6 blocks of C4 (table). Length of cut is 95 cm divided by 28 cm (C4 length) equals 3.39 blocks. 6 x 3.39 = 20.34 blocks say 20.5 blocks of C4.
6C-3. Note: For targets thicker than 0.76 m use borehole charges for economical reasons.
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ANNEX D CUTTING CHARGE FOR ROUND TIMBER IN BLOCKS OF C4 Ser Round Timber
Circumference (cm) Blocks of C4 (c) Round Timber Circumference (cm) (d) Blocks of C4 (e) Round Timber Circumference (cm) (f) Blocks of C4 (g)
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Fig 6D-1
(b)
51.9 0.25 164.8 8.25 65.1 0.5 166.5 8.5 74.3 0.75 168.1 8.75 81.8 1 169.7 9 88 1.25 171.2 9.25 93.5 1.5 172.7 9.5 98.4 1.75 174.2 9.75 102.9 2 175.7 10 107 2.25 177.2 10.25 110.8 2.5 178.6 10.5 114.3 2.75 180 10.75 117.7 3 181.4 11 120.9 3.25 182.8 11.25 123.9 3.5 184.1 11.5 126.8 3.75 185.4 11.75 129.5 4 186.7 12 132.2 4.25 188 12.25 134.7 4.5 189.3 12.5 137.1 4.75 190.5 12.75 139.5 5 191.8 13 141.8 5.25 193 13.25 144 5.5 194.2 13.5 146.1 5.75 195.4 13.75 148.2 6 196.6 14 150.3 6.25 197.7 14.25 152.2 6.5 198.9 14.5 154.2 6.75 200 14.75 156 7 201.1 15 157.9 7.25 202.3 15.25 159.7 7.5 203.4 15.5 161.4 7.75 204.4 15.75 163.1 8 205.5 16 Cutting charge for round timber in blocks of C4
206.6 207.6 208.7 209.7 210.7 211.7 212.7 213.7 214.7 215.7 216.7 217.6 218.6 219.5 220.5 221.4 222.3 223.2 224.1 225 225.9 226.8 227.7 228.5 229.4 230.2 231.1 231.9 232.8 233.6 234.4 235.2
16.25 16.5 16.75 17 17.25 17.5 17.75 18 18.25 18.5 18.75 19 19.25 19.5 19.75 20 20.25 20.5 20.75 21 21.25 21.5 21.75 22 22.25 22.5 22.75 23 23.25 23.5 23.75 24
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Demolitions 6D-1. a. Limitations. The following limitations apply to cutting round timber: For targets greater than 2.35 m in circumference use borehole charges.
b. total charge size suggested to be used to create an abatis while leaving trees attached to stump is 80% of charge size in table. d. Recommend test shots always be carried out.
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ANNEX E CUTTING CHARGE FOR MASONRY AND UNREINFORCED CONCRETE, CHARGE END CROSS SECTION FOR BLOCKS OF C4 Ser Wall thickness (cm) (b) 50 56 61 66 70 75 79 82 86 90 93 96 100 103 106 109 111 114 117 119 122 125 127 129 132 134 136 Cx (C4) Pier thickness (cm) (d) 43 48 53 57 61 65 68 71 75 78 81 83 86 89 91 94 96 99 101 103 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 Cx (C4) Pier thickness (cm) (f) 138 140 142 143 145 146 148 150 Cx (C4) Arch ring thickness (cm) (h) 40 45 50 54 57 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 81 84 86 89 91 93 95 97 100 102 104 106 108 109 111 Cx (C4) Arch ring thickness (cm) (j) 130 132 133 135 136 138 139 141 142 144 145 147 148 150 151 152 Cx (C4)
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
(c) 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5 4.75 5 5.25 5.5 5.75 6 6.25 6.5 6.75 7 7.25 7.5
(e) 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5 4.75 5 5.25 5.5 5.75 6 6.25 6.5 6.75 7 7.25 7.5
(g) 10.25 10.5 10.75 11 11.25 11.5 11.75 12
(i) 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5 4.75 5 5.25 5.5 5.75 6 6.25 6.5 6.75 7 7.25 7.5
(k) 10.25 10.5 10.75 11 11.25 11.5 11.75 12 12.25 12.5 12.75 13 13.25 13.5 13.75 14
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Demolitions Arch ring thickness (cm) (a) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) 28 7.75 120 7.75 113 29 8 122 8 115 30 8.25 124 8.25 117 31 8.5 126 8.5 119 32 8.75 128 8.75 120 33 9 129 9 122 34 131 9.25 124 35 133 9.5 125 36 135 9.75 127 37 136 10 129 Fig 6E-1 Cutting charge for masonry and unreinforced concrete charge end cross section for blocks of C4 6E-1. C= Ser Wall thickness (cm) (b) 139 141 143 145 147 150 Cx (C4) Pier thickness (cm) Cx (C4) Pier thickness (cm) Cx (C4) Cx (C4) Arch ring thickness (cm) (j) Cx (C4)
(i) 7.75 8 8.25 8.5 8.75 9 9.25 9.5 9.75 10
(k)
Charge Calculation. Charges used for cutting masonry and unreinforced concrete can be calculated using the following formula: LC x Cx length of block Where C = charge required blocks of C4 LC = length of cut (m) Cx = charge end cross section from table
6E-2. a.
Example. Cut an unreinforced concrete pier 1.3 m thick and 4 m wide, determine the number of blocks of C4 required: 1.3 m thick requires a Cx of 9.25 blocks of C4 (table).
b. LC is 4 m divided by .28 m (C4 length) equals 14.29 blocks. c. 6E-3. 9.25 x 14.29 = 132.18 blocks say 132.25 blocks of C4. Note: For targets thicker than 1.5 m use borehole charges.
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ANNEX F CUTTING CHARGES FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS UP TO 22.5 CM, CHARGE END CROSS SECTION Ser Beam thickness (m) (b) 0.056 0.062 0.068 0.074 0.079 0.083 0.088 0.092 0.096 0.100 0.104 0.108 0.111 0.115 0.118 0.121 0.125 0.128 0.131 0.134 0.136 0.139 0.142 0.145 0.147 0.150 Cx (C4) (c) 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5 4.75 5 5.25 5.5 5.75 6 6.25 6.5 6.75 7 7.25 Beam thickness (m) (d) 0.179 0.181 0.183 0.185 0.187 0.189 0.191 0.193 0.195 0.197 0.199 0.201 0.203 0.205 0.207 0.209 0.211 0.212 0.214 0.216 0.218 0.220 0.221 0.223 0.225 Cx (C4) (e) 10.25 10.5 10.75 11 11.25 11.5 11.75 12 12.25 12.5 12.75 13 13.25 13.5 13.75 14 14.25 14.5 14.75 15 15.25 15.5 15.75 16 16.25 Slab thickness (m) (f) 0.079 0.088 0.096 0.104 0.111 0.118 0.125 0.131 0.137 0.142 0.148 0.153 0.158 0.163 0.167 0.172 0.176 0.181 0.185 0.189 0.193 0.197 0.201 0.205 0.209 0.212 Cx (C4) (g) 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5 4.75 5 5.25 5.5 5.75 6 6.25 6.5 6.75 7 7.25
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
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Demolitions Beam Cx Beam Cx Slab Cx thickness (C4) thickness (C4) thickness (C4) (m) (m) (m) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) 27 0.153 7.5 0.216 7.5 28 0.155 7.75 0.220 7.75 29 0.158 8 0.223 8 30 0.160 8.25 0.225 8.25 31 0.163 8.5 32 0.165 8.75 33 0.167 9 34 0.170 9.25 35 0.172 9.5 36 0.174 9.75 37 0.176 10 Fig 6F-1 Cutting charges for reinforced concrete beams and slabs up to 22.5 cm charge end cross section 6F-1. Charge Calculation. Charges used for cutting reinforced concrete up to 22.5 cm can be calculated using the following formula: C= LC x Cx length of block Where: C = charge required blocks of C4 LC = length of cut (m) Cx = charge end cross section from table Ser
6F-2. Example. Cut an unreinforced concrete slab .18 m thick and 4 m wide, determine the number of blocks of C4 required: a. 0.18 m thick requires a Cx of 5.25 blocks of C4 (table).
b. LC is 4 m divided by .28 m (C4 length) equals 14.29 blocks. c. 5.25 x 14.29 = 75.02 blocks, rounded to, 75.25 blocks of C4.3.
Note: For targets thicker than 22.5 cm use borehole or concrete stripping charges.
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ANNEX G CONCRETE STRIPPING CHARGE, PER METRE RUN

Ser Thickness (m) (b) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 Cw Kg (m) (c) 0.44 0.86 1.48 2.34 3.49 4.96 6.80 9.04 11.73 14.91 18.61 22.88 27.76 33.28 39.50 46.44 54.15 62.67 72.05 82.31 Cw C4 Blocks (d) 1.00 1.75 2.75 4.25 6.25 9.00 12.25 16.25 21.00 26.75 33.25 41.00 49.75 59.50 70.75 83.00 96.75 112.00 128.75 147.00 WD (m) Thickness (m) (f) 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95 2.00 Cw Kg (m) (g) 93.50 105.67 118.84 133.07 148.40 164.85 182.48 201.33 221.42 242.82 265.55 289.65 315.17 342.15 370.62 400.63 432.22 465.43 500.30 536.87 Cw C4 Blocks (h) 167.00 188.75 212.25 237.75 265.00 294.50 326.00 359.75 395.50 433.75 474.25 517.25 563.00 611.00 662.00 715.50 772.00 831.25 893.50 958.75 WD (m) (i) 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 .1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(e) 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
Fig 6G-1 Concrete stripping charge per meter run 6G-1. Charge Calculation. using the following formula: C=CW x W Concrete Stripping Charges can be calculated
Where C = charge required blocks of C4 W = the width of beam or section of slab to be cut Cw = the size of charge per metre of concrete
6G-2. Example. Cut 6 reinforced concrete slabs 0.81 m thick and 5 m wide, where the Lc is 2.2 m, calculate for C4:
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Demolitions a. 0.81 m thick requires a Cw of 96.75 blocks of C4 (table).
b. C = Cw x W = 96.75 x 5 = 483.75 blocks. available. d. 483.75 x 1.1 = 532.12, rounded to 532.25 blocks of C4. e. 6G-3. 532.25 x 6 slabs = 3193.5 blocks of C4 Note: For targets thicker than 2 m use borehole charges.
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ANNEX I PIER FOOTING CHARGE IN BLOCKS OF C4 Pier thickness Blocks of Pier thickness (m) ( C4 ) (m) (a) (b) (c) (d) 1 0,2 5,5 1,5 2 0,3 8,25 1,6 3 0,4 10,75 1,7 4 0,5 13,5 1,8 5 0,6 16,25 1,9 6 0,7 19 2 7 0,8 21,5 2,1 8 0,9 24,25 2,2 9 1 27 2,3 10 1,1 29,5 2,4 11 1,2 32,25 2,5 12 1,3 35 2,6 13 1,4 37,5 2,7 Fig 6I-1 Pier footing charges in Blocks of C4 Ser Blocks of ( C4 ) (e) 40,25 43 45,75 96,5 102 107,25 112,5 118 123,25 128,75 134 139,5 144,75
6I-1. Charge Calculation. Charges used for pier footing can be calculated using the following formula: N=W T Where N = Number of individual charges required W = Pier width (m) T = Pier thickness(m)
6I-2. Example. Destroy a pier 1.5 m thick and 4 m wide, determine the number of blocks of C4 required: a. Determine charge quantity 1.5 m thick requires 40.25 blocks of C4 (table).
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Demolitions b. c. 6I-3. Determine the number of charges required N = W ) T, The width of pier is 4 m, ) 1.5 m thick = 2.67 rounded to 3 Determine the total charge quantity: 40.25 x 3 = 120.75 blocks of C4. Note: For targets thicker than 2.7 m use borehole charges.
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ANNEX K BOREHOLE CHARGES IN TIMBER (C4) Ser Diameter or average thickness of target (cm) (b) Number of boreholes (c) Total charge (kg) (d) Total charge blocks of c4 (e)
(a)
1 26 1 0.14 0.25 2 37 1 0.27 0.5 3 46 1 0.42 0.75 4 53 1 0.56 1 5 59 2 0.70 1.25 6 64 2 0.82 1.5 7 70 2 0.98 1.75 8 74 2 1.10 2 9 79 2 1.25 2.25 10 83 2 1.38 2.5 11 87 2 1.51 2.75 12 91 2 1.66 3 13 95 2 1.81 3.25 14 99 2 1.96 3.5 15 102 2 2.08 3.75 16 105 2 2.21 4 17 109 2 2.38 4.25 18 112 2 2.51 4.5 19 115 2 2.65 4.75 20 118 2 2.78 5 NOTE: The blocks of C4 has been rounded up to the nearest quarter. In some instances there may be surplus of explosive when the borehole has been filled. Fig 6K-1 Borehole charges in timber (C4)
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Demolitions ANNEX L CRATERING AND DITCHING CHARGES IN BLOCKS OF C4 Target Charge depth (m) Hole spacing (m)
Auger
Expected crater diameter (m)
Charge quantity (kg)
Camou- Auger Camouflet flet
Camou- Auger Camou- Auger flet flet
(a)
Soft ground Medium ground Hard ground
(b) 2 2 2
(c) 2.4 2.4 2.4
(d) 4 4 2
(e) 5 5 2.5
(f) 6 6 4
(g) 7.2 7.2 4.8
(h) 18 36 36
(j) 32 63 63
Fig 6L-1 Cratering and ditching charges in blocks of C4 6L-1. Example. Crater a road that is 20 m wide and has soft ground with a subgrade material of sand. Calculate using Trigran with auger. a. Charge Placement. using soft ground: (1) Charge depth D = table (c) = 2.4 m. (2) Hole spacing S = table (e) = 5 m. (3) Expected crater size = table (g) = 7.2 m. (4) Line of cut 1.41 x 20 = 28.2 m. (5) The number of holes = 28.2 ) 5 = 5.64 rounded to 6 holes to ensure overlap. (6) b. 3 rows of craters 3 x 6 = 18 holes.
Charge Size: (1) Charge quantity per hole C = table (j) = 32 kg. (2) 16 holes x 32 kg = 512 kg of Trigran. (3) 0.5 block of C4 per hole as priming charge = 16 x .5 =8 blocks. (4) Total = 512 kg of Trigran and 8 blocks of C4.
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c.
Weight of Each Charge = d3/3 + 10 (kg) = 5.43/3 + 10 = 62.5 kg of Trigran Spacing = 2d/3 S = 2 x 5.4 m / 3 S = 3.6 m Number of charges = W/S N = 13 m / 3.6 m N = 3.61, rounded off to nearest whole number = 4 Total charge required: (1) Trigran = N x Weight of each charge (kg) = 4 x 62.5 kg = 250 kg
d.
e.
f.
(2) C4 Priming Charges = N x 1/2 block C4 = 2 blocks
(3) Total charges = 250 kg Trigran and 2 blocks of C4
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CHAPTER 7 CRATERING PROCEDURES AND RELATED SAFETY PRECAUTIONS GENERAL 7-1. Personnel must be familiar with safety distances outlined in Annexes A and B to Chapter 4. As with other demolitions, no person shall enter the danger area or move from the safe area until the OIC Exercise or site commander has confirmed that there were no misfires and the "all clear" signal is given. 7-2. Cratering charges are buried charges, therefore two detonating cord leads long enough to reach from the bottom of the hole, out to the firing circuit are required. The detonating cord leads for the chambering charges, when using the Camouflet Set, MK 1, must also be long enough to reach out the camouflet tube and reach the firing circuit (approximately 12 m of detonating cord). Initiation sets must never be buried. 7-3. The chamber and priming charges will be C4 or similar nonnitroglycerine based explosive (DM 12 or PE 4). Priming charges will normally be one-half block of C4. The main charge will normally be Trigran, or in some instances ANFO, and the size will depend on the soil conditions. Calculation of charge sizes is covered in Chapter 6 7-4. When stemming the holes, stem at least 0.3 m, or completely to the top. Avoid damage to the detonating cord leads when stemming. CRATERING WITH AUGERS 7-5. For detailed instructions on the various types of augers in use, refer the applicable operator manuals. The procedure for augered craters is as follows: a. b. c. d. e. f. drill down 2.4 m using the applicable auger; place half of the main charge into the hole; insert the prepared priming charge down the hole until it rests on the main charge; place the remainder of the main charge down the hole; stem the hole with auger cuttings; connect the detonating cord leads to the initiation set or to the firing circuit; B-GL-361-008/FP-003 283
Demolitions g. h. ensure all personnel in the danger area are under shelter; and on command of the authorized person, fire the cratering charge.
CRATERING WITH SHAPED CHARGES 7-6. Shaped charges are described in Chapter 3. The procedure for using shaped charges to create a crater chamber is as follows: a. b. c. d. e. f. place the shaped charge in the desired location; connect it to the initiation set or to the firing circuit; after taking appropriate safety precautions, fire the shaped charges from the appropriate safety distance; allow 30 minutes for the holes and metal slugs to cool, or pour water (approximately 10 litres) down the hole and wait 10 minutes; ensure the hole is at the required depth (an auger may be required to clean or finish the hole); and load the main charge with the priming charge, and initiate as described above.
CRATERING WITH CAMOUFLET SET MK 1 7-7. The Camouflet Set, MK 1 provides a manual method of creating an underground chamber for an explosive charge. The components are described in Chapter 3. Camouflet chamber charges and priming charges used in the camouflet procedure must be molded to fit down the tube with little or no resistance. A tamping rod may be used to assist, but excessive force or pressure must not be used. 7-8. a. b. c. Driving Procedure. The camouflet driving procedure is as follows: if required, break the hard surface using the steel chisel which attaches to the adapter; attach the withdrawal clamp to the tube, slightly below where the heavy thumper will reach; place a driving point on one end of the tube and the driving cap on the other end;
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d. e.
slide the thumper over the end with the driving cap, and raise the tube vertical with the point at the desired crater location; using the thumper, drive the tube until the withdrawal clamp is almost to the ground, approximately 1.5 m. Periodically turn the tube with the withdrawal clamp to ensure the tube does not get stuck; and remove the thumper and driving cap and install the adapter. Continue to drive down until the desired depth is reached (2.4 m can be achieved by digging down slightly before starting to drive the tube).
f.
7-9. Preparing the Chamber. The camouflet chamber is prepared as follows: a. normally the tube is removed from the ground using the withdrawal clamp (if there is a danger of the hole collapsing, the tube is lifted out of the ground 0.5 m and secured by lowering the withdrawal clamp to the ground. If more than one tube requires support, lash pick handles or branches to the tube using square lashings); if the tube is stuck, use the heavy thumper with the stirrups attached to the lugs on it and the withdrawal clamp to extract the stuck tube; insert the tamping rod into the hole or down the tube until it touches the bottom and mark it with tape or a pencil to determine the depth of the hole. Remove the tamping rod; insert the prepared chamber charge down the tube and hole to the bottom;
b. c.
d.
Danger In the event that explosives become stuck in the camouflet tube and cannot be removed by slight pressure with the tamping rod, the tube must be destroyed. If the priming charge is not in place, the tube shall be removed and destroyed by placing a charge on the outside of the tube, adjacent to the blockage. If the priming charge is already in place, an initiation set shall be attached to the detonating cord leads and the tube destroyed in situ. The safety distance will be the same as for steel cutting.
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Demolitions e. f. h. connect the detonating cord leads to the initiation set or firing circuit; take the appropriate safety precautions, and upon command, initiate the chamber charges from the applicable safety distance; once the "all clear" has been given, insert the tamping rod into the hole and compare the new depth with the mark from the previous measurement (this will indicate the size of the chamber); and at this point the decision to use the chamber as is, or to fire another chamber charge is made. Loading the Chamber. a. wait 30 minutes for the chamber to cool or pour water down the hole (approximately 10 litres) and wait 10 minutes. Smoke coming from hole indicates debris may be burning in the chamber and must be extinguished prior to proceeding; place half the main charge in the hole, place the priming charge on top of the first half of the charge and then add the second half of the main charge; if the camouflet tube has not been fully removed, do so now, being careful not to pull on the detonating cord leads as this may pull the priming charge partially or fully out of the main charge; stem the hole with available material; connect the detonating cord leads to the initiation set or firing circuit; and upon command of the authorized person, fire the charges from applicable safety distance.
j. 7-10.
b.
c.
d. e. f.
7-11. Collapsed Chamber. If after measuring the chamber, it is suspected to have collapsed, one of the following actions will be required: a. after allowing time for cool down, another chamber charge may be attempted;
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b. c.
a partially collapsed hole may be used as is, which may result in a smaller crater; or the hole is filled in and a new site is selected for the crater.
CRATERING MISFIRES 7-12. a. In the event of a misfire, the following procedures will apply: all electrically initiated misfires are dealt with after waiting at least 10 minutes. For non-electrical misfires, the waiting time is three times the burn time of the length of safety fuze, and not less than 30 minutes. The safety measures in effect for the firing remain in effect for the waiting period; the minimum number of people will deal with the misfire. The remainder will evacuate the danger area or remain under cover; if detonating cord leads still protrude from the ground, a new initiation set is attached and the normal firing procedure is followed; if the detonating cord does not protrude from the ground, the stemming material is removed with a wooden instrument until the detonating cord leads have been found, a new initiation set is then attached, and normal firing procedures are followed; if the detonating cord cannot be found, the stemming is removed as far down as possible, and an attempt to initiate the misfired charge , by repriming the original charge or placing another charge next to it in close contact; misfired holes containing ANFO must be washed out completely before a second attempt is made; and a new initiating charge shall be used when initiating a charge in a misfired hole.
b. c. d.
e.
f. g.
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Fig 7-1 Camouflet procedure
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CLEANING CAMOUFLET EQUIPMENT 7-13. The OIC exercise or site commander is responsible for ensuring the camouflet equipment is cleaned as follows: a. the tamping rod and the tube will be cleaned with a rag/pull-through after each individual use, and if required, washed with soap and water or windshield washer fluid to remove Trigran dust or C4 residue. Upon completion of the task or practice, the camouflet set will be washed before storage. Cleaning will take place on the demolition range or task site; no metal hardware will be used in any form as part of the cleaning kit; used cleaning material is to be stored in a metal container and returned to the local ammunition facility for disposal; excess explosives on the inside of the camouflet tube wall shall be carefully scraped off using the tamping rod. The residue and "dirty" cleaning material must be returned to the ammunition facility; tamping rods that cannot be cleaned will be turned in to the ammunition facility for destruction; and camouflet tubes that cannot be cleaned (totally blocked) are to be destroyed as blinds (safety distance as for steel cutting) or turned into the ammunition facility for destruction.
b. c. d.
e. f.
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Demolitions CHAPTER 8 DEMOLITIONS IN PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENTS SECTION 1 DEMOLITIONS UNDER WATER SAFETY 8-1-1 The precautions specified in Chapter 2 of B-GL-320-009/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 9, Demolitions, Part 1, All Arms, shall be strictly adhered to during all demolitions training. The underwater environment and the very nature of diving require additional precautions. 8-1-2. The danger areas for underwater demolitions is the same as for surface demolitions (see Section 3, Chapter 2, B-GL-320-09/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 9, Demolitions, Part 1, All Arms). 8-1-3. For all underwater demolitions training, a Diving Supervisor will be present and will control all aspects of the diving. For underwater demolitions training using live explosives, the Diving Supervisor responsibilities remain the same and will not be combined with those of the OIC Exercise or with those of the Range Safety Officer. 8-1-4. The following precautions will be taken when conducting any demolitions under water: a. b. All divers and swimmers must leave the water before any charges are initiated. If initiation is from a surface float, the float shall not be secured or anchored over the target, but at a safe distance, so that in the event of a misfire, the OIC firing party will be able to approach the initiation set without undue risk from the main charge detonating. When working from a craft with an engine, the motors will be running before the charge is initiated. Paddles or oars shall be available in the boat. The crew of any craft used must be fully briefed as to the action to be taken in the event of an engine failure. The minimum crew in any craft used is two, although more may be specified. Do not place the safety fuse or detonator under water. B-GL-361-008/FP-003
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g.
In the event of a misfire, wait 30 minutes, the OIC firing party shall then remove the means of initiation and where relevant, send a diver to investigate
ENVIRONMENTAL (PHYSICAL) EFFECTS 8-1-5. Underwater demolition techniques are much the same as those used on dry land, but water depth, current, tidal conditions, limited visibility and awkward manipulation create a very difficult and demanding working environment. The risk of a mishap, and the possibility of a misfire or of a partial or unsuccessful demolition are greater. In addition, water effects the chemical and physical properties of the explosive and may restrict the length of time the explosive charge and accessories may rest in place. Cold water severely reduces the malleability of plastic explosive. Similarly the underwater environment effects the physical properties of the explosion. Finally, as in all diving tasks, time works against the diver and the planner must consider the total time under compression in which the work can be completed. Diving procedures are covered in more detail in B-GL-320-008/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 8, Combat Diving. 8-1-6. The underwater environment also affects the target. Waterlogged timbers are stronger. Concrete and steel become corroded or encrusted making it difficult to drill, and to secure charges in direct contact with the target. 8-1-7. Overpressure. In air, the impact of the gases released by the explosion develops a pressure wave that travels away from the detonated explosive, diminishing as the distance from the point of origin increases, and being quickly dissipated into the atmosphere. Underwater, not only does the impact of the released gases on the surrounding envelope of water develop a pressure wave, but the potential energy of the gas pressure changes to kinetic energy as the water is thrust back. As the gases expand the pressure within the gas bubble drops, to below that of the surrounding water, allowing the water in its turn to exert sufficient pressure to collapse the bubble. The potential energy in the recompressed gases then causes the gas to expand again, and this new impact against the surrounding water causes a second pressure wave similar to the first. These successive pressure waves are called bubble pulses. Although the peak pressure in a bubble pulse is very much lower than the peak shock pressure at a given distance from the same charge, a considerable flow of water accompanies the bubble oscillation, and velocities as high as 100 m/s may be imparted to the water. The kinetic energy of this high velocity water is a potential source of damage to structures within two or three bubble radii, and this must be considered when planning underwater demolitions. Objects under water may be affected by the bubble pulses as well as the effect of the water being pushed back bodily by the expanding gases. Shallow water reduces its effect, while a hard bottom may serve to reflect and strength the wave. B-GL-361-008/FP-003 291
Demolitions 8-1-8. The overpressure created by underwater explosives can cause sympathetic detonation of mines laid beneath the surface at likely fording and swim sites . Overpressure can cause serious injury or death to divers and be used as a defence against enemy divers. DANGER Overpressures of 3500 kPa cause damage to the lungs and intestinal tract and pressures over 14000 kPa can cause death. (B-GL-320-008/FP-001) 8-1-9. Calculation of Overpressure. Only the proximity and size of the explosive are considered. The pressure exerted at a given distance by an underwater explosion is expressed by this formula from B-GL-320-008/FP-001: This formula is not to be used to calculate safety distances P = 3816 C d where: P = pressure (kPa) C = mass of C4 (kg) d = distance from charge (m)
8-1-10. Depth. The tamping effect of water during steel cutting is negligible. In rock and concrete blasting, the degree of shattering of the target is usually improved as a result of tamping, and flying debris is reduced. However, in some cases the weight of water above the target (hard rock on the bottom of a channel) also serves to strengthen the material by preventing it from being blown out of the hole, making removal by clamshell or dredging machines necessary. 8-1-11. Charge Size. Charges must be large enough to do the job, but compact enough to be easily handled underwater. Bulk explosives of up to 50 kg can be carried easily, but consideration should be given to lowering prepared charges from the surface, or off-setting their weight with flotation bladders. 8-1-12. Retarding Effect. Water between the charge and the target will greatly affect a cutting charge. The charge must be placed and secured in direct contact with the target. If shaped charges are used, an artificial air gap must be created. The retarding effect of the water can be reduced (for breaching or cutting charges) if a technique termed "bubble delay" is used. In this a bubble of gas produced by a small charge, or detonating cord coiled around but not touching the main charge, is used to remove water from immediately around the target to be destroyed. Detonation of the main charge is delayed a few milliseconds so that it occurs after the target has been enveloped by the gas bubble. This is a recommended technique for use against small underwater targets at depths from 3 to 30 m. Delay detonators are not a service accessory but are commonly used in quarrying, and so available commercially.
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8-1-13. Location of Charge. The effects of an underwater explosion are also greatly influenced by the position of the charge relative to the water surface, and the sea or river bed. However, in depths of less than 3.5 m, the tamping effect can be ignored since near the surface it is negligible. The contour and type of the bed can also modify the effects of the explosion. It is therefore difficult to predict, with any accuracy, the effect of any charge detonated under water. RECONNAISSANCE AND PLANNING 8-1-14. Targets. Military divers encounter a wide variety of demolition targets. The method of attack depends on the tactical situation and on available information. In a secure area, the destruction of a highway bridge may be a major project involving drilling and steel cutting operations above and below the surface. However, the clearing of mines from a crossing may involve the use of basic charges, perhaps while under observation and fire. 8-1-15. When a demolition task requires the employment of divers, a diving reconnaissance is conducted in addition to the surface tactical and technical recce. Information obtained from the diving reconnaissance assists in determining: a. b. the method of attack, including: types of charges required, charge placement, and the method of securing charges to the target; and diving resources required, including: diving personnel, specialized tools and equipment, and surface support.
The importance of detailed reconnaissance cannot be over stressed. Once prepared, charges cannot be forced to fit the target underwater as easily as on the surface. 8-1-16. Sequence. Underwater demolitions follow the same sequence as surface demolitions. Once the reconnaissance and planning have been completed, the following activities occur: a. b. c. d. e. the charges and firing systems are prepared on shore; charge fastening devices are prepared and installed on the target by divers; charges are placed on the target and properly secured; the ring main is laid; unless the operational situation dictates, all divers leave the water before the initiation set is attached to the ring main; B-GL-361-008/FP-003 293
Demolitions f. g. the demolition is fired; and unless the operational situation does not permit it, divers verify the successful detonation of all the charges.
METHOD OF ATTACK 8-1-17. General. Calculations and methods of attack are the same as for surface demolitions taking into consideration the following factors: a. Buoyancy. The weight of the target in the water, as opposed to air, serves to give it added stability. Many surface demolition techniques use the weight of the target to aid in its destruction. This may not be possible underwater and a greater amount of explosive may be required. Springing Action. Concrete and timber pilings often spring back from cutting charges sustaining minimum damage. To compensate for this effect, charges may have to be placed on opposite sides of the target and staggered to achieve a scissors effect. Relief. Surfaces below the mud line meet more resistance than those surrounded by water. When obstacles such as bridge piers must be removed below the mud line, a trench is dug around the base to allow the pier to expand more easily when the charge is fired. Cutting Steel. Calculate the charge as described in Chapter 6, Section 2, and then double the figure obtained. The charges are used in a similar manner to those on dry land. Timber. Calculate the charge as described in Chapter 6, Section 2, and then double the figure obtained. However, experience may show that a lesser charge can be used. Pile Cutting. To cut a single pile or upright construction, calculate the explosive required and make up the charge into a necklace at least 1.3 times as large as the circumference of the pile. Then, using a light line, lower the charge, complete with detonating cord lead, down over the pile to the point where the cut is required (It may be necessary to excavate the ground around the foot of the pile.). Keep one side of the necklace charge higher than the other so that the charge lies at an angle around the pile. Timber pilings may be cut underwater by placing off-set earmuff charges on the pile. Cartridges are placed directly on the pile. Another method is to load a transverse borehole that is drilled B-GL-361-008/FP-003
b.
c.
8-1-18. a.
b.
c.
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almost through the piling. This requires less explosive but requires a diver to drill through the pile. d. Linear Charges. The use of a copper or plastic pipe filled with explosive, and bent to conform to the shape of the target, can be an effective method.
8-1-19. Breaching. For concrete and masonry use the amount of explosive calculated for an above ground untamped breaching charge (see Chapter 6, Section 3). In general, a charge of 32 kg of explosive per cubic metre of concrete to be removed should suffice for a small target of any shape. 8-1-20. Boreholes. Use the same charge as would be required above water (see Chapter 6, Section 5). A template shall be used to ensure that the holes are drilled at their correct spacing, and that they can be relocated with ease. A good template can be made of tubular scaffolding. After drilling, the holes must be plugged to prevent back filling. Since the debris is not blown out of the hole, the spacing of boreholes must be such that removal of debris by dredging is possible. 8-1-21. Excavation. Submarine blasting is required for excavating most harbours, channels, canals, and other underwater trenches. Hard compacted sand, dense clay, or rock bottom material must be drilled and blasted before excavation with conventional equipment. Rock blasting techniques are described in B-CE320-012/FP-004. 8-1-22. Submerged Obstacles. Removing submerged obstacles in channels and rivers usually follows general underwater demolition practices. Explosives shall be placed under the centre and immediately against the obstruction whenever possible. In removing elongated objects, it is often necessary to place several charges at intervals. 8-1-23. Sand Bars. In calm, shallow water, channels can be cleared through sand bars with Bangalore torpedoes, Two charges as long as the length of channel desired are prepared before hand. Joints in alternate lines of torpedoes shall be offset. Each charge is primed from one end. The two charges are then placed parallel across B-GL-361-008/FP-003 the sand
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Demolitions Fig 8-1-1 Blasting a channel through a sand bar using Bangalore torpedoes bar and 3 m apart. When the charges are placed, all detonating cord leads are brought together at one point and two initiation sets are attached so that either will fire both the lines simultaneously. The resulting blast produces a channel 10 to 12 m wide and up to 2 m deeper than the bar. When possible, electric initiation is desirable and two electric detonators in series, are taped to the four detonating cord leads. The channel shall be marked immediately afterwards. 8-1-24. Floating Obstacles. These obstacles may be destroyed using handplaced charges as follows: a. Booms. Floating booms may be severed by the detonation of small charges. In running water it is preferable to sever the boom at one end, allowing the force of the current to swing the boom to the opposite shore where it will be beached and will not constitute a hazard to bridges or vessels downstream. Midstream anchorages must also be severed. In still water the boom may be severed at one end, and hauled to the opposite shore by a vehicle. Otherwise, they must be severed in a number of places and allowed to drift. Charges shall be placed on the boom logs rather than the hardware. Caution must always be exercised as the booms may be booby-trapped. Cables. Cables which are suspended a few feet below the surface by flotation elements may be removed in the same manner as booms. Nets. Steel nets in running water may be removed by detonating a charge at one end and allowing the net to fall to the bottom as the free end is carried downstream. A net may also be severed at one end by attacking it as an underwater obstacle. If necessary, small nets may be brought to the surface near one end by attaching empty oil drums or similar flotation elements. The submerged section of the net is then severed by charges placed from the surface.
b. c.
8-1-25. Log Obstacles. Log obstacles may be encountered at likely water crossing sites or beach landing areas. They are normally constructed using heavy logs or timbers embedded in the ground with ends projecting 0.8 to 1.5 m. Log ramps and log cribs are also used. They may be built both above and below the water's surface. They are normally reinforced with mines and booby-traps. The obstacles may be removed using hand placed charges. a. Individual obstacles. Methods of breaching concrete obstacles are also effective against steel or wood obstacles such as rails, tetrahedrons, hedgehogs, and posts. Plastic explosive is recommended since it can easily be moulded around steel or wood forms, ensuring good contact. B-GL-361-008/FP-003
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Quantities of explosives are computed from standard demolition formulas. This may be difficult with odd shaped obstacles. Generally, the charge is placed at a joint where the obstacle is weakest. When obstacles are driven into the ground, the charge shall be attached to the obstacle as close to the ground as possible. b. Log cribs. A log crib is demolished by 15 to 20 kg of explosive placed in a hole in the centre of the earth fill and two-thirds the depth of the crib. It must be thoroughly tamped. Similar charges are placed at 3 m centres over the length of the crib. Log scaffolding. Against log scaffolding, more frequently found in underwater obstacles, nine sections of Bangalore torpedo are used to form a charge consisting of three lengths of torpedo. The three lengths are tied together and placed at right angles to the line of scaffolding. The number of charges used depends upon the width of breach desired. Each charge clears a lane approximately 4 m wide.
c.
8-1-26. Shallow Cratering. Submarine rock can often be broken up using this method. It is used at depths of less than about 8 m due to the large shock waves produced. A typical pattern would involve 30 kg charges spaced 2 m apart. This may also be an effective method of creating trenches in silt and sand. 8-1-27. Ditching. Ditching charge calculations described in Chapter 6, Section 6, apply to underwater ditching tasks 8-1-28. Recovery of Targets. If it is necessary to recover or remove part of a target after the demolition, a recovery line and float shall be attached to it. In order to reduce the chances of the recovery line itself being damaged by the explosion, the first 15 m of the line should be weighted so that it lies below the target, and where possible, on the river or sea bed. PREPARATION OF CHARGES 8-1-29. Preparation of Charges. Service explosives and accessories are quite suitable. However, for reasons of time, poor visibility and awkward manipulation underwater, it is important that the maximum amount of preparation of the charges be done on the surface. Line or rope charges made to measure will frequently be prepared, and explosives for point charges will be made up to precise size and in a manner for easy handling. Waterproofing of charges being used immediately is not critical, but they shall be wrapped with plastic or cloth to ensure their integrity once submerged. Demolitions involving any delay shall be waterproofed to the maximum extent possible.
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Demolitions 8-1-30. Shaped Charges. Shaped charges are less effective when fired underwater, since water in the stand-off area impedes the formation of the jet. This can be overcome to some extent by reducing the stand-off distance and maintaining a water-tight air space between the charge and the target, or by inserting or other low density plastic foam such as styrofoam. It may also be necessary to place the charge inside a plastic bag, box or a hose, to prevent the water current breaking up the charge. 8-1-31. Charge Containers. Shaped demolition charge containers designed for use in ordnance disposal work may be used in underwater steel cutting. The containers hold the explosive to form the shaped charge and are Fig 8-1-2 Typical shaped charge container available in several shapes and sizes. Rectangular shaped linear containers have been designed primarily for underwater use. 8-1-32. Sheet Explosive. Sheet explosive is more flexible at low temperature than plastic explosive and is more easily cut and moulded to target surfaces. It is available in a number of configurations including rolls, sheets, ribbons, and cords. Thickness and diameter range from 3 to 16 mm. 8-1-33. Satchel Charges. Satchel charges can be prepared locally using small packs or sand bags. Care must be taken to ensure that such improvised charges are purged of all trapped air before they are submerged so that their changing buoyancy does not hinder the carriage and placement of the charge. The Mk 138, Mod 1 satchel charge, described in Chapter 3, has detonating cord designed to be more pliable for use underwater 8-1-34. Detonating Cord. Detonating cord, with a double thumb knot, is embedded in the charge while the other end is kept at the surface. Special care shall be taken to achieve a good seal where the detonating cord enters the charge, otherwise the current may damage the charge. Also the detonator is doubled crimped to the safety fuse, for waterproofing purposes. Current detonating cord is waterproof for up to 24 hours. However, once submerged, water seeps into open ends much more quickly than along its girth. For this reason, an overhang of at least 0.5 m of detonating cord shall be left from the point where it is attached to the ring main. These leads shall then be coiled and taped to prevent their snagging while being placed. In cases where charges are to be left submerged for relatively long periods, the ends shall be dipped in melted sealing wax, taped, and dipped again. 298 B-GL-361-008/FP-003
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8-1-35. Safety Fuse. The rate at which safety fuse burns is affected by depth and by water temperature. If underwater initiation using safety fuse is employed, the burning rate underwater shall be determined by trial prior to preparation of the initiation sets. When performing a demolition task in very cold water, many misfires may be experienced due to the fracturing of the watertight cover around the fuse. This problem can be partially solved by preparing safety fuse so that it cannot flex once it is exposed to the cold. A good method is to wrap the fuse around a piece of rigid material and tape it firmly in place. SECURING THE CHARGES 8-1-36. Securing Charges. All fastenings for charges shall be prepared before the charges are lowered to the diver. Charges are fastened in the same manner as on the surface, bearing in mind that problems can be caused by current and drifting debris. Wood bracing also tends to float away from divers and is difficult to position. Charges can be held in place using wire, cord or nylon strapping. Bolt gun fasteners and staple guns may also be of use. Detonating cord leads shall be attached to the ring main using detonating cord clips or girth hitches as adhesive tape cannot be applied underwater. FIRING CIRCUIT 8-1-37. Under normal circumstances, a ring main is used underwater to connect multiple charges for simultaneous detonation. Where practical, given the tactical situation and the safety of the divers, maximum firing circuits will de employed. 8-1-38. Ring Main. Consideration of the effects of drift and current are most important in laying out ring mains. As detonating cord becomes brittle in extreme cold, care must be taken to ensure there are no kinks or sharp bends. Ring mains should be laid from the upstream side of the target, with the diver working on the downstream side. They should be securely attached to the structure or held to the bottom using weights. When the detonating cord leads from the target to the initiation point span a distance of over 15 m, and the current is strong enough to cause it to drift considerably, the leads shall be run along a rope or cable designed to carry the load or run along the bottom and firmly anchored in place. Failure to secure the detonating cord underwater may result in the tide or current moving it, and this may result in cut-offs and failure of the demolition. Detonating cord shall not be placed in tension.
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Fig 8-1-3 Initiating charges underwater 8-1-39. Detonating Cord Leads. Double detonating cord leads are used to connect each charge to the ring main. Detonating cord junctions are best secured with spun yarn, string, or tape (if possible), etc., to avoid the risk of the cord being pulled out of the detonating cord junction clip by the force of the current. Detonating cord leads must have the usual 50 cm spare end. INITIATION SETS 8-1-40. Initiation. As suitable underwater initiating devices are not yet available, all underwater demolitions shall be fired from above the surface. Dual initiation is mandatory, however both initiation sets may be connected to the same initiation point. a. Non-electric. A dual non-electric initiation set (Fig 8-1-4) for underwater is created as follows: (1) waterproof both the detonators and the M60 Igniters; (2) cut sufficient safety fuze; (3) attach the detonators and M60 Igniters to the safety fuze; (4) cut sufficient detonating cord for the ring main (normally three times the depth) and form a cradle in the middle (approximately 30 cm long); (5) tape the detonators, then the safety fuze to the cradle; and (6) tape the safety fuze to a float just in front of the M60 Igniters.
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Fig 8-1-4 Underwater Dual Non-Electric Initiation Set b. Electric. A dual electric initiation set (Fig 8-1-4) is created as follows: (1) test the electric detonators and demolition cable; (2) tie a thumb knot approximately 10 cm from the running end of the demolition cable; (3) cut the detonator leg wires to 60 cm as 3 m is too difficult to work with, then splice the detonators and demolition cable in series; (4) waterproof the splices; (5) test the circuit; (6) cut sufficient detonating cord to form the ring main and form a cradle (30 cm long) in the centre; (7) tape the detonators to the charge end of the cradle and the knot in the demolition cable to the top of the cradle; (8) tape any excess wire ends to the cradle; and (9) secure to float.
Fig 8-1-5 Underwater dual electric initiation
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Fig 8-1-6 Dual initiation secured to detonating cord 8-1-41. Normally, safety fuze is not placed under water because its rate of burning increases when the fuse is under pressure, and when the detonator is crimped to the end the loin is unlikely to be waterproof. Any water between safety fuse and detonator is likely to cause a misfire. However, if it is essential that the fuse be ignited under water , the length of fuse shall be tested for rate of burning underwater to permit the divers or swimmers to leave the water before the charges detonate (see Section 3, Chapter 2, B-GL-320-09/FP-001, Engineer Field Manual, Volume 9, Demolitions, Part 1, All Arms) 8-1-42. In many instances the detonating cord will be quite long, and may be affected by current or tidal flow, in that it is liable to damage from nicks and rubbing against rocks, etc. If necessary, the detonating cord shall be secured at intervals to a light line which has one end securely fixed to the target area (See Fig 8-1-3).
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SECTION 2 DEMOLITIONS IN SUB - FREEZING CONDITIONS EFFECTS OF COLD 8-2-1. All military explosives and accessories are suitable for use in extreme cold climates. Detonating cord and safety fuze have a tendency to become brittle and crack. Care should be taken that these items are not repeatedly bent and straightened. The use of electric detonators may alleviate the problem. 8-2-2. Military plastic explosives and accessories remain effective in temperatures to -55C, however, it is advisable to keep them warm if at all possible. Small quantities may be carried by personnel inside parkas, etc. The cutting effect of plastic explosives is reduced slightly when cold. Whenever possible, charges and detonating cord should be prepared in a heated tent or building. DEMOLITIONS IN PERMAFROST 8-2-3. The use of explosives in permafrost is usually necessary because of the reduced effectiveness of engineer heavy equipment or in a situation where obstacles are required to deny an area to the opposing force. Permafrost usually remains in large chunks when broken up by explosives. For this reason, larger than normal charges should be used to lift these chunks. Charge size is explained in Chapter 6, Section 6. All charges in permafrost are to be calculated as for hard ground. It is recommended to use explosives with a lower velocity of detonation because it normally produces better results. ICE DEMOLITIONS 8-2-4. Natural ice covers are used extensively as winter transportation routes and construction platforms in cold regions. For military purposes it is therefore desirable to be able to deny the use of these as transportation routes should the need arise. 8-2-5. Another consideration in the preparation of ice demolitions is the length of time the explosives will be exposed to water before firing. Careful selection of explosives is critical because some types of explosives have little or no resistance to water. The duration of the obstacle created is also of importance. After a portion of the ice sheet is destroyed, it will start to "heal" itself by freezing at a rate governed by the weather conditions. 8-2-6. Charges placed under the ice will produce the best effects, however if time is limited surface laid charges or manufactured charges may be used.
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Demolitions SUB-SURFACE CHARGES 8-2-7. Sub-surface charges are the preferred method of ice demolition if time is not a consideration. The most effective charges are placed under the ice at calculated depth. They can be used individually as point targets or as a group to create linear openings. Sub-surface charges can be placed through access holes with the use of poles or divers.
Fig 8-2-1 Sub-surface ice demolition charge placement. 8-2-8. Calculate charge size using the following formula: where C = charge C4 (kg) Ti = thickness of ice (m)
C = 4.48 Ti3
8-2-9.
Determine suspension depth using the following formula: where Ti = thickness of ice (m) D = depth of charge below bottom of ice (m)
D = 0.84 Ti
8-2-10.
Determine Expected Diameter of crater using the following formula: where d = expected crater diameter (m) Ti = thickness of ice (m)
d = 9.8 Ti
8-2-11. Spacing. When using multiple charges for linear obstacles charge spacing equals diameter. 8-2-12. Example. Calculate the charge size, charge depth below the ice and the linear spacing for ice with a thickness of 0.35 m. a. 304 Calculate charge size. C = 4.48 Ti3 = 4.48 x(0.353) = 0.19 kg C4 B-GL-361-008/FP-003
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Convert to blocks C4 0.19 0.56 = 0.34, rounded up to 0.5 blocks C4 b. Calculate charge depth below the ice bottom. D = 0.84 Ti = 0.84 x 0.35 = 0.29 (from bottom of ice) Calculate the expected crater diameter. D = (9.8 Ti) = (9.8 x 0.35) = 3.4 Charge spacing. Spacing = diameter = 3.4 m
c.
d.
8-2-13. Hasty Charge Calculation. The table in Fig 8-2-2 is a hasty method of determining charge size and placement. Once the ice thickness is measured, round up to the next highest number and use the applicable information. For thicker ice use the formula. Thickness Ser of ice (Ti) (m) (a) (b)
Charge Size(C) Depth below ice
(kg) (c)
Blocks bottom (D) (m) (d) (e)
Radius (R) (m)
Spacing (m)
(f)
(g) 1 3.92 4.9 5.88 6.86 7.84 8.82 9.8
1 O.1 - 0.3 0.14 0.25 0.084 0.49 2 0 0.28 0.5 0.34 1.96 3 1 0.56 1 0.42 2.45 4 1 0.98 1.75 0.5 2.94 5 1 1.54 2.75 0.59 3.43 6 1 2.38 4.25 0.67 3.92 7 1 3.36 6 0.76 4.41 8 1 4.48 8 0.84 4.9 Fig 8-2-2 Hasty Sub-Surface Ice Charge Calculation Table
8-2-13. In situations where the calculated depth (D) is greater than the water is deep, for example as you approach shore, the charge is centred between the underside of the ice and the bottom. SURFACE CHARGES 8-2-15. There is no definitive method for calculating charge sizes for surface charges. The method discussed in this section has not been extensively tried and a test shot should be conducted. The following formula is based on Fonstad's Ice Demolitions of Ice Sheets, converted to give the charge as kg C4. Fig 8-2-2 is based on this formula and is a quick guide. B-GL-361-008/FP-003 305
Demolitions d = (1.5 C) where C = C4 charge size (kg) d = expected crater diameter (m) Ser Charge size (C4) Crater radius (R) Linear spacing (m) (m) (kg) blocks (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 1 2.9 5 1.27 2.54 2 5.7 10 1.8 3.6 3 8.5 15 2.19 4.38 4 11 20 2.53 5.06 Fig 8-2-3 Surface Charge Hasty Calculation
8-2-16. Tamping. Tamping will increase the effectiveness of surface charges. Tamping material should be substantial enough to provide good confinement of the charge (sandbags, bulk sand or earth).
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CHAPTER 9 BATTLE SIMULATION GENERAL 9-1. Simulation can be incorporated into fire power demonstrations or during training exercises to project realistic combat conditions while minimizing risk of injury to personnel and preventing unacceptable damage. Realistic battle noise, flash, effect, smoke, and rates of fire can be simulated with the use of explosives, accessories or training munitions. The information and recommended methods presented in this section provide an aide to facilitate battle simulation operations and may be modified to meet specific conditions. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 9-2. Battle simulation requires additional special safety procedures. The likelihood of personnel, vehicles, equipment and possibly aircraft being in or moving in close proximity to demolitions requires strict adherence to size, quantity and type of explosives, munitions and accessories which are used. Applicable safety distances must be established and enforced. Fences, sentries, pickets, mine tape and coloured lights may be required to control or prevent accidental passage through simulation areas. Detailed briefings shall be conducted for all personnel to ensure complete understanding of all aspects of the operation. Coordination and control is of the utmost importance. 9-3. RF Hazards. Electrical demolition cable, detonators and igniter leads are all capable of absorbing and conducting electrical energy transmitted or produced by remote sources, such as radio transmitters, radars, or electrical machinery. To reduce the possibility of accidental initiation, the electrical procedures prescribed in Chapter 4 shall be strictly adhered to. 9-4. When using explosives for simulation, a number of safety precautions shall be followed: a. because personnel and vehicles may be required to move through or near areas where simulation explosives have been placed, positive control is required at all times, therefore only electric initiation may be used; charges will not be buried; they will be placed on the ground so as not to cause flying debris; when there is a possibility of two charges detonating almost simultaneously, the safety distance to be observed is to be assessed as though one charge, equal to the sum of both charges; B-GL-361-008/FP-003 307
b. c.
Demolitions d. e. where movement is involved (for example: an assault on a defensive position) charges are not to exceed 0.5 kg; where visual control is not possible, the charges are to be enclosed by a marked fence. Charges fired at night are to be enclosed in a white taped fence, 100 m minimum from the charge; where vehicles are required to move in the training area at night, at least two sentries with warning lights are to be posted at each battle simulation area; all troops in the area are to be warned of the location and nature of battle simulation arrangements, and instructed to watch for warning lights and fences; to avoid errors in judgement by the firer, the limits of all danger areas shall be marked so as to be visible to the firer. Small pickets, carefully placed, shall guide the firer without necessarily disclosing the charge location to the personnel being trained; no power source will be brought within 5 m of the firing leads and no charges fired until all personnel are under cover or at least at the correct safety distance from the placed charges; electric leads shall not be jerked once the detonators are in place. All electrical connections will be well secured to ensure that vibrations from the first charges fired do not cause misfires in successive charges; and the danger to helicopters and aircraft flying at low level shall be taken into consideration. All pilots will be warned of the location and nature of battle simulation.
f.
g.
h.
j.
k.
m.
SAFETY DISTANCES 9-5. The safety distances in Fig 9-1 are the minimum safety distances for specific explosives, accessories and training munitions which may be used in battle simulations. If other items are to be used, the correct safety distance must be researched. Vertical safety distances are the same as the horizontal distances.
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Ser (a) 1 2 3 4 5
Battle Simulations (b)

Detonators and detonating cord in the open
Safety Distance (c) 20 m Charge weight (kg) x 40 m (minimum 100 m) Charge weight (kg) x 60 m (minimum 100 m) 6m 10 m/litre (minimum 100 m)
Charges in open, on stone free ground Charges in open, on stoney ground Smoke dischargers Detonating cord initiated petroleum
Fig 9-1 Battle simulation safety distances ELECTRICAL INITIATION 9-6. Battle simulations usually employ more electrical accessories than other tasks. Consequently, the electrical requirements are greater and it becomes necessary to calculate resistance and conduct checks to reduce the likelihood of misfires. Normal power sources are the Battlefield Effects Remote Firing System (BERFS) and the ZEB blasting machine. 9-7. Battlefield Effects Remote Firing System (BERFS). BERFS is used to initiate effective battle noise simulation during field training and exercises for ground forces. It is the primary method of conducting battlefield simulation. BERFS operates by using UHF radio link from the firing point to the explosive (Fig 9-2), overcoming the disadvantages associated with cable based systems. The BERFS is guaranteed to function with up to 25 ohms resistance. Each receiver is capable of firing 10 circuits simulations. The mini-mum distance between charges, and between the charge and receiver is 10 m. The minimum distance between simulations is 10 m.
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Fig 9-2 BERFS layout 9-8. ZEB Blasting Machine. The ZEB blasting machine is specifically designed to generate electrical current for electrical demolitions and consequently it is one of the best power sources available. It operates on circuits with a maximum resistance of 260 ohms. 9-9. Other Methods. Other frequently used power sources such as batteries, vehicles, and generators, etc, have varying capabilities. Prior to planning to use one of these power sources, calculate its output to ensure that it can meet the requirements. Complete calculations for any circuit involves the determination of the current (amperes), the voltage (volts) and the power (watts) needed to fire the circuit. Computation of the voltage and of the power includes the determination of the system resistance (ohms) which can be done with the procedure described in Chapter 4. CONTROL 9-10. Each simulation and the cable from that simulation will be coded so as to be easily identifiable. This reduces the chances of a simulation being initiated at the wrong time or out of sequence. 9-11. The actual firing of a simulation can be done by using BERFS or by completing the electrical circuit through direct contact between the demolition cable and the power source; or by connecting both the demolition cable and the power source to a control unit and completing the electrical circuit when required. 310 B-GL-361-008/FP-003
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When the demolition cable system is used, there is usually a requirement for extra power sources such as blasting machines so that the demolition cables can be changed without interrupting the continuity of initiation. 9-12. A control unit such as a ripple board (Fig 9-3) is invaluable when firing multiple simulations. Each ripple board contact shall be coded to coincide with the coded simulation cable connected to it. The firer merely has to complete the circuit of the appropriate simulation to initiate it. 9-13. Firing Party. There shall be sufficient personnel to execute the following duties: a. b. c. Party Commander. Coordinate and direct the firing of all simulations. Fire Controller(s). Initiate the simulation when directed. Confirmation Party. At least two personnel are required to count and record all simulations which are fired, as well as confirm any misfires. The use of the Battle Simulation Planning Sheet is an easy way to keep track of all simulations fired.
RIPPLE BOARDS 9-14. A small ripple board consists of nails driven into a board. Firing circuits are connected to each set of nails and the power source is connected to each nail as required. When connecting circuits to ripple boards, care must be taken to avoid short circuits. The bottom of the board must be checked to ensure that no nails protrude through the bottom (which may short circuit if placed on a conductive surface).
Fig 9-3 Examples of ripple boards
GENERAL GUIDE FOR SET-UP 9-15. There are many methods of creating battle simulations. The method which is most effective is the one that creates the most realistic simulation without compromising safety. Often situations dictate that the planner apply flexibility and initiative when attempting to achieve this objective. No method shall be B-GL-361-008/FP-003 311
Demolitions considered unacceptable unless it contradicts safety procedures, or is likely to cause injury or undesired damage. 9-16. In all battle simulations, a safe work area shall be established on site for the preparation of the simulations. 9.-17. Safety Fuze Lengths. When safety fuze is used in conjunction with electric igniters and non-electric detonators for battle simulation, Fig 9-4 can be used to determine the safety fuze lengths. Ser Battle simulation (a) (b) 1 Single or first lengths 2 Intervals between shots in a burst a. C7/C8 Rifle b. C9 Light Machine Gun c. C6 General Purpose Machine Gun d. 0.50 calibre Heavy Machine Gun 3 Intervals between bursts 4 Intervals between rounds in a mortar or artillery barrage 5 Interval between barrages Fig 9-4 Safety Fuze Lengths Safety fuze length (c) minimum 50 mm 2 mm 2 mm 4 mm 6 mm 10 mm 10 mm 20-30 mm
MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN SIMULATIONS 9-18. The minimum distances between explosives and accessories on the same simulation relays are detailed in Fig 9-5. Ser Explosives or accessories (a) (b) 1 Detonators 2 Detonators with 100 mm of detonating cord attached 3 Detonators with 200 mm of detonating cord attached 4 Explosive charges up to 1.0 kg Fig 9-5 Minimum distances between battle simulations SECTION/HEAVY MACHINE GUN FIRE 9-19. Single Shots. These are the most basic of battle simulation and can be done in one of two ways: a. b. 312 a single electric detonator (with or without detonating cord attached depending on the simulation being represented); or a single igniter electric with safety fuze and a non-electric detonator. B-GL-361-008/FP-003 Distances (c)
100 mm
200 mm 300 mm 10 m
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9-20. Small Arms Fire. Simulations representing small arms or section fire can be set up using the electrical circuit for single or multiple shots (burst) initiation. Usually the simulation is made up of four bursts of three rounds. The circuit is formed by hooking up the leg wires of the igniters electric in a circular series pattern as in Fig 9-6. The resources required for a C7/C9 rifle are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. twelve non-electric detonators; twelve igniters electric; first burst - 50, 52, 54 mm safety fuze; second burst - 64, 66, 68 mm safety fuze; third burst - 78, 80, 82 mm safety fuze; fourth burst - 92, 94, 96 mm safety fuze; and twelve 100 mm pieces of detonating cord.
9-21. Preparation. Small arms and heavy machine gun simulation is prepared as follows: a. b. c. d. e. f. lay the demolition cable; cut all safety fuze and mark the length with masking tape; cut all detonating cord; test all igniters electric; crimp the safety fuze to the igniters electric; crimp a non-electric detonator to the safety fuze, place it, then connect the detonating cord. Repeat for the remaining items and lay the simulation out as per Fig 9-6; and begin hooking the leg wires to leg wires, until the circuit is complete.
g.
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Fig 9-6 Small arms circuit layout MORTAR AND ARTILLERY FIRE 9-22. Simulations representing mortar or artillery fire can be set up using the electrical circuits for single or multiple shot initiation; the single shot circuit representing spotting rounds and the multiple shot circuit representing barrages (Fig 9-7). The individual rounds are made up of basic charges using the amount of explosives which is appropriate to the simulation being represented. Usually the number of rounds in a multiple circuit is six, equal to the number of mortars in a mortar section or guns in a battery. If there is a requirement for a linear barrage instead of a concentrated barrage, the simulation circuit is laid out in a straight line in the direction desired (Fig 9-1-8). 9-23. a. b. c. d. 314 Requirements six igniters electric; six non-electric detonators; safety fuze - 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 mm length; six pieces of detonating cord, each approximately 2 m length; and B-GL-361-008/FP-003
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e.
simulation charges: (1) mortar/light artillery fire - six Detaprimers or six 0.125 kg plastic explosive, and (2) heavy artillery fire - six 0.5 kg plastic explosives.
9-24. a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
Preparation. lay the demolition cable; test all igniters electric; cut all safety fuze, and mark with tape; prepare and place all charges as in Fig 9-7; crimp the safety fuze to the igniters electric, crimp the non-electric detonators to the safety fuze, and place in a safe area; begin hooking the leg wires in one direction, (3 m pieces of connecting wire are required to achieve the 10 m spacing); and tape the detonating cord leads to the non-electric detonators (Fig 9-7).
Fig 9-7 Mortar and artillery fire circuit layout
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Fig 9-8 Linear barrage circuit layout ANTI-ARMOUR FIRE 9-25. Moving Vehicle. A simulation can be set up to create the illusion that a serviceable tank or vehicle has been hit by anti-armour fire. Dig a pit 2 m long, 1.5 m wide and 1 m deep, and place the container in the bottom. Thoroughly mix five litres of oil with five litres of diesel in a long cylindrical container cut in half (approximately 1 to 1.5 m long by 0.15 m wide). Pour five litres of gas on the surface of this mixture. The amounts of oil and gas can be varied depending on how much flash or smoke is wanted. Make a double thumb knot in a length of detonating cord and hang it so the knot is 20 to 30 mm above the gas. If this height is not correct, the fumes from the gas may not ignite and the simulation may fail. The simulation is initiated electrically as the vehicle moves toward it from the opposite side to the viewers. 9-26. Warning. The change shall be initiated while the vehicle is still at a safe distance. 9-27. Stationary Vehicle. To simulate a tank or vehicle taking a direct hit by an anti-armour weapon, almost simultaneous explosions are initiated to show the initial hit followed by the inside of the vehicle blowing up. The procedure is: a. place a 0.5 kg basic charge against a non-serviceable tank or vehicle at the exact location where the round is intended to impact. To enhance the effect, have a slight stand-off between the vehicle and the basic charge by placing a piece of board between them; B-GL-361-008/FP-003
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b. c.
inside the vehicle, behind the location of the basic charge place, or suspend a five litre container; in the bottom of the container, place a 0.125 kg basic charge with a detonating cord lead hanging outside the container. Pour two litres of oil and two litres of gas into the container; and both basic charges are initiated on the same electrical circuit using igniters electric, safety fuze and non-electric detonators. The safety fuze on the initiation set for the interior charge is 6 mm longer to allow for a short delay between charges.
d.
EXPLODING MINE 9-28. To simulate what happens to a vehicle when it runs over an antitank mine, the procedure for a stationery vehicle is basically followed. The only differences are that the exterior basic charge is 1.0 kg and it is dug under a front wheel or the front part of a track. The interior charge is still placed behind it, however, there must be sufficient metal between the two charges to shield it from the blast of the exterior charge. Initiation is the same. SMOKE 9-29. Smoke is often desired to cover specific areas or to add realism to battle simulation. The types of smoke dischargers employed by the Canadian Forces are manufactured to be initiated manually, therefore it is necessary to improvise remote initiation.
Fig 9-9 Smoke pot No 24 MK 2 9-30. Smoke Pot, No 24 Mk 2. This smoke pot generates white smoke for 15 minutes. To initiate manually, remove the cap and tear off the seal; then light B-GL-361-008/FP-003 317
Demolitions the primed disc with a match fusee. To initiate remotely, use one of the following methods:
Fig 9-10 Railway fusee a. using a railway fusee , pre-cut a small piece of board so that the fusee and two igniters electric can be taped onto it directly opposite each other and in direct contact with each other. The two igniters electric are placed side by side and initiated at the same time. This initiation set is taped inverted so the railway fusee has good contact with the smoke pot primed disc; and cut two pieces of safety fuze approximately 100 mm long. Bare the powder core of each along one side for approximately 50 mm. After crimping them into an igniter electric, place them side by side across the centre of the primed disc. Apply sufficient pressure to splay them, ensuring that there is good contact between the black powder core and the primed disc. Secure and waterproof this initiation set as much as possible.
b.
9-31. Smoke Pot, No 24 HCI. Generates white smoke for 15 minutes. To initiate manually, remove the cap, pull-out and unravel the igniter cord and light. To initiate remotely, crimp an igniter electric directly onto the smoke pot igniter cord ensuring that both black powder cores have good contact and are well secured to each other. 9-32. Smoke Pot, Type AP/3/F and AP/5/F. These generate white smoke for three and five minutes respectively in accordance with their designations. To initiate either manually, apply a lit match fusee to the sealed initiation point. To initiate remotely, the same methods that are used to initiate the smoke pot, No 24 Mk2, can be used. Because of their smaller size, these smoke pots are much more difficult to work with and the caution warnings must be observed. 9-33. When using smoke, a respirator must be worn by troops in the vicinity of the discharger.
318
B-GL-361-008/FP-003
Demolition
9-34. Grenade, Hand, Smoke, HC, C1 Series. Generates white smoke for one minute. Manufactured specifically to be thrown by hand or be projected from a rifle. Remote initiation is improvised by securing the handle to the body using tape, string or very light wire, secure a detonator or piece of detonating cord between the grenade body and the handle, Fig 9-11 Grenade, hand, smoke, HC, C1 Series then position the grenade so the handle can fly off, and lastly remove the safety pin. SIMPLE SMALL NUCLEAR SIMULATOR 9-35. A small, simple nuclear simulator can be improvised to produce a fireball 10 m in diameter to a height of 30 m. The following explosives and accessories are required: a. b. c. d. e. 9-36. five blocks (2.8 kg) of C4 explosive; four pieces of detonating cord, each 2 m long, one piece 4 m long and a 4 m ring main; 20 litres diesel, 20 litres gas and 5 litres of oil; one electric detonator; and five Detaprime boosters (if available, but not essential). It is prepared in the following manner:
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Demolitions
Fig 9-12 Simple small nuclear simulator a. b. c. lay the demolition cable; dig a hole, 1 m square and 1 m deep; prepare five basic charges (with or without Detaprime boosters), one of which has a 4 m double detonating cord lead. Place the charge with the double lead in the bottom of the hole and the remaining charges around it as per Fig 9-12; insert minimum five garbage bags into the hole and fill with fuel (at last possible moment); test the electric detonator; connect the detonator to the demolition cable and tape it to the cradle on the ring main.
d. e. f.
NAPALM SIMULATION 9-37. A very simple and effective method of preparing a small napalm simulation can be done with minimum materials and labour in a very short time. The following resources are required: a. b. c. 320 six to eight empty, 5 litre cans; 20 litres of gas; and 50 m detonating cord. B-GL-361-008/FP-003
Demolition
9-38.
Preparation.
Fig 9-13 Napalm layout a. place six to eight 5 litre cans in a row at 5 m spacing in the direction that the flash is intended to travel. These containers can be placed on the surface of the ground or dug in; pour gasoline into each container, the level of the first being 5 cm and every container afterwards having 2.5 cm more than the previous one; suspend a length of detonating cord above and clear of all the containers in a row. It must begin before the first container and end beyond the last; attach a detonating cord lead with a thumb knot in the end to the trunk line leading into each container. The thumb knots must be positioned so they are 1.25 cm above the gasoline; and initiate the trunk line from the end where the container with the least amount of gasoline is located.
b. c.
d.
e.
9-39. The size of this simulation can be increased by using larger containers and increasing the amount of gasoline. The distances between the containers can also be slightly increased, but the height of the knots above the gasoline must remain the same. If more sound effect is desired, a charge of appropriate size can be hooked into the trunk line, however it should be positioned well away from the simulation so that its shock wave does not interfere with the momentum of the fireball from the simulation.
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N a tio n a l D f e n s e D e f e n c e n a tio n a le

ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL VOLUME 8

DEMOLITIONS PART TWO ENGINEERS AND ASSAULT PIONEERS

Issued on Authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff

1998 DND/MDN Canada

WARNING MISUSE OF WEAPONS, AMMUNITION AND EXPLOSIVES

Foot (ft) (g) 5280 3281 3.281 3 1 0.083 ---

Inch (in) (h) ----39.4 36 12 1 0.039

(f) 1760 1094 1.094 1 0.333 -----

Millimetre (mm) (i) ----1000 914.4 305 25.4 1

Square kilometre (km2)

Square metre (m2)

Square yard (yd2)

(b) Square mile Square km Square m Square yd Acre Hectare

(g) 640 247 ----1 2.47

(h) 259 100 ----0.405 1

Cubic yard (e) --0.04 1 1.31

Cubic metre (f) --0.028 0.465 1

Short ton (d) 1.016 1 -----

Kilogram (e) 1000 984 1 0.454

Pound (g) 2205 2000 2.205 1

2-2-10. Demolition Calculations. Demolition calculations are discussed in Chapter 6.

ANNEX A - OBSTACLE RECCE REPORT

ANNEX B - BRIDGE RECCE REPORT

ANNEX C - OBSTACLE TASK TABLE

Fig 2C-1 Obstacle Task Table (CF 682) front

Fig 2C-1 Obstacle Task Table (CF 682) back

ANNEX E - DEMOLITION ORDER (DND 913)

Fig 2E-1 Demolition Order (DND 913) front

Fig 2E-1 Demolition Order (DND 913) back

Service Demolition Stores and Equipment

Fig 3-1-2 Summary of compatible demolition accessories

(b) Armour plate Reinforce d concrete

Fig 3-2-12 Methods of use-Charge Demolition, No, 14 (Hayrick)

Fig 3-2-13 Charge Demolition, No 14 (Hayrick), configuration

Fig 3-2-14 Charge Demolition, No 14 (Hayrick), configuration

Fig 3-3-1 Container, Trigran

Fig 3-5-5 Typical Bolt Gun ENGINEER POWER TOOLS

Fig 3-5-6 Typical Fasteners

Fig 3-5-8 BERFS transmitter

Fig 3-5-9 BERFS receiver

Ass Chg Comp Crdbd Ctn Dml

20.92 35.5 x 29 x 21.8

32.66 81.9 x 40.8 x 46.9 22.0 45 x 36.5 x 21

1375-01036-0444 1375-01038-6885 1375-12120-7988

2 rolls per fbrbd box

20.47 45 x 36.5 x 21 22 45 x 36.5 x 21 49 x 29.5 x 24

1 per fbrbd box

50 per wrap, 1 wrap per wdn box

Weight Dimensions (kg) (cm)

Ser Nomenclature NSN

(c) 1375-00088-6691 1375-00926-3939 1375-21798-5886 1375-99942-3314 1375-99960-5409

81.6 x 35 x 32 122 x 101.6 x 77

17.69 36.8 x 32.1 x 22.1

Dynamite, Forcite, 75% Chg, Dml, CE/TNT, 0.875 lb

Not available Not available

Fig 3D-3 Improvised Bangalore torpedo (1.8 m iron pickets)

Artillery- 100 m Infantry patrol - 2 m

Assembled multi-detonator or igniter electric circuit

Helicopters may not fly over or land within 30 m of an electrical firing

Fig 4-2-4 Maximum firing circuit

Fig 4-3-1 Open circuit signal c.

Fig 4-3-2 Closed circuit signal