IJEE Oct 2009 Issue

ISSN 0974-5904
October 2009
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

Indexed in Chemical Abstracts CAS Ref. No.: 172238
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International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

The International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering (IJEE) is a referred Journal focusing on Earth sciences and Engineering with emphasis on earth sciences and engineering. Applications of interdisciplinary topics such as engineering geology, geoinstrumentation, geotechnical and geo-environmental engineering, mining engineering, rock engineering, blasting engineering, petroleum engineering, off shore and marine geotechnology, geothermal energy, resource engineering, water resources and engineering, geochemical engineering, environmental engineering. Specific topics covered include earth sciences and engineering applications, RS, GIS, GPS applications in earth sciences and engineering, geo-hazards such as earthquakes, tsunami, landslides, debris flows and subsidence, rock/soil improvements and development of models validations using field and lab measurements.
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Advisory Committee: Dr. Paul M. Santi

Professor of Geology and Geological Engineering CSM, USA
Dr. Choon Sunwoo

Director, Korea Institute of GeoSciencesand Mineral Sources, Daejon, South Korea
Dr. S. D. Sivasubramanium
School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom (UK)
Dr. Ganesh R. Joshi

University of the Ryukyus Okinawa, JAPAN
Dr. Hyung Sik Yang

Geosystem Engineering Chonnam National University Gwangju, Republic of Korea
Dr. L. De Girolamo
Dr. Hsin-Yu Shan

National Chiao Tung University Hsinchu City, Taiwan
Dr. G. Compton
School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom
Dr. George. A. Buckley

Dr. Christoph Ufer

Institute of Bio-Chemistry Universittsklinikum Charit Monbijoustr, Berlin, Germany
Dr. Sandeep Sancheti

Director, National Institute of Technology, NIT - Karnataka, Surathkal, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. Y. Venkateswara Rao

Director, National Institute of Technology, NIT - Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. Deepak Vidyarthi

Executive Director Retd. NMDC Limited Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA
Dr. K. R. Narshima Murthy

Deputy General Manager Retd. Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. K. Uma Maheshwar Rao

Professor, Mining Engineering IIT Kharagpur, West-Bengal, INDIA
Dr. R. P. Singh
Professor, Department of Bio-Technology, IIT-Roorkee Uttarakhand, INDIA
Dr. K. Lalkishore
Professor and Rector Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
Dr. E. Saibaba Reddy

Professor and Registrar Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
Dr. I. V. Murali Krishna

Director Retd., Institute of Science & Technology JNTU, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
Dr. Vara Prasad Reddy

Dy Director, Academic Staff College, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, A.P., INDIA
Dr. M. Panduranga Rao

Chairman, New Science Degree & PG College, Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. Krishna Pramanik

National Institute of Technology, NIT Rourkela, Rourkela, Orissa, INDIA
Dr. R. Pavanaguru
Professor of Geology Retd., Osmania University Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA
Dr. Sanjay N. Talbar

Professor and Registrar Shri Guru Gobind Singhji Institute of Engineering, Nanded, INDIA
Dr. P. Appala Naidu

Officer on Special Duty Retd. JNTU, Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA
Dr. N. Vidyavathi
Head, Department of BioTechnology, NMAMIT, Nitte, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. P. V. V. V. Prasad Rao

HOD, Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, A.P, INDIA Dr. P. V. Ramesh Babu Regional Director, SCR AMD, Hyderabad
Dr. Gurtek Singh Gill

Professor of Geology Punjab University Chandigarh, Punjab, INDIA
Dr. M. M. M. Sarcar
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Andhra University, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. H. P. Sharma
University Department of Botany, Ranchi University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, INDIA
Dr. Y. Mallikarjuna Reddy

Nalanda Institute of Engineering and Technology, Guntur District Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. E. V. Krishna Rao

L.B.R. College of Engineering Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. N. Rajkumar
New Horizon College of Engineering Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. R. Rajesh
Bharathiar University Combatore, Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Dr. P. Sreenivas Sarma

HOD, Dept. of Civil Engg. Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, INDIA
Executive Committee:
HEAD QUARTERS PRESIDENT Prof. K. Laxminarayana Project Director Retd. DRDL, DRDO, Hyd, A.P., INDIA VICE-PRESIDENT Prof. D. Venkat Reddy Professor of Geology NIT-Karnataka, INDIA SECRETARY GENERAL Mr. P. Nikhil Prakash National Institute of Information Technology NIIT, A.P., INDIA TREASURER Mr. T. Prakash Raju National Institute of Information Technology NIIT, A.P., INDIA JOINT SECRETARY Mr. V. Sainath Chary Asst. Prof, Shaaz College of Engg. & Tech, Hyd., A.P., INDIA UK COUNCIL CHAIRMAN Dr. S.D. Sivasubramanium Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom VICE-CHAIRMAN Dr. L. De Girolamo Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom SECRETARY Dr. George. A. Buckley Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom INDIA COUNCIL CHAIRMAN Dr. Trilok N. Singh IIT-Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, Maharashtra, INDIA VICE-CHAIRMAN Dr. Shamsher Bhardur Singh BITS Pilani, Rajasthan, INDIA MAHARASHTRA SECTION CHAIRMAN Dr. R. K. Bajpai Scientist F, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Maharashtra, INDIA VICE-CHAIRMAN Shri. Amit Kumar Verma Project Scientist, IIT Bombay Maharashtra, INDIA SECRETARY Dr. N. R. Thote Head, Dept. of Mining Engg. NIT-Nagpur, Maharashtra JOINT SECRETARY Mr. Vikaram Vishal Monash Research Fellow IIT-Bombay, Maharashtra JHARKHAND SECTION CHAIRMAN Dr. Bijay Singh Ranchi University, Ranchi Jharkhand, INDIA VICE - CHAIRMAN Dr. G. Kumar BIT, Sindri, Dhanbad Jharkhand, INDIA SECRETARY Dr. Nitish Priyadarshi DST-Young Scientist, D. Sc. Scholar, Ranchi University Ranchi, Jharkhand, INDIA JOINT SECRETARY Mr. Pradeep Kumar Oraon Rajeev Gandhi National Fellow (UGC), Ranchi University, Jharkhand, INDIA ANDHRA PRADESH SECTION CHAIRMAN Dr. A. G. S. Reddy Hydro-geologist Central Ground Water Development Board (Govt. of India), Hyd, A.P., INDIA SECRETARY Mr. Raju. A Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyd., A.P., INDIA RAJASTHAN SECTION CHAIRMAN Dr. Manoj Khandelwal Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Rajasthan, INDIA VICE CHAIRMAN Dr. A. S. Sheoran Head, Department of Mining Engineering, Jai Narayan Vyas University, Rajasthan, INDIA SECRETARY Shri. P. K. Sharma Geologist (Jr) Geological Survey of India Jaipur, Rajasthan, INDIA JOINT SECRETARY Mr. Ankush Saxena Final Year B.E. (Mining) Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Rajasthan, INDIA HYDERABAD SUB-SECTION CHAIRMAN Mr. Pramod Kumar Sravan Dept. of CSE, Acharya Nagarjuna University (CDE) Andhra Pradesh, INDIA VICE-CHAIRMAN Mr. Hafeez Basha. R Dept. of CSE, Acharya Nagarjuna University (CDE) Andhra Pradesh, INDIA SECRETARY Mr. Chandrahas Roy AP State Co-ordinator, Centre for Electronics Development and Information Technology (CEDIT) Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA JOINT SECRETARY Mr. B. Srinivas Reddy Senior Technical Assistant National Informatics Centre (NIC), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
SECRETARY
Dr. R. Pradeep Kumar IIIT Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
INDEX
Volume 02 October 2009 No.5
EDITORIAL NOTE
Innovations in Composite Materials and Structural Design By SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH
RESEARCH PAPERS
Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in Garhwal Himalaya, India By VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine Dinajpur, Bangladesh By CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India By A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin A Review By SMITA S. SWAIN Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a Horizontal Plate Breakwater By SUBBA RAO, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE AND PRASHANTH S Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir and its Catchment By ANAND V. SHIVAPUR, B. VENKATESH and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume High-Performance Concrete By M. NAZEER, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN, and S.V. RAJEEVA 441-449 433-440 424-432 416-423 403-415 396-402 389-395
Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of High Strength Concrete By K. CHINNARAJU, K. SUBRAMANIAN AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR
450-457
Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells By MONSON C. C, MURUGAPPAN. A and GOVINARAJAN. M
458-466
BOOK REVIEW
Geological Remote Sensing Review by S. VISWANATHAN and G. VENKATA RAMAN i - ii
News and Notes

Solid Waste Management and Engineered Landfills Nuclear Minerals - Uranium Discovery of water molecules in the polar regions of the moon Forthcoming seminars/ symposiums/ technical meets ii ii iii iv iv v vi - x
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904 CAS Ref. No.: 172238
Innovations in Composite Materials and Structural Design

SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH Group leader of Civil Engineering Group Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan-333031, India E-mail: sbsingh@bits-pilani.ac.in
In general, civil engineering plays a vital part in human civilization. Construction of roads, dams, buildings, bridges and other important infrastructures are always crucial. Critical problems arise during design and construction with the presence of earthquake and other natural calamities. The advances in the field of concrete, structural and geotechnical engineering are enormous over many decades. Ultra High Strength Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Self Consolidated Concrete, High Performance Concrete and most importantly Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) are some of the newly developed concretes and / or composites for special infrastructure. Concrete structures started using fiber based reinforcements in the place of steel reinforcements for higher durability and ductility. A special issue of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering (IJEE) and CURIE Journal will publish selected peer reviewed papers presented in International Conference on Advances in Concrete, Structural and Geotechnical Engineering (ACSGE 2009) held during Oct 25th to 27th, 2009 at Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India. This editorial note presents recent progress in advanced composite materials used for sustainable infrastructure construction and fiber-composite industry and the themes of the ACSGE 2009 which effectively covers these recent advances in associated fields. Multilayer CFRP Prestressing Technology Advantages such as high strength to weight ratio and non-corrodible characteristics made advance composite materials as potential construction materials in recent past. Prestressing techniques are widely accepted for the higher load carrying capacity and aesthetic appearance of the structures. However, prestressing steel tendons were facing durability concerns over time. Non-metallic Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) can overcome such durability concerns. Further, CFRP materials can be used as externally tensioned FRP tendons. Prestressing applications of FRP materials involve highly fundamental designs and executions. Moreover, both FRP and concrete are brittle in nature and when it comes to prestressed concrete structures, ductility becomes a point of concern. Early days investigations on utilization of FRP materials concluded that the FRP reinforced beams have shown less ductile failure. Introduction of multilayer prestressed tendons for bridge girders has shown bright and innovative design approaches to achieve higher ductility and possible constructions. In this method of design, the bridge girders are prestressed with CFRP tendons in vertically distributed multiple layers. The multilayer prestressing pattern is consisting of pre-tensioning of bonded tendons and post-tensioning of external un-bonded tendons. The theoretical design philosophy of multilayer tendon prestressed bridge girders are based on balanced ratio which classifies the beams into under and over-reinforced sections. The combination of pre-tensioned and post-tensioned tendons will increase the load carrying capacity and ductility significantly due to progressive failure mechanism. The multilayer CFRP prestressing technology has been successfully employed in the construction of Bridge Street Bridge, Southfield, Michigan, USA.
Volume 2, No. 5, October 2009
Innovations in Composite Materials and Structural Design
Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) In general, yielding behavior of structural steel provides enough ductility to reinforced concrete structures over normal loadings. But during earthquake excitation and heavy impact loading conditions every structure undergoes large deformations. Hence, these structures need more inherent ductility to withstand the failure load and prolong the service life. The ductile detailing of reinforcement helps in preventing concrete from its brittle cracking behavior. Above mentioned serious ductility related concerns can be solved to a better extent by using ductile concrete materials such as Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete (SIFCON), Slurry Infiltrated Mat Concrete (SIMCON), Polyethylene Engineered Cementitious Composite (PE-ECC) and Polyvinyl Alcohol Engineered Cementitious Composite (PVA-ECC) in structural constructions. Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) is cement based high ductile composite material. All these high performance cement composite materials show a unique behavior pseudo tensile strain hardening which is directly related to ductility of the structures. Among these innovative composites, SIFCON and SIMCON use steel fibers to reinforce cement matrix, however, the steel fiber poses durability concerns. The use of PEECC and PVA-ECC consisting of polymeric fibers eliminates the durability concerns to the greater extent. Applications of ECC are much more beneficial to brittle concrete structures reinforced with FRP materials. Typically, PE-ECC and PVA-ECC use short discontinuous arbitrarily oriented Polyethylene (PE) and Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers, respectively to reinforce cement matrix with typical fiber volume fraction of 1.5-3%. In uni-axial tension and bending, both of these composites exhibit pseudo-tensile strain hardening which improves multipurpose performances. In uni-axial loading, ECC shows ultra-high tensile strain capacity (3%-7%), with multiple microcracks during the inelastic deformation. Typically ECC is cast using cement, sand, water, polymeric fiber and plasticizer. However, to reduce the cost and to increase the material greenness fly-ash can be added by replacing cement upto 60%. It is natural that the pseudo-tensile strain hardening behavior of ECC will increase the moment carrying capacity of the beam section. Thus, it requires innovative design approaches which can directly relate the micromechanical parameters to structural analysis, design and construction. The ECC can be used as a primary construction material at plastic hinges and beam-column joints. Moreover, ECC can be very useful for rehabilitation of deficient structures with enhanced ductility. Postbuckling Response and Failure of Symmetric Laminated Plates with Square Cutouts under Uni-axial Compression Composite laminates can sustain a much higher load after the occurrence of localized damage such as matrix cracking, fiber breaks or delamination. Due to practical requirements cutouts are often required in composite structural panels, such as in wing spars and cover panels of aircraft structures and bridge decks to provide access for hydraulic lines, electrical lines, fuel lines, damage inspection, and to reduce the overall weight of the aircraft. The presence of these cutouts forms free edges in the composite laminates, which in turn cause high interlaminar stresses leading to loss of stiffness and premature failure of laminates due to onset of delamination Therefore, stability, overall strength, and failure characteristics of composite panels with cutouts are some of the important parameters for an improved design of structures fabricated with laminated panels. A recent investigation is conducted by the author on the effects of rectangular cutout size, cutout aspect ratio and location of cutout on pre-buckling and postbuckling responses, failure loads and failure characteristics of (+45/-45/0/90)2s, (+45/-45)4s and (0/90)4s laminates with square/rectangular cutouts under uni-axial compression. In addition, the effects of edge boundary conditions on buckling and failure loads and maximum transverse deflection associated with failure loads for a (+45/-45/0/90)2s quasiisotropic laminate with and without cutout have also been investigated. In these investigations, the 3-D Tsai-Hill criterion is used to predict the failure of a lamina while the
Editorial Note
SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH
onset of delamination is predicted by the inter-laminar failure criterion. In addition, the effects of boundary conditions on buckling load, failure loads, failure modes and maximum transverse deflection for a (+45/-45/0/90)2s laminate with and without cutout have also been predicted. It is concluded that square laminates with small square cutouts have more postbuckling strength than without cutout, irrespective of boundary conditions. Also, it has been observed that the location of cutout in the practical structural laminates has significant effect on the pre buckling and postbuckling strength, modes of failure and general failure characteristics. Thus, it is imperative for all designers and structural analysts to use and incorporate the latest developments in materials technology (especially composites) and design approaches for economical and efficient design of composites structures in general and high performance concrete structures with and without FRP (fiber-reinforced polymer) reinforcements in particular. Furthermore, the expansions in contemporary infrastructure depend mainly on the technological developments in the concrete science, structural and geotechnical engineering. Many problems in structural and geotechnical engineering are looked upon, solved and extended for use in the context of soil-structure interaction, construction, structural materials and geometry, and other uncertainties. Therefore, there is always a need for the researchers and the practising engineers working in the broad field of concrete technology, structural and geotechnical engineering, to keep abreast of the latest trends and developments in these fields with the aim of updating their analytical and practical skills. Hence, Civil Engineering Group of Birla Institute of Science and Technology (commonly known as BITS), Pilani is organizing an International Conference on Advances in Concrete, Structural and Geotechnical Engineering (ACSGE 2009) to be held during Oct 25th to 27th, 2009 at Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India. The main themes of this International conference covering the above aspects and objectives of the conference are as follows: Advanced composite materials Composite structures Concrete Technology Low Cost Housing Sustainability of construction, design and management Rehabilitation/Retrofitting of structures Offshore structures, Bridge Structures Structural Design and Low Cost Housing Retaining structures Seismology and Ground motion studies Soil - structure interaction Geohazards - Liquefaction, microzonation, landslides, etc Geotechnical instrumentation Ground improvement techniques, soft soil stabilization, slope stabilization Geosynthetics Materials and applications Geoenvironmental Engineering Numerical modeling Geomechanics and under ground structures Applications of FEM, Nano Technology in Civil Engineering
To conclude, the author wants to emphasize the association of various office bearers and editorial board of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering (CAFETINNOVA Technical Society,) without that the organization of this event has not been so effective. Moreover, the various technical contributions from eminent experts of the fields related to innovative materials and structures, and infrastructures will give immense exposure and opportunity to young scientists to enrich their technical knowledge and know-how of the latest developments in analysis and design aspects of innovative structures. The author hopes that all delegates and resource scientists will have wonderful time at BITS Pilani, Rajasthan, India and also wishes a grand success of ACSGE 2009 with co-operation of one and all participating in the conference.
Editorial Note
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
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Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in Garhwal Himalaya, India

VIVEK KUMAR SINGH* and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY**
*Jharkhand Space Applications Center, Department of Information Technology, Govt. of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India **Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, ISRO, Department of Space, Dehradun Email: vivekearth@gmail.com, champati_ray@iirs.gov.in Abstract: Landslides are a major geological hazard in Garhwal Himalayas, since they are widespread dynamic processes that cause damage, and even loss of life, every year. Development of urban areas, Highway construction and expanded land use in Garhwal Himalaya mountain regions has increased the incidence of landslide disasters. The enormous damage caused by landslides can be reduced by means of monitoring systems used for mitigation strategies. Monitoring systems help to forecast the evolution of an area, analyze the kinematics and geometry of failures, and define the history of a failed slope. Conventional monitoring techniques, such as inclinometers, extensometers or GPS provide information on accessible points throughout landslide areas. Space borne or ground-based synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry has been shown to be an effective complementary tool for landslide monitoring. The present study illustrates some current and potential uses of satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) for landslide assessment in Garhwal Himalaya. Keywords: Landslide, InSAR, DInSAR, DEM, Himalaya Introduction: The Himalayas are undergoing constant rupturing in the thrust belt zone in the Garhwal Himalayas, due to which earthquake and mass movement activity is triggered. These processes of mass movement and landslides have been constantly modifying the landscape. Landslides are one of 'the indicators of the geomorphological modifications taking place in this active and fragile terrain. InSAR techniques can be applied to detect and measure ground deformation, provided that the topographic phase contribution is removed from a sufficiently long time span interferogram in which interferometric phase surface displacement is recorded. This involves the generation and subtraction of the so-called synthetic interferogram, and leads to Differential SAR Interferometry (DInSAR). It can be done either by exploiting an a priori DEM (two-pass technique) or by using a Tandem or short temporal baseline topographic Interferogram (three-pass and four-pass techniques, with or without phase unwrapping of the Interferogram (Zebker et Massonnet et al., 1996). topographic al., 1994b;
SAR Interferometry exploits the differences in phase between two complex SAR images. With space-borne systems the two SAR images are acquired at different times and with different viewing angles in order to retrieve a three-dimensional model of the scene imaged, or if there are any, the ground deformations that occurred over the elapsed time. Data acquired by SAR systems can provide 3D terrain models and be used to assist in regional scale investigations, e.g. aimed at evaluation of susceptibility of slopes to failure. Under favorable environmental conditions, the innovative Permanent Scatterers (PS) technique, which overcomes several limitations of conventional SAR differential interferometry (DInSAR) applications in landslide studies, is suitable for monitoring slope deformations with mill metric precision.
#02020501 Copyright 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
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Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in Garhwal Himalaya, India Geological Setup: The Garhwal Himalaya is located at the western end of the central Himalaya in the northern India and is situated in a seismic gap along the Main Central thrust that separates the lesser Himalaya to the South from the Greater Himalaya to the North (Valdiya, 1988). Physiographically the area around Chamoli shows a matured topography which has undergone rejuvenation resulting in a combination of highly dissected topography with valleys showing vertical walls and scarps in the lower parts and gently sloping concave hill tops in the upper wider parts. The area is drained by the river Alaknanda and its tributaries, viz. Patal Ganga, Garur Ganga & Birahi Ganga. Geologically, the area is transected by Grahwal Lesser Himalaya and the Central Crystallines, which are separated along the Main Central Thrust. Main Central Thrust (MCT) thrust locally strikes NW-SE and dips 15-200 N. the Quartzites are well exposed at Chamoli and extended 2-3 km to the northeast and are replaced by limestone and Slate sequences of the Pipalkoti Window. The present study area consists mainly of the alternate bands of Slate and Dolomite which is also known as Carbonate suite of Chamoli (figure 2). The Carbonate suite of Chamoli consists of alternating sequence of Slates and Dolostones and massive dolostone that forms the doubly plunging, Pipalkoti anticline. It is thrust over by the thick Quartzites of Gulabkoti and the Chinka formations, which in their own turn are thrust upon by the Central crystallines along the main central Thrust.
The proposed study is being carried out in the Alaknanda river catchment in Garhwal Himalayas, Uttarakhand, India. The study area lies in the Chamoli district of Garhwal Himalaya, covering places like and Badrinath, Lambagarh, Joshimath, Patal Ganga, Langsi, Tangani, Pakhi, Pipalkoti, Birahi, Nijmula, Chamoli, Gopeshwar, Mandal, Maithana and Nandprayag of Chamoli district (figure1). The catchment receives heavy precipitation between July and September. Landslides here are an outcome of the intrinsic geology, adverse natural topography, i.e., steep slopes in talus accumulation, weathered rocks and soils, and man-made modification of these fragile slopes. The inherently unstable slopes frequently fail during rainstorms, often with catastrophic consequences.
VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY
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Figure.2 Regional Geological Map of the Study Area (after Valdiya 1980) Structural Features: The area is traversed by majors thrust zones viz. the vaikrita, MCT (Jutogh-AlmoraMunsiari) and Bhatwari (=chail= Ramgarh) thrusts. The thrust sheets have been eroded to expose tcetonics windows,(e.g Chamoli, Pipalkoti windows) and klippe (Nandprayag klippe is the NW continuation of Baijnath Ascot klippe). In the epicentral region,west of chamoli between Nandakini and Alaknanda, thrust sheets are repeated in a complex schuppen zone. Two mega lineaments (i.e Haldwani- Karanprayag trending NW-SE and Najibabad- ChamoliPipalkoti lineament trending NE-SW (Virdi, 1979) also traverse this region and their intersection with major thrusts in the area may have reactivated them, leading to the generation of swarms- type aftershock activity. Methodology: The present study illustrates some current and potential uses of satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar interferometry (InSAR) for landslide assessment in Garhwal Himalaya. ERS data were used for the InSAR analysis. In order to select a set of suitable scenes a thorough baseline analysis of all ERS-1 and ERS-2 ascending scenes acquired over the location of Garhwal Himalaya during summer between 1996 and 1999 was performed. It was of interest to find as many data pairs as possible during that time period, yet keep the perpendicular baselines below 100 m, thus reducing contributions of topography on differential phase values. Ascending orbit was chosen so the look direction (right) would correspond with the aspect of the slope. Seven scenes were finally selected for this initial reconnaissance study, which yielded five data pairs with perpendicular baselines below 100 m.
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Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in Garhwal Himalaya, India survey. All data pairs with baselines below 100 m were processed to geocoded vertical elevation change maps using the software package Sarscape 3.2. Fig. 3 & 4 provides an overview of the processing steps involved, as they are implemented in the software.
The interferometric DEM used was generated from an ERS tandem pair of 11/12 April 1996 & 21/22 September 1998 (figure 3). Geocoding and elevation values were refined using ground control points taken from 1:25,000 scale topographic maps and points collected through DGPS
Figure. 3 Surface movement detection due to landslides using InSAR
Figure.4 Differential interferogram generation using ERS 1 & 2 data International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
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The study of the spatial and temporal evolution of the surface motion can help in the understanding the influence of the parameters controlling slow landslides (some centimetres per week over several years). A multiyear trend of velocity variation may be superposed on seasonal meteorological variation, and on episodic events. A multitemporal and multiscale study is required to decipher the signature of different causes. Kinematic studies are usually realized by techniques measuring punctual displacements (levelling, lasermeter, GPS), which may not be very suitable to reveal spatial heterogeneities of mass movements. Remote sensing techniques can help in landslide studies.
In particular, SAR interferometry is a powerful tool, providing an image representing the motion with a centimetric precision and with a decametric resolution (Massonet et al., 1993). This technique has already proven its capability to detect and to map surface displacements caused by different natural and anthropic phenomena such as earthquake (Massonet et al., 1993; Zebker et. al. 1994). Despite some severe limitations (high vegetation density leading to decorrelation, high variation of topography, high deformation rate leading to loss of coherence, the capability of SAR interferometry to detect movement fields in landslide areas has been demonstrated (Fruneau et al., 1996; Carnec et al., 1996; Rott et al., 1999; Vietmeier et al., 1999).
Figure.5 Interferogram generated from ERS 1 & 2 data of 21 & 22 September 1998
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Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in Garhwal Himalaya, India
Figure.6 (A) & (B) Ellipsoidal Flattened Interferogram (21&22Sep1998) of Enlarged areas
Figure.7 (A) & (B) DEM Flattened Interferogram (21&22Sep1998) of Enlarged areas Results & Discussions: The initial result has shown that SAR textural and interferometric techniques can assist in the understanding of landslide processes, post-failure mechanism and mobility. Study demonstrate that InSAR images (11/12 April 1996/ 21/22 September 1998), show evidence of motion at different locations of landslide in the study area (figure 5, 6, 7 & 8). The InSAR pairs with small baselines provide more accurate results. This suggests that InSAR techniques can be used to supplement field monitoring techniques on active landslides.
Figure.8 Landslide movements past Gauna Tal on east as observed on ERS 1 & 2 Interferogram (Geocoded) and ETM image. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
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Acknowledgement: Authors acknowledge the contribution and help provided by Dr. V. K. Dadhwal, Dean IIRS, Dehradun and Prof R.C. Lakhera, Head, Geosciences Division IIRS, Dehradun References: [1] Carnec, C., Massonnet, D., King, C., (1996) Two examples of the application of SAR interferometry to sites of small extent - Geophysical Research Letters, vol 23-pp. 3579 3582. [2] Fruneau, B., Achache, J., Delacourt, C., (1996) Observation and Modeling of the Saint-Etienne-de-Tine Landslide Using SAR InterferometryTectonophysics vol 265-pp. 181190. [3] Vietmeier, J., Wagner, W. and Dikau, R. (1999) Monitoring moderate slope movements (landslides) in the southern French Alps using differential SAR interferometry, Fringe 1999 [4] Massonnet, D., Rossi, M., Carmona, C., Adragna, F., Peltzer, G., Feigl, K., Rabaute, T., (1993) The displacement field of the Landers earthquake mapped by Radar Interferometry. Nature vol 364-pp. 138142. [5] Massonnet, D., Vadon, H., Rossi, M., (1996) Reduction of the need for phase unwrapping in Radar Interferometry. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing vol.34-pp. 489497. [6] Rott, H., Scheuchl, B., Siegel, A., Grasemann, B., (1999) Monitoring very slow slope movements by means of SAR interferometry: a case study from a mass waste above a reservoir in the tztal Alps, Austria. Geophysical Research Letters vol.26pp.16291632. [7] Valdiya K.S. (1980) Geology of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India. [8] Valdiya K.S. (1988): Geology and natural environment of Nainital Hills Himalaya, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India [9] Virdi, N. S. (1979) Status of the Chail Formation vis--vis Jutogh-Chail relationship in Himachal Lesser Himalaya. Himalayan Geology, vol.9pp. 111-125. [10] Zebker, H.A.,Werner, C.L., Rosen, P.A., Hensley, S., (1994) Accuracy of topographic maps derived from ERS-1 Interferometric Radar. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing vol. 32 (4)-pp.823836. [11] Zebker, H.A., Rosen, P.A., Goldstein, R.M., Gabriel, A.,Werner, C.L., (1994b) On the derivation of coseismic displacement fields using Differential Radar Interferometry: the Landers earthquake. Journal of Geophysical Research vol.99 (B10)pp. 1961719634.
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Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine, Dinajpur, Bangladesh

CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN1, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA1, M. FARHAD HOWLADAR2 and FARID AHMED1
1 2
Department of Geology & Mining, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi-6205, Bangladesh. Dept. of Petroleum and Georesources Engineering, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet-3114, Bangladesh. Email:cqzam@yahoo.com
Abstract: As a part of the evaluation of long wall caving mechanism of the 1101 coal face of the Barapukuria coal mine (BCMC), Barapukuria, Parbatipur, Dinajpur district, Bangladesh. Analysis of horizontal strain and subsidence that would be expected at the ground surface over long wall coal face was performed. To extract coal from Barapukuria Coal Mining Company (BCMC) using the method of Inclined Slicing Roof Caving Long Wall Mining along the Strike, and the sequence of slices mining from top to bottom order. Mining of 1101 coal face initiates caving from the lowest strata in the immediate roof and propagates upward into the Gondwana Formation and up to the base of lower Dupi Tila and finally reaches up to the surface. NBC (England, 1975) method, it is estimated that at around 0.75 m ground subsidence may occur for the mining of 1st slice, and successively for the mining of 5th slice the ground subsidence may 2.25 m occur, of which is relatively difficult to control the ground response and a violent interaction effects may anticipated. Filling process can not eliminate subsidence but reduce it if the operation is carried out to a higher standard and to allow an increase in the percentage of recovery of the coal over the caving mining methods. Again, such a high risk mining methods must be avoided because its failure would seriously jeopardize any future mining prospects in the country. Incorporation of this research work to the mine authority will facilitate guideline and provide an integrated tool for future long wall planning and design of the mine. Keywords: Barapukuria Coal Mine, Surface Subsidence, mining problems, slice mining Introduction: Coal mine of Barapukuria basin in Dinajpur district, Bangladesh, enters into the coal mining era for the first time. During 198485 and 1986-87 field seasons Geological survey of Bangladesh (GSB) drilled seven boreholes in and around Barapukuria area under Parbatipur Upozilla of Dinajpur district, Bangladesh (Fig.1) and confirmed the presence of 157 m thick Gondwana sediment between the basement and Tertiary sediments in the area. As the country having no coal mining experience in the past, BCMC is expected to bring about a number of others mining related activities in the country. Barapukuria coal mine is promptly organized by the Jiangsu Coal Geology Company, CMC, China, under the direct supervision of Petrobangla, Bangladesh, now trail basis production is under processes, which is a modern and large scale one with a production capacity of 1 million tones annually. To be analyzed from an underground coal mining as well as an environmental standpoint, all surface effects of subsidence associated with mining must be recognized. The analysis of vertical displacement that will impact of mining operations has often been the primary focus of subsidence investigations. This research work is intended to provide primary focuses on the impact of mining operations of 1101 long wall face of BCMC operations, as a consequence of direct surface effects. The major components of subsidence that influence its environmental impacts are vertical displacement, horizontal displacement, slope, horizontal strain, and vertical curvature (SME, 1986). As BCMC is the first step for Bangladesh entering into the coal mining era. Hence very little information is available concerning subsidence prediction model, particularly the stress-strain behavior of litho-stratigraphy of Bangladesh, and the existing information is not sufficient enough for a detail analysis of subsidence model. For this, the empirical Graphical method is used for the prediction of surface subsidence as a consequence of BCMP field condition.
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Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine Dinajpur, Bangladesh in the NCBs subsidence Engineers hand book (1975). This method is to represent the effects of major factors by a series of nomographs based on numerous movement and deformation curves collected under similar mining conditions and geological setting. The method becomes more widely used under a wide range of situations and it is easiest and convenient to use. Although this method is only and strictly applicable to the UK, but it is not unusual to use the method as a basis for preliminary development work in other coal fields. As such locally observed, information becomes available, empirical models of subsidence prediction for BCMC is more relevant to NCBs method to be developed. Hence it is recognized that significant variation in the predicted values for the subsidence and strain profiles between the NCB and locally derived BCMP prediction model may result, but in absence of any local data the use of NCB method can be considered to be appropriate for the purpose of the study. Again, the subsidence profile predicted by this method usually appears within the variation of 10% of the actual field measurement, (NCB, 1975; Peng, 1986). The NCB prediction model is used in the case of 1101coal face trail basis production stage of BCMC under some limitations, like the absence of available mining data and obviously the practical condition of gob forming process. Subsidence Prediction of 1101 Coal Face: It is difficult or even impossible to thoroughly measure the displacement of the upper strata due to subsidence caused by mining activity in the targeted coal horizon. Most of the research on subsidence has concentrated on surface movement of the mine prone area. Theories or methods for subsidence prediction, damage assessment and prevention measures have been established based on surface measurement. However it is believed that the subsidence phenomenon in any underground substance is similar to that in the surface. Thus by adapting the surface subsidence theory to the upper seam in a multiple seam mining environment, the location and extent of tension and compression zone in the upper roof strata can be predicted with acceptable accuracy. The BCMC now in trail basis production mode and the 1101 coal face is going to be prepared for the extraction of coal, and only
Fig.1 Location map of the Barapukuria Coal Mine area, Parbatipur Dinajpur District, Bangladesh. Geology of the Mining Area: Bangladesh constitute the major part of Bengal Basin, which is bounded by ArakanYama Mega-anticlinorium in the east, by Indian Shield in the west, by Shillong massif in the north and open to the Bay of Bengal to south as an active Foredeep. Within these area, Barapukuria coal field located in the Rangpur saddle of the Indian Platform (Bakr et.al., 1996). The coal bearing Gondwana intra-cratonic basins (graben and halfgraben) have been discovered in many gravity lows within the basement of Rangpur saddle and adjoining areas (Khan and Rahman, 1992). The general structure of the Barapukuria Coal Mine area is a single syncline spreading along N-S direction and cut by faults (CMC, 1994). Geologically, this basin area is a plain land covered with Recent Alluvium and Pleistocene Barind Clay Residuum. The geologic succession of this basin has been established on the basis of borehole data (Guha, 1978). The sedimentary rocks of Gondwana Group, Dupi Tila Formation, Barind Clay Residuum, and Alluvium of the Permian, Pliocene, Pleistocene and Recent ages respectively were encountered in the bore holes which lie on the Pre-cambrian Basement Complex. A large gap in sedimentary record is present in between Gondwana Group and Dupi Tila Formation, which are most probably happened due to the erosional or non-depositional phase exit during Triassic to Pliocene age (Khan and Rahman, 1992). Methods of Study: The most comprehensive and widely used empirical method of predicting subsidence and surface strain profiles is that developed by the National Coal Board, UK and reported
CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED 50 m of the long wall face is to be developed. The overall geometric layout of 1101 face has a thickness of m = 2.5 m, depth of seam or overburden, h = 250 m, width of the long wall face, w = 103 m, rate of advancing speed of shearer cutting 5 m/min, one cycle of cutting complete by double drum shearer is 30~33 min. A brief analysis of 1101 long wall coal face of the BCMP, subsidence prediction assessment was carried out by the empirical graphical method (NCB, 1975), which is given below: Calculated Sequences, Results and discussions: 1. Limit angle and Subsidence development: When the mined-out gob has reached the critical size, the angle between the vertical line at the face edge and the line connecting the face edge to the movement basin, is the angle of draw. Theoretically it varies from 15 to 45 (Allgaier, 1982) depending on the location, size of opening, and the local geology. Incase of BCMC, the limit angle or angle of draw is assumed to be 35 from the vertical plane (Wardell Armstrong, 1993) Shown in Fig 2. According to Peng, 1984; the limit of subsidence development is approximately 0.7 h in front and 0.7 h behind, a working face. From this point of view, the influence of subsidence may initiates by a circle of diameter of 175 m from the edge of the Track gate and Belt gate crosscut to the retreating direction of the 1101 coal face upper strata.
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For a given width of the long wall face(w), the maximum vertical subsidence (S) decreases with increased seam depth (h) and vice versa relationship. The value of S can be calculated for subsidence profiles from Fig.3.
Fig.3 Subsidence related to Width / Depth ratios of 1101 coal extraction. In the case of BCMP the extracted width of the 1101 Coal face to be W=103 m, thickness of coal seam, m=2.5 m and the depth of over burden h = 250 m. The calculated maximum or central subsidence, as
S m =0.3, S =0.3m, Or, S=0.75 m

4. Vertical Subsidence (s) away from the Centre Point of the Working: The vertical subsidence (s), distance X from the centre of working may be expressed as: s = K1 S The coefficient K1 is plotted against various values of X/L from Fig.4 for the construction of details subsidence profile.
Fig.2 Terminology for subsidence profile above a single long wall coal face. 2. Maximum Possible Vertical Subsidence (Smax) Theoretically the maximum possible vertical subsidences which can occur when complete mineral extraction and subsequent roof caving has taken place within the circle of influence is 90% of the seam thickness. i.e. S max = 0.9 m 3. Maximum Vertical Subsidence (S) in Relation to the Width/Depth Ratio (w/h)
Fig.4 Vertical subsidence away from centre point or critical axis of the mine working. 5. Horizontal Displacement (V) The horizontal displacement (V) associated with a vertical subsidence (s) at a distance X from the critical axis is given by: V = K2 s The coefficient K2 is plotted against X/L for the values of w/h = 0.412 from Fig.5. Here
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Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine Dinajpur, Bangladesh Like subsidence and strain profile, the slope profile may vary with the w/h of the opening. The maximum slope is greatest for an opening with w/h= 0.45 and decreases with either an increasing or decreasing of w/h (Peng, 1984). Now the coefficient K3 is plotted against w/h from fig.6. it follows that the maximum possible slope is given by: Gmax = 2.75 Smax/ h 8. Subsidence Profile The complete subsidence profile determined from the graph, which can be expressed in a table given below: Table:1. Calculation sequence for the determination of subsidence profile. In table: 1. Row 1 lists the steps of the ratio of local subsidence to maximum subsidence (s/S) between 0 (Zero) for the subsidence edge and 1 for the center point of the face. The number and interval of steps of the calculation sequence are arbitrary. Now multiplying each step in row 1 by maximum subsidence (S=0.75) to obtain row 2, which is physically signify the local subsidence that may happened in the upper strata of the mining horizon of 1101 coal face. For the determination of horizontal displacement in Row 3 is calculated from Appendix of NCB, 1975, the value X/L (where, X is the distance from the center of the face) is estimated for w/h=0.412. Then multiplying each value of Row 3 by overburden depth, h =250m to obtain the actual distance from the center of the face for Row 4. Basically, Row 2 lists the actual subsidence for points listed in corresponding columns of row 4. There by plotting the predicted final subsidence profile, shown in Figs. 7a. 9. Strain Profile Like subsidence profile the strain profile can be constructed, by maintaining the following procedure. In Table-2 (appendix) listed the computed value for a complete strain profile. From rows 1 lists values of horizontal strain e/E from Appendix of NCB, 1975, & row 2 is the product of K3 S/h (where S=0.75, and h=250 m) by the multiple fractions in row 1 to obtain row 2. Where, K3 is the proportional constant. Therefore Row 3 is derived by transferring the distance interns of h for W/h = 0.412 from Appendix of NCB, 1975. Basically, it is the relative displacement of the upper strata due to the mining of target horizon, of which can be from the centre point of the workings to the rib side of the face. Hence, it is regarded as the empirical assumption of
it is noted that, all final horizontal displacements are moving towards the central axis of the working face.
Fig.5 Horizontal Displacement away from the centre point or critical axis of the face in terms of width/depth of the extraction. 6. Horizontal Strain ( E) Horizontal strain or change in unit length ( E), can be derived from horizontal displacement by considering two points at a small distance apart, from Fig.6. i.e. Strain ( E) = S dK2/L The maximum strain is related to the maximum subsidence and depth of overburden of the rock mass. The proportional constant K3 is determined from fig.6, which is depending on the w/h of the working face and it is different for both the tensile and compressive strain.
Fig.6 Horizontal strain and slope at various Width/Depth ratios of extraction. From fig.6, it is estimated that K3 =0.8 for compressive strain (+E) and K3 = 1.65 for tensile strain (-E) in the prevailing condition for the BCMC 1101 coal face ground surface. 7. Ground Slopes or Rotations (G) Change in ground slope or rotation (G) can be derived from vertical subsidence by considering two points at a small distance apart, fig.4. ie. Rotation (Gmax) = Smax dK1/L A more accurate estimate of maximum rotation in a subsidence trough may be obtained from the expression: G = K3 S/h
CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED which can not be determined in the practical field condition. Now multiply row 3 by h= 250 m to obtain row 4 in terms of distance from the center of the opening. By this way the iteration of calculation sequence for strain profile is completed. Now, the strain profile is graphically presented by using the value of row 2 and row 4, of which is the final predicted strain profile for the maximum subsidence of S=0.75 m, shown in fig.8. 10. Final Subsidence Profile As a part of the evaluation of long wall caving mechanism of 1101 coal face of BCMC, an analysis of horizontal strains and subsidence that would be expected at the ground surface over long wall coal face was performed. This section of the report provides a general discussion of subsidence effects, the input parameters and NBC empirical method used for this analysis, and the predicted horizontal strains and subsidence displacements obtained from these analyses. The long wall coal mining is designed to recover large blocks of coal and left almost no coal prior to support the surface. Historically long wall mining method results in a larger area of subsidence troughs than the conventional room-andpillar mining. Generally due to long wall mining, vertical subsidence may occur on the surface along the centerline of the face, of which depends upon seam thickness, overburden rock over the coal seam, and the surface topographic features. Mining induced surface subsidence ultimately results damage to the surface features and structures, and the magnitude of damage depends on the forces (stress) that propagate to the surface as the mine roof collapses. These forces may include stretching (tension), squeezing (compression), and sinking of the ground (vertical displacement). The effects of the forces are measured and studied by developing a subsidence profile, which shows how subsidence would look on a cross-section usually drawn at a right angle to the long wall face advance. From the constructed profile (Figs. 7a), it is shown that the greatest amount of vertical displacement may occur along the lengthwise centerline of the 1101 long wall coal face. The average vertical subsidence may vary from 0.75 m at the center of the face to 0.03 m at the edge of the face. Subsidence basin may initiate at a distance of 25m from the cross cut road way towards
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the center line of the studied coal face, where as the maximum vertical displacement is calculated as 0.75 m from the cross cut entry to the coal face at a distance of 240 m. i.e. the subsidence trough progressively decreases at a point along the trough of the profile until the limit of the affected surface area is reached.
Fig.7a Predicted subsidence Profile over 1101 Long wall face. In the figure it shows that at the center of the face, a maximum subsidence of 0.75 m calculated with no measurable change in slope. The same categories of subsidence impact have already been observed in field (Figs. 7b).
Fig.7b Evidence of subsidence around the Barapukuria Coal Mine, Dinajpur, Bangladesh. Subsidence (vertical displacement) decreased from the center of the face to the edges. Inclination or curvature reached maximum levels at approximate midpoints between the centerline and the face edges. The study also examined the horizontal displacement created by the subsidence event. Given that the ground sinks from less than unity at the face edges to maximum at its centerline, and the surface experienced measurable horizontal movement. Fig 8 shows the horizontal displacement may observe at the 1101 coal face projected ground surface.
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Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine Dinajpur, Bangladesh relative highs in surface horizontal tensile and compressive strains at undermined study sites for possible correlation to areas of stressed location. Surface tensile strains are more likely to cause damage than surface compressive strains because of the possibility of tearing of the ground surface or shallow groundwater into surface cracks. Again Professor Whittaker of Nottingham University, U.K (1990) carried out a prefeasibility study for BCMC. In his report, it is calculated that for mining of 1st slice the maximum subsidence of about 0.60 m in case of 2.5 m seam height, progressively increasing the number of slices up to 6, the resultant subsidence would be expected 3.6 m at the ground surface. Where as in this research work it is calculated that after extraction of 5th slice the ground surface above the extracted coal face to be 3.75 m. So it is commenced that the mine authorities should take this analogical comparison between the studies, as a means of mine fate, unless a deadly event may observe in the countrys first mining industry. Conclusion The advancement of long wall face in the coal seam, the support from the overlying strata is detached and hence the original equilibrium of these strata is disturbed. The main concern relating to subsidence occurrence at the ground surface of the BCMC site is the development of subsidence trough. From the calculation, it is estimated that at around 0.75 m ground subsidence may occur due to the mining of 1101 coal face of BCMC. The mine design plan expected that 5 slices will be mined out through the course of mine life. From the analysis, it is estimated that the rate of subsidence is relatively large enough (0.75 m) in the case of 1st slice, where from successively it may be assumed that after mining 5th slice the rate of ground subsidence may 2.25 m, of which is relatively difficult to control the ground response and a violent interaction effects may anticipated. The development of subsidence trough above multi slice long wall face give rise to the generation of fracture plane and opening of pre-existing weakness planes between the mining horizon and the surface. The generation of fracture planes sufficient to intercept a surface water body can give rise to forming a direct flow path between the surface and the mining horizon. Similarly a major fault or the sedimentary dyke could be
Fig.8 Horizontal Displacements over the 1101 Long wall coal face At approximate midpoints between the centerline and the face edges, horizontal displacement found at its minimum value, where as at the trough edge it shows the maximum value of 2410-4 m for single coal face extraction. Surface features and structures above the long wall face will experience varying levels of stress and subsequent deformation depending on specific location above the face. Where as the ground slope or rotation value represent a negligible degree of changes of the predicted profile over the coal face. Another profile shows that both the horizontal and the vertical forces of tension and compression move in a wavelike motion along the surface slightly ahead of the advancing longwall face, provide a schematic of this process depicts how the surface is subjected to waves of stretching (tension) and squeezing (compression) as the longwall face passes. The advancing wave creates a tensional force and then changes to a compressional force, shown in Fig.9.
Fig.9 Compression and tension due to Movement of 1101 long wall coal face; Profile parallel to the face. This simplified model gives a prediction of maximum subsidence expected along the centerline of a panel. Tensile and compressive stress-strain fields and vertical and horizontal deformations develop at the surface due to the collapse of the long wall cavity. The purpose of the subsidence analysis was to determine locations of
CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED sufficiently opened by undermining as to allow water body to drain into the mine workings below. Therefore it is recommended to allow longer and more productive coal face to be worked without increasing the disturbance of the Gondwana Formations above the mining horizon, and without increasing the risk of inundation from the Dupi Tila Formation. Again it is mandatory for the mine authority to carry out a detail study for the ground response and expansion of the materials. Reference: [1] Allgaier FK (1982) Surface Subsidence over long wall panels in the western U.S., Proc., state ofthe- art of ground control in long wall mining and mining subsidence, SME- AIME, September, pp199-210. [2] Bakr, M.A., Rahman, Q.M.A., Islam, M.M., Islam, M.K., Uddin, M.N., Resan, S.A., Haider, M.J., Sultan-UlIslam, M., Ali, M.W., Chowdhury,M.A., Mannan, K.H. and Anam, A.N.M.H., (1996) Geology and coal deposit of Barapukuria basin, Dinajpur Districts, Bangladesh. Records of Geological Survey of Bangladesh, vol.8 part 1p36. [3] CMC, February, (1994) Preliminary Geology and Exploration Report of Barapukuria Coal Mine, Bangladesh. [4] Guha, D.K., (1978) Tectonic Framework and oil and gas prospect Appendix: Table: 1 Calculation sequence for the determination of subsidence profile.
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of Bangladesh. Proc., of 4th Annual Conference, Bangladesh Geological Society, Dhaka. p65-78. [5] Khan, A.A and Rahman T. 1992. An analysis of gravity and tectonic evaluation of north-western part of Bangladesh. Tectophysics, vol.-206, p351-364. [6] National Coal Board (1975) Subsidence Engineers Handbook, Production Department, London, U.K., 49 pp. [7] Peng, S. (1986) Coal Mine Ground Control, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 491 pp. [8] Peng, S. and Chiang, H. (1984) Longwall Mining, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NewYork, NY, 708 pp. [9] SME Mining Engineering Handbook (1992) Hartman, Howard L. Society of Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc. Port City Press, Baltimore. [10] Whittaker (1990) Unpublished report of Wardell Armstrong, An Alternatie method of thick seam mining of the Barapukuria Coal Basin, Dinajpur, Bangladesh. [11] Wardell Armstrong (1993) Techno- Economic Feasibility Study, Barapukuria Coal project, Dinajpur District, Bangladesh, Vol. 1 & 2, Chapter 1 & 2.
Table: 2 Calculation sequence of predicting strain profile.
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Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India
A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU*, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India *E -mail: thirugeo_au@yahoo.co.in Abstract: Banded Iron formation (BIF) of Tirthamalai region is situated about 12 km northeast of Harur in Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu state, India. The rocks of the area are mainly consist of banded magnetite quartzite associated charnockite and gneiss. There are four bands of iron formation (Banded Magnetite Quartzite; BMQ) occurred as in the hilly terrain. It is essentially composed of quartz and magnetite with ferrous aluminosilicates. Totally, 36 representative banded magnetite quartzite samples were collected from the study region, in which 20 samples were analyzed for major, trace and REE. The results of analyses show that the banded magnetite quartzites are mostly composed of SiO2 (average. =47.71 wt %) and Fe2O3 (51 wt %). The Al2O3 and TiO2 contents are remarkably low, suggesting that detrital components were starved during the deposition when ironformations occurred. Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 ternary diagram suggests that iron-formations in study area are of Pre-Cambriannature. Plot of Chondrite-normalized (Ce/Sm)CN vs. (La/Sm)CN for banded magnetite quartzites show that these are clastic metasediments. The plot of trace elements of Co+Cu+Ni vs. REE content shows that the rocks of study region differ from the hydrothermal field. Elemental ratio plots for Eu/Sm, Sm/Yb, and Y/Ho show that 0.1% hydrothermal fluid and hydrogenic Fe-Mn crust field. The results of this investigation, compared with other investigations of iron-formations of world led to the following conclusions: The REE content and distribution patterns in the study area of ironformation have been significantly changed during diagenesis and metamorphism. The positive europium anomaly of the iron formations can be used as an indicator for knowing the presence or absence of oxygen in the atmosphere during the Precambrian times. The ultimate source of material for the iron formations might have been derived from the oldest continental crust. The banded magnetite quartzites of study region can be interpreted to have been older than 3.2 Ga on the basis of evolution diagram of Eu/Eu* values normalized to the average Eu/Eu* of oxide-facies. Keywords: REE geochemistry; Tirthamalai region; magnetite quartzite; banded iron formation (BIF); India. Introduction: Banded iron formations (BIFs) are deposited during the Pre-Cambrian, with the majority of these rocks formed in between ~3.8 and 1 billion years (Ga). These formations occur in Tirthamalai, Godumalai, Tattayangarpettai, Vellalakundam and Kanjamalai regions of Tamil Nadu state, India. (King and Foote, 1864; Holland, 1893; Dubey and Karunakaran, 1943; Krishanan and Aiyangar, 1944; Saravanan, 1969; and Ramanathan, 1972); Saravanan, 1969; and Anjaneya Sastry et al. 1970) considered these iron ores have resulted from metamorphism of the originally existing ferruginous sediments enriched in silica. This study presents the rare earth element geochemistry of iron formation of Tirthamalai region. The distribution of RareEarth Elements (REEs) in Pre-Cambrian ironformations (IFs) provides valuable insight into the composition of contemporaneous seawater and evolution of the atmosphere,hydrosphere-lithosphere system. The general consensus is that the rocks are of sedimentary origin, which have been
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Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India rocks. The first band is 3.21 Km long, with a maximum width of 121.92 m occurs near the Tirthamalai Temple which is situated in N-S direction. A little east to this band, the second band is seen in the peak 979 m, extending for about 15.24 m thickness. The third band appears to be an offshoot of the second one and shows a maximum thickness of 30.48 m. A kilometer south of Andiyur there is a fourth short band on Tirthamalai hill. This area has been investigated by the Geological Survey of India in detail between 1961to 1963. The iron ore of the hill is estimated with the reserves more than 60 million tons with average iron content of 38 to 40 %. Materials and Methods:
subjected to a fairly degree of metamorphism (Gole and Klein 1981; Morris 1985). The effects of post-depositional process (diagenesis, metamorphism, surface weathering) have been studied based on primary REE and Y in BIF by Bau (1993) and Bau and Dulski (1996). Also, several researchers have attempted to derive the evolution of the BIF deposits in equilibrium with normal seawater (Fryer, 1977; Fryer, et al. 1979). There are few publications that deal with REE geochemistry of BIFs distributed within the granulite terrain of India. Enormous amount of banded ironformations (BIFs) occurring mainly at the Archaean and Proterozoic times that have received worldwide attention from tectonic, climatic, and environmental conditions during the early history of the earth. Although various models have been proposed for the genesis of BIFs, the source of FeO and SiO2 are highly debated (Cloud, 1973; Goodwin, 1973; Trendall and Morris, 1983; Holland, 1984; La Berge, 1986; Klein and Beukes, 1989; Derry and Jacobsen, 1990; Gross, 1991; Khan et al. 1992; Morris, 1993 and Khan and Naqvi, 1996). As there is very limited work on the REE chemistry of banded iron-formation of granulite region of southern Peninsnsular India, the present study is undertaken with measurements of major, trace and REEs in banded iron-formation of Tirthamalai.
About 60 magnetite quartzite samples were collected from the study region, among which, 20 samples were collected from the first band, 15 samples were collected from 2nd band, 10 samples were collected from 3rd band and 15 samples were collected from the fourth band. Twenty samples were selected for major, trace and REE chemical analysis. All samples were ground to a powder in a tungsten carbide vessel. Chemical analyses were carried out at Activation Laboratories (ACT-LABS), Canada. The measurements were calibrated against international reference materials namely TM1, 18; SY-3; FK-N; NIST 694, 696 and 1633b; DNC 1; BIR 1 and GBW 07113 which were analyzed routinely with each sample run. Precision was better than 10% in all cases. The Study Area and Geological Setting: accuracy for major element determination is estimated between 1 and 5% except for TiO2 The study area is shown in Fig. 1 which is (20%); and for minor elements, between 5 abundant with banded iron ores. The and 20%, except for determinations close to Tirthamalai and associated hills are detection limit, where the accuracy found to be geographically the northern extension of the more variable; and for REE, better than 10%. Chitteri hills. The general trend of the hill and the direction of strike of the rocks are in N-S Results and discussion: but, near the Ponnaiyar River the strike is more The concentrations of major elements are given nearly to NE direction. The average rainfall of in Table 1. the study area is about 896 mm. The area in and around of Tirthamalai forms a Major elements: part of the Archaean Peninsular complex that The Fe2O3 and SiO2 contents of these has undergone high grade regional samples are considerably high (50-60 wt metamorphism with folding, faulting and %). All other major oxides like TiO2, CaO, shearing structures. The major rock types of MgO, MnO, Na2O, and K2O are less than 0.1 area are banded magnetite quartzite, wt % in the samples reflecting the charnockites and epidote hornblende gneisses dominance of magnetite and quartzite. The (Figure 1). There are four bands of magnetitelow values of Al2O3 and high TiO2 indicate quartzite on this hill separated by charnockite International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA that contribution of high amount of clastic contaminent (Evers and Morris 1981). To distinguish the iron formations of post PreCambrian BIF from Pre-Cambrian BIF, the ternary plot of Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 (Govett 1966) has been plotted. The samples of study area fall within the Pre-Cambrian field (Fig. 2) and thus, the iron formation of the study area belongs to Pre-Cambrian age. The average major element concentrations of the Tirthamalai region are compared with other BIFs of Kanjamalai, Godumalai, Superior Lake and Quartz Magnetite of Isua iron formation (Rajendran 1995; Rajendran et al. 2007; Dymek and Klein, 1981; Gross and Macleod, 1980) and given in Table 2 and Fig. 3. It can be observed that the iron formations of study area are similar to other banded iron formations of the world. Trace Elements: Average concentration of Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn are compared with the normalized average crustal abundance of the earth (Shaw, 1980; Table 4) concentration of trace elements in Tirthamalai iron formations are less than that of the average crust and tend to increase in relative depletion with decreasing atomic number viz. Sc and V exhibit relative depletion; Cr and Co are within 10 % average crust; and Zn, Cu and Ni are enriched similar to crust. When the average concentrations of transition metals in the Tirthamalai banded magnetite quartzite samples are compared to average Isua iron-formations (Fig. 4; Table 4), the BIFs of Tirthamalai area are similar to those of Isua. Chromium, Ni and Zn are strongly enriched but Sc, V, Co and Cu are strongly depleted. In order to know the source for silica in the early Archaean BIF and banded magnetite quartzs of Tirthamalai area, the data are compared with other iron formations using (Ge/Si) ratio of the 2.3 Ga old Hamersley BIF of W. Australia (Hamade et al. 2003). The relationship between Ge/Si ratios and silica content of the banded magnetite quartz are given Table. 3 and shown in Fig. 5. The results show that the decrease of Ge/Si (molar ratio) is similar to the product of clastic aluminous metasediments. Thus, the formations of the
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study area are similar to meta-sedimentary type (Saravanan, 1969) and Anjaneya Sastry et.al, 1970). Rare Earth Elements: The REEs are characterized by low to medium REEs, ranging from 4.16 to 13.21 ppm. The abundances of these elements are similar to that of Isua magnetite iron formation (Dymek and Klein 1988). Chondrite- normalized rare-earth element patterns for the Tirthamalai banded magnetite quartzite (Fig. 6) show relative depletion light REE, flat trend of HREE, positive Eu anomalies and negative Ce anomalies. When the sums of REEs are plotted against Co+Cu+Ni (Fig. 7), the samples of study area fall closer to the field of hydrothermal deposits (Bonnot-Courtois (1981). When the normalized average REE values of Tirthamalai iron-formation samples are compared with Godumalai, Kanjamalai and Isua iron formations [Table 6 and Fig. 8], the Isua and Tirthamalai iron formations are roughly similar but differ Kanjamalai, Godumalai iron formations. However, all the patterns are in similar trend of the banded iron formations of the Pre-Cambrians. Rare earth elements and Y abundances (Table 5 and Table 2) of the Tirthamalai ironformation are generally similar with other iron formations particularly and that of Isua formation (Bolhar et al., 2004). Cerium anomaly data suggest that (Fig. 9) quartz magnetite iron formations of Isua, clasticmetasediments, amphibolites and Tirthamalai are depleted in Ce suggesting meta-sedimentary origin (Fryer 1983, Dymek and Klein 1988). Plot of chondrite normalized Sm/Yb and Eu/Eu* to the banded magnetite of Tirthamalai shows that the similar characters that observed elsewhere Kuruman and Penge IFs (Bau and Dulski, 1996; Fig. 10). The exhibited Eu anomalies >1 and enriched LREEs (Bau and Moller, 1993) suggest the characteristics of the continental crust. The two component mixing calculations [Bau and Dulski, 1999; Alibo and Nozaki, 1999; Fig. 11 a, b, c] of the banded magnetite quartzites provide further constraints on their origin. The plots Y/Ho vs. Eu/Sm and Eu/Sm vs Sm/Yb ratios show that all the
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Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India suggests clastic chemical similarity of other Pre-Cambrian iron formation of the world. Molar ratios of Ge/Si, show characteristics of metasediments but poor in hydrothermal characteristics. The chondrite normalized REE patterns of the banded iron formation, well defined positive Eu anomaly and depleted LREE with respect to MREE and flat HREE are salient features of the study area. Two and three components mixing ratio models indicate that all the rocks appear to have very poor in hydrothermal and seawater sources. On the other hand, characteristic of Fe-Mn crust. The enrichment of Ce indicates that supergene oxidation process was high during Archaean period. The positive Eu/Eu* anomalies of magnetite quartzite of study area normalized to the average Eu/Eu* of oxide-facies of BIFs of Hamersley falls within the >3.5 Ga that confirms PreCambrian age. Finally, it is concluded that the banded magnetite quartzite derived form weathering of continental land mass that interpreted for Isua and Kuruman Penge iron formation. Acknowledgement: The authors are thankful to Actlab, Canada for providing results of chemical analyses of samples by ICP-MS. The financial support and facilities provided by University Grants Commission (UGC-RGNF F16-6/6/SA II), and Department of Science and Technology, Projects GEMIORD (SR/FTP/ES-01/2000) and SPECSIGNS (NRDMS/11/1153/06), New Delhi, for that we are grateful. References: [1] Anjaneya Sastry, C, and Krishna Rao, J. S. R (1970) Ore microscopic, X ray and trace elemental studies of a few iron ores from South India: Journal, Geological Society of India, vol 11- pp. 242-247. [2] Aiyengar, A (1941) Preliminary, report on the Iron ores of the Salem District, Madras, G.O. Report No. 1781, Govt. of Madras. [3] Alibert, C, and McCulloch, M. T (1993) Rare earth element and neodymium isotopic compositions of banded ironformations and associated shales from
samples of the study area are away from the field of hydrothermal fluids (>3500C, Bau and Dulski, 1999) and seawater (<500 m Alibo and Nazaki, 1999) but close to hydrogenetic Fe - Mn crusts (Bau et al. 1996). Plot of Sm/Yb vs. Y/Ho shows that the samples of the study area falls away to the ratios mixing of hydrothermal fluids. All of these interpretations suggest that BIF of Tirthamalai is similar to those of Kuruman and Isua iron formations. The component mixing model [Ce/Ce*CN] vs.[Pr/Pr*CN], Bolhar et al. 2005; (Fig. 12) also indicate that Tirthamalai formations are similar to Kuruman and Penge iron formation suggesting that these are differ from those of hydrothermal fluids and seawater. The plot of Tirthamalai banded magnetite quartzites on a discrimination diagram, with respect to Ce anomalies, we note that CeCN of all samples do not display positive anomalies. Crustal contamination could have a considerable effect on the primary composition of hydrogenous sediments. The diagram of Eu/Eu*CN vs. Pr/Sm CN (Fig. 13) to demarcate the crustal contamination in the samples in the study area. From the Fig. 14, it can be observed that the crustal contamination can be ruled out for Panorama jasper iron-formation because Archaean shales and volcanic tuffs are generally devoid of significant positive Eu anomalies (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) in contrast to the samples of Tirthamalai iron formations and show systematic trend of crustal contamination. An evolution diagram (Sreeniva and Murakami, 2005) for Tirthamalai iron-formation (Fig.15), the Tirthamalai banded magnetite quartzites show positive normalized Eu anomalies and fall within the 3.5 Ga age group. Conclusions: The study area forms a part of the great Archaean Peninsular complex having intensive high grade regional metamorphism. Geochemically, the major oxides of iron formations of Tirthamalai region signify chemical precipitates and low concentrations of ferromagnesian trace elements characteristic of metasediments. Plot of data on Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 diagram
A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA Hamersley, western Australia, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol 57-pp. 187-204. [4] Bau, M and Dulski, P (1992) Small scale variations of the rare earth element distribution in Precambrian iron formations. Eur. J. Mineral. Vol 4-pp. 1429-1433. [5] Bau, M, and Dulski, P (1996) distribution of yttrium and rare-earth elements in Penge and Kuruman ironformations, Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa. Precambrian Research, vol 79-pp. 37-55. [6] Bau, M, and Dulshi, P (1999) Comparing yttrium and rare earth in hydrothermal fluids from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge; implications for Y and REE behavior during near-vent mixing and for the Y/Ho ratio of Proterozoic seawater, Chemical Geology, vol 155-pp. 77-90. [7] Bau, M, and Moller, P (1993) Rare earth element systematics of the chemically precipitated component in Early Precambrian iron formations and the the evolution of the terrestria atmospherehydrosphere-lithosphere system. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol 57-pp. 2239-2249. [8] Bolhar, R, Kamber B. S, Moorbath, S, Whitehous, M. J, Collerson, K.D (2005) Chemical characterization of Earths most ancient clastic meta-sediments from the Isua Greenstone Belt, southern WGreenland. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol 69-pp. 1555-1573. [9] Brain, W, Alexander, Michael Bau, et. al (2008) Continentally-derived solutes in Shallow Archean seawater; Rare earth element and Nd isotope evidence in iron formation from the 2.9 Ga Pongola Supergroup, South Africa, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol 72-pp. 378-394. [10] Chandrasekaran, V, and Gopalakrishnan (1991-1992) Regional surveys for gold in banded iron formations of Tamil Nadu, Record, Geological Survey of India, vol 126, PT.5. [11] Derry, L. A, and Jacobsen, S. B. (1990) The chemical evolution of Precambrian seawater: evidence from rare earth elements in banded iron formations.
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Geochimica et. Cosmochimica Acta, vol 54-pp. 2965-2977. [12] Dymek, R. F, Klein, C (1988) Chemistry, Petrology and origin of banded iron formation lithologies from the 3800 Ma Isua supracrustal belt, West Greenland, Precambrian Research, vol 39-pp. 247-302. [13] Ewers, W.E and Morris, R.C. (1981) studies o the Dales Gorge Member of the Brockman Iron-Formation, Economic Geology, vol 77-pp.1929-1953. [14] Frei, R. and Polat, A (2007) Source heterogeneity for the major components of ~ 3.7 Ga Banded Iron Formations (Isua Greenstone Belt, Western Greenland): Tracing the nature of interacting water masses in BIF formation, Earth and Planetary Science, vol 253-pp.266-281. [15] Fryer, B (1977) Rare-earth evidence in iron-formations for changing Precambrian oxidation states. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol 41-pp. 361-367. [16] Govett, G. J. S (1966) Origin of banded iron formation: Geological Society of America Bullutin, vol. 77- pp. 1191-1212. [17] Geological Survey of India (1961-63) detailed mapping of iron ores of Tirthamalai region (reference No.6) [18] Hamade, T, Konhauser, K. O, Raiswell, R, Goldsmith, S, Morris, R. C. (2003) using Ge/Si ratios to decouple iron and silica fluxes in Precambrian banded iron formations, geology, vol 31-pp 35-38. [19] King and Foote (1864) on the geological structure of parts of Salem, Trichinopoly, Tanjore and South Arcot in the Madras Presidency Memorial, Geological Survey of India, vol 6-pp. 223-386. [20] Klein, C and Gole, J.J. (1981) Mineralogy and petrology of parts of the Marra Mamba Iron Formation, Hamersley Basin, Western Australia, American Mineralogy, vol 66-pp. 507-525. [21] Khan, R. M. K, Das Sharma, S, Patil, D. J and Naqvi, S (1996) Trace rare earth element, and oxygen isotopic systamatics for the genesis of banded ironformations: Evidence from Kushtagi schist belt, Archaean Dharwar Craton,
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Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India [27] Robert Frei Peter, S. Dahl Edward, F. Duke et al (2008) Trace element and isotopic characterization of Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic iron formations in the Black hills (South Dakota, USA): Assessment of chemical change during 2.9-1.9 Ga deposition bracketing the 2.42.2 Ga first rise of atmosphere oxygen, Precambrian Research, vol 162-pp. 441474. [28] Saravanan, S (1969) Origin of iron ores of Kanjamalai, Salem District, Madras State, Indian Mineralogist, vol 10-pp. 236-244. [29] Shaw, D.M (1980) Development of the early continental crust, Part III. Depletion of incompatible elements in the mantle. Precambrian Research, vol 10-pp. 281300. [30] Sreenivas, B, Murakami, T (2005) Emerging views on the evolution of atmospheric oxygen during the Precambrian. J. Mineral. Petrol. Sci. vol 100-pp. 184-201. [31] Trendall, A. F and Blockley, J. G. (1970) The iron formations of the Precambrian Hamersley Group, Western Australia, with special reference to the associated Crocidolite. Geological survey Bulletin, vol 119-pp. 366
India. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol 60-pp. 3285-3294. [22] Krishna Rao, J. S. R and Kasipathi, C (1991) Depositional environment of ironore formation from Salem District, Tamil Nadu. Symposium on Metallogeney of the Precambrian IGCP project -91: 93-102 [23] Krishnan, M. S and Aiyengar, N. K.N. (1944) The iron ore deposit of parts of Salem and Trichnopoly District: Geological Suvev of India Bullutin Series A: 1-64 [24] Majumder, T, Chakraborty, K. L and Bhattacharjee, A (1982) Geochemistry of banded iron formation of Orissa, India; Mineral. Deposit, vol 17-pp. 107-118. [25] Majumder, T, Whitley, J. E and Chakraborty, K. L. (1984) Rare earth elements in the Indian banded iron formation; Chemical Geology, vol 45-pp, 203-211. [26] Robert Bolhar Martin J Van Kranendonk, Balz S. Kambar (2005) A trace element study of siderite-jasper banded iron formation in the 3.45 Ga Warrawoona Group, Pilbara CratonFormation from hydrothermal fluids and shallow seawater, Precambrian Research, vol 137-pp. 93-114.
Fig.1 Geology and location map of the study area
A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
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Table.1 Major element data for banded magnetite quartzite samples of Tirthamalai region (all values in wt %)
Table.2 Comparison of major elements of banded magnetite quartzite of study area with other parts of the world.
Fig.2 Plot of the Tirthamalai iron-formation in the Precambrian field of SiO2 - Al2O3 Fe2O3 (after Govett, 1966) Average Tirthamalai iron formation (oxide facies), N=20 (this study). Average Godumalai iron-formation (Rajendran et al, (2007) Average Kanjamalai iron-formation (Rajendran, 1995) Average Lake superior silicate facies ironformation from North America (Gross and Macleod, 1980) Average Quartz-Magnetite IF (10 analyses) Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988)
Fig.3 Average major elements of Tirthamalai iro formations are compared with Godumalai and Kanjamalai (Rajendran et al 1995) and Isua iron-formations (Gole and Klein 1981).
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Table.3 Trace element data of iron ores of Tirthamalai region (all values in ppm)
Table.4 Concentrations of trace elements compared to other Sc V Cr Co Ni Cu Zn 1 1.05 7.4 20 2.2 21.5 13 30 2 0.33 4.5 7 4.1 28.5 7.6 41.4 3 0.15 0.13 0.54 0.16 1.08 0.76 0.55 4 0.05 0.08 0.19 0.29 1.43 0.45 0.75
Average ferromagnesian trace element Tirthamalai region Average ferromagnesian trace element Isua (Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988) Average ferromagnesian Tirthamalai region/Shaw (1980) Average ferromagnesian trace element Isua/Shaw (1980)
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Table.5 Rare earth elements of banded magnetite iron-formation of Tirthamalai region
Data normalizing using the Nakamura and Taylor and Mclennan (1984) Eu/Eu*= (Eu/0.67Sm+0.33Tb)CN; Ce/Ce*= (Ce/0.5La+0.5Pr)CN; Pr=(Pr/0.5Ce+0.5Nd)CN; G/Gd*=(Gd/2Tb-Dy)CN Table.6 Average REE data of banded magnetite quartzite samples of Tirthamalai, Godumalai, Kanjamalai and Isua regions and seawater,
1. Average REE of Tirthamalai region; 2. Average REE of Godumalai 3. Average REE of Kanjamalai; 4. Average Isua; 5. North Atlantic Sea water, 600 m depth (converted from values given as mol kg1; elderfield and Greaves, 1982); 6. Hydrothermal fluid, EPR at 210 N; average of 5 analyses (Michard et al., 1983); b Not analysed
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Fig.5 Silica (wt%) vs. Ge/Si ratio. All the samples are falls in decrease of molar ratio characteristics of clastic metasediments (after Hamade et.al, 2003)
Fig. 7 The chondrite abundances are those of Tirthamalai banded magnetite ironformation. Data used for these plots are from Table 1.
Fig.6 Co+Cu+Ni abundances vs. total REE content (La+Ce+Nd+Sm+ Eu++Tb+Yb+Lu) for analyses listed in Table.2. The field labled hydrothermal deposits represents data from the FAMOUS and Galapagos areas, which are mostly green muds/nontronite, whereas the field labeled metalliferous deep-sea sediment represents mostly DSDP samples from eastern Pacific sites (see Bonnot-Courtois (1981) for an extended discussion of these data). The samples of Tirthamalai region are poor in trace and total REE concentration and not having the characteristics of hydrothermal or Metalliferous deep-sea sediments. Isua quartz magnetite ironformation represented by Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988)
Fig.8 Comparison of chondrite normalized REEs with Kanjamalai, Godumalai (Rajendran et. al 1995, 2007) and Isua Dymek and Klein 1988) iron formations
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for 62 pelites from the Pongola Supergroup sampled by Wronkiewicz (1989), and crossed square represents Post-Archean. Average shale (PAAS, McLennan, 1989). The Tirthamalai iron-formation exhibit Eu/Eu* between that of the Isua and Kuruman Ifs, yet display Sm/Yb values similar to continental crust and lower than Mozaan iron-formation. All iron formation samples have significantly lower Sm/Yb and Eu/Eu* than high-T hydrothermal fluids.
Fig.. 9 Plot of chondrite-normalized (Ce/Sm) vs. (La/Sm) in samples from the Tirthamalai iron formation. The clastic metasediments and amphibolites plot along the SLA indicating no anomalous behavior for Ce, whereas all the BIFs plot below this line indicating that they possess negative Ce anomalies (see text for discussion. (after Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988)
Fig. 11a Elemental ratio plots for data sets presented in with two-component conservative mixing line for Eu/Sm, Sm/Yb, and Y/Ho. 11a, Y/Ho versus Eu/Sm, showing a 0.1 % high-T hydrothermal (>3500C, Bau and Dulski 1999) fluid contribution to waters with shallow (<500 m) seawater. REY distributions (Alibo and Nozaki, 1999) is sufficient to explain Eu/Sm ratios in the Tirthamalai iron formation.
Fig. 10 Plot of Chondrite-normalized Sm/Yb and Eu/Eu* for Tirthamalai IF, and including data for 3.7 Ga Isua Ifs (Bolhar et al., 2004), 2.5 Ga Kuruman and Penge Ifs (Bau and Dulski, 1996), shallow (<500 m) Pacific seawater (Alibo and Nozaki, 1999), and high-T hydrothermal fluids (>3500C, Bau and Dulski, 1999). Note break in horizontal axis. Isua samplesw are those considered by Bolhar et al, 2004) to reflect contemporaneous seawater. The yellow shaded area represents the range of values
Fig. 11b Y/Ho versus Sm/Yb, indicating that a significant higher contribution of hydrothermal fluid in the Tirthamalai ironformation,
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Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India Campbellrand stromatolites (Kamber and Webb, 2001), early Archaen Strelley Pool Chert stromatolites and early Archaean BIFs from Greenland (Bolhar et al., 2004), LateArchaean BIFs from Transvall Group (Bau and Dulski, 1996)
Fig. 11c Sm/Yb as a function of Eu/Sm demonstrating that relatively smal (0.1%) contributions of block smoker fluid can model Sm/Yb and Eu/Sm behavior in the Kuruman and Isua Ifs, but do not adequately account for the relative distribution of these elements in the Tirthamalai iron-formation. (after Bau and Dulski, 1999)
Fig. 12 Plot of Ce/Ce*CN ([Ce/(0.5La+0.5Pr]CN) Vs. Pr/Pr*CN ([Pr/0.5Ce+0.5Nd]CN) used to differentiate between La and Ce anomalies in seawaterderived sediments. In Tirthamalai banded magnetite iron-formation samples lacking Ce anomalies and positive La anomalies. Jasper-siderite samples are distinct from Holocene microbialites (Webb and Kamber, 2000), Devonian reefal carbonates (Nothdurft et.al, 2004), late Archaean
Figure 13 The Eu/Eu*CN versus Pr/Sm CN ratio plot for Tirthamalai banded magnetite quartz. All the samples fall within the crustal contamination. Strong but discrete correlation exist for jasper and siderite samples defining distinct trends. The locus of intersection is inferred to be an approximation to Archaean seawater (i.e. moderate positive Eu anomaly, depleted LREE relative to MREE). The steep positive array for jasper samples suggests mixing between shallow seawater and a hydrothermal fluid component with strongly enriched Eu (i.e. high-T), while elevated LREE/MREE with slightly decreasing Eu/Eu* suggests contamination with terrigenenus material. Composition of possible ambient shallow seawater is approximated by composition of strelley Pool chert stromatolites. Compositions for modern seawater and hydrothermal fluids. Data sources Alibo and Nozaki, 1998; Bau and Dulski, 1999; German and elderfield, 1989; Bolhar et.al., 2004; Kamber and webb, 2001; Webb and Kamber, 2000). (after Robert Bolhar et.al, 2005) (Low grade( Magnetite))
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Fig.14. Ce/Ce* vs. Pr/Pr* discrimination diagram banded magnetite iron formation samples of Tirthamalai region superimposed with data from the other world iron formation. The data from the Kuruman and Penge iron-formations (Transvaal, South Africa; Bau and Dulski, 1996). All the banded magnetite iron-formation do not display CeCN anomalies (they predominantly plot in field IIA), Precambrian iron-formation show negative Ce anomaly compare to Early and Middle Paleoroterozoic . This feature is interpreted to be result of overall trend decreasing event at 3.5 Ga. (discrimination diagram established by Bau and Dulski (1996).
Fig.15. Chondrite normalized Eu/Eu* anomalies (normalized to oxide-facies Hamersley BIFs, Western Australia (Alibert and McCulloch, 1993). The average normalized Eu anomalies value of banded magnetite quartzite samples of Tirthamalai region plotted with evolution diagram (data in Table 5). All the samples fall within the <3.5 field. These are indicated lacking of oxidation process in the Archaean time. (after Sreenivas and Murakami, 2005).
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Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in ChaibasaNoamundi Basin A Review

SMITA S. SWAIN Department of Geology and Geophysics, IIT Kharagpur, West Bengal-721302 Email: smitaswarupaswain@gmail.com
Abstract: The pear-shaped epicontinental Kolhan basin lie unconformably over the Singhbhum granite in the east and has a faulted contact with the Iron Ore Group in the west. Structurally it represents a dome and basin. The basin has four lithostratigraphic units - Kolhan conglomerate, Kolhan sandstone, Kolhan limestone and Kolhan shale. The sandstones are composed of sub-litharenite to quartz arenite. Two broad lithofacies have been found in sandstones - hummocky cross stratified sandstone facies and planar cross stratified sandstone facies. The sediments were deposited in embayed shallow marine environment / tidal flat environment. Key words: Basin, Kolhan, Singhbhum, Structure. Introduction: The Singhbhum craton in eastern India is mainly composed of Archean granitoids forming the nucleus rimmed by a Proterozoic mobile belt to the north and east (Saha, 1994). Towards the western part of the Singhbhum granite the Kolhan Group of sediments are preserved as a linear belt covering an area of 800 sq.km, first recognized by Dunn (1940). The Kolhan Group of rocks represents one of the least studied basins in the Singhbhum-Orissa Iron Ore craton. The Kolhan Group is preserved as linear belt extending for 80100 km with an average width of 10-12 km revealing deposition of Kolhan sediments in narrow and elongated troughs. The Kolhan Group is similar in many respects with Manganese-bearing Wyllies Poort Formation of 1.8-1.96Ga of Soutpansberg Group, Northeast Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa suggesting a possible Indo-African connection during the Neo-Archean age (Bandopadhyay and Sengupta, 2004). The Kolhan Group lying unconformably above the Singhbhum granite is bounded by the Jagannathpur lavas on the southeast and south and the Iron Ore Group on the west. The western contact of the basin is faulted against the Iron Ore Group. Saha (1994) has divided the Kolhan Group of sediments into four detached sub-basins Chaibasa-Noamundi basin, ChamakpurKeonjhargarh basin, Mankarchua basin and Sarapalli-Kamakhyanagar basin. The geological and tectonic setting of the Kolhan Groups in Singhbhum Iron ore craton is shown in Fig. 1 (Saha, 1994). Chaibasa-Noamundi basin: The main basin extends in NNW-SSE direction for about 60km from Noamundi (850 28 220 09) in the south to Chaibasa (850 48 220 33) in the north with a maximum width of about 12km (Mahadevan, 2002). The metasedimentary rocks comprising of basal conglomerate, sandstone, limestone and phyllitic shale lie unconformably over the Singhbhum granite in the east and partly over, folded and thrust-faulted, Iron-Ore Group to the west. The geological map of the ChaibasaNoamundi basin is well documented by Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969 (Fig. 2). Geology of the area: The Chaibasa-Noamundi sub basin represents a shallow pear-shaped epicontinental basin (Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969) with a low westerly 510 dip. The sediments have undergone gentle tectonic deformation and very low grade metamorphism. Some works have been done on various aspects of sedimentology, lithology, structure, stratigraphy and depositional settings by Ray and Bose (1959, 1964), Saha (1948a,
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Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin A Review
1948b), Chatterjee and Bhattacharya (1969), Mukhopadhyay et al., (2006), Bandopadhyay and Sengupta (2004), Chakraborty et al.(2005), Bhattacharya and Chatterjee (1964). The main basin comprises of a sequence of basal conglomerate, sandstone, limestone and shale. The shale succession in its basal part often laterally grade to calcareous shale and encloses lenticular bodies of limestone, interbedded limestone-shale sequence and thin interval of manganese oxide interbedded with shale. Recently the whole rock Rb/Sr dating gives a maximum 1531 My for the Kolhan shale. But according to Saha (1994) this age may be the approximate age of metamorphism. The actual date of deposition may be ~ 2000 Ma. Stratigraphy and Structure of the basin: The type area of Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin represents a sequence of basal conglomerate, sandstone, impersistent limestone and phyllitic shale with general westerly dip. The maximum thickness of this formation is about 100m. The thin sandstone overlain by thick shale represents an asymmetry in vertical basin-fill architecture. The basin is characterized by a dome and basin structure, locally passing into a dome-indome structure on small to intermediate scale (Ray and Bose, 1964). The Kolhan stratigraphy is best visualized in the section along the river Gumua Gara near village Rajanka (22 26, 85 44) (Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969).
supported by the longitudinal and transverse sections as recorded by Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969 (Fig.3). As suggested by many workers, tectonically Kolhan Basin represents an epicontinental basin whose NNE-SSW alignment is controlled by the trend of the older Iron Ore Group synclinorium which also run in the same direction in South Singhbhum and parallel to the Eastern Ghat strike. The very low dip of the Kolhan near the granite contact and with a progressive increase to the west away from the granite is characteristic (Fig.2). The incompetent shale has developed cleavages as a result of the deformation and is more disturbed towards the west (Bhattacharya and Chatterjee, 1964). As stated by Ray and Bose (1959, 1964), the basin was involved in a triaxial deformation, due to oblique stress acting on a small thickness of strata against a rigid basement. The eastern part of this basin is characterized by shallow belt of sandstoneconglomerate-limestone and has a rolling dome and basin structure of 1-100m across in diameter. The structures are diastrophic in origin and pass into areas of enechelon brachy anticline and brachy syncline (Ray and Bose, 1964). To the west of the belt, the shales have a homoclinal dip that progressively steepens further westwards and abut against a thrust fault (Iron Ore Group boundary). Lithofacies and Environment: The lithofacies association represents a varied lithological provenance, which includes a rudaceous, calcareous and argillaceous facies within a few tens of meters of thickness. Regional distribution patterns of lithofacies indicate the transgressive nature of the deposits. Detailed studies of facies characteristics and lithotypes have been carried out in the ChaibasaNoamundi basin (Saha, 1994; Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969; Singh, 1998; Mahadevan, 2002; Bandopadhyay and Sengupta, 2004) which established four lihounits: Kolhan shale Kolhan limestone Kolhan sandstone Kolhan conglomerate
There is a general variation of thickness of Kolhan basin, attributed to the basement structure, but a gradual increase in stratigraphic thickness of the deposit towards west and north indicate a deepening of the basin towards west. This is
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Kolhan conglomerate: It occupies the basal portion of the lithologic section. The conglomerate is thin impersistent, and becomes more oligomictic to the south with chert and jasper pebbles. In the northern part of the basin the conglomerate is polymict with quartz and granite pebbles. According to Chatterjee and Bhattacharya (1969), these conglomerates are mostly submature to immature, devoid of structures, with a sandy matrix more or less very similar to the overlying sandstone. Ferric oxides and argillaceous matter is often preserved in this sequence. The individual pebbles are mostly elliptical, disorganized, and vary considerably in size, the maximum being 6.5 cm. along the long axis. The conglomerates occur as (a) crudely stratified with tabular bed geometry (b) massive sheets with wavy upper bounding surfaces. The first category is poorly sorted, matrix supported, non-graded in nature and are interbedded with cross stratified coarse / pebbly arkose. The interbedded crudely stratified poorly sorted conglomerate are likely to be products of sheet floods along steep slopes and were deposited under fluvial environment. The massive conglomerate is poorly sorted and exhibit matrix supported character and are products of debris flow. The conglomerates with gently undulating wavy mega-ripple geometry imply that they were deposited in wave dominated foreshore shore face depositional settings. The debris flow conglomerates and intebedded cross stratified arkosic deposits are typical of a gravelly alluvial fan-braided plain at tectonically active semiarid basin margins (Nemec and Steel, 1984; Collinson, 1996). Kolhan sandstone: The conglomerate grades upward to medium-fine grained arenite sub-lithic arenite sandstone, 15-20m in thickness. In this litho-facies plane-bedded sandstones are interbedded with minor thin beds and lenses of conglomerates, pebbly sandstones and thin and impersistent layers of shale. The sandstones are typically red and purple in color, rich in ferric oxide and mostly consist of quartz arenite and sub-lithic
arenite. Sedimentary structures in the Kolhan sandstone enable distinction of plane bedded and cross-bedded, both planar and trough types (Bandopadhyay and Sengupta, 2004). Framework quartz amounting 77% on average and the matrix less than 15% characterizes the petrography of the quartz arenite sandstone. Feldspars amounting to 10% of the framework detritus are mostly orthoclase, a few are microcline and albite is virtually absent. Lithic clasts except shale and rounded chert grains are absent. The framework grains are poor to moderately well sorted, angular, subrounded and occasionally well rounded and have syntectic quartz overgrowths occupying the framework interstices. These sandstones can be divided into two facies - hummocky sandstone bodies (hummocky cross stratification - HCS) and planar to cross stratified sandstones (Fig. 4) (wavy planar beds of Mukhopadhyay et al., 2006). The field photographs of different sedimentary structures like wavy sandstone facies, planar stratified sandstone facies which includes sheet sandstone and rhythmic sandstone units, ripple laminated sandstone and cross stratified sandstone facies around Chaibasa are shown in Fig. 4. In the first category, the sandstone bodies are fine grained (0.2 mm) and continuous in the outcrop scale. The bed geometry and internal sedimentary structures of these sandstones however vary considerably. The sandstone bodies show an overall hummocky topography formed either by preservation of the bedform morphology (passive variety) or developed through erosion of substrate as indicated by truncation of bedding plane (active variety; Harms et al.,1975). Present either as single bed (up to 0.2 m thick) or as amalgamated beds (up to 1.4 m thick), the hummocky cross stratifications (HCS) constitutes the swelling parts of these sandstone bodies. Also large wavy ripples are seen in the contact of the two layers with wavelength varies 3-40 cm and height varies 0.5-10 cm. Individual bed of HCS are up to 0.4 m thick and are composed of lamina sets that are usually 6-15 cm thick (maximum 20 cm). Internally, the hummocky cross
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stratifications are either aggradational or originate from laminae draping shallow and very low angle truncation, basically characterized by erosional lower bounding surfaces dipping mostly less than 10. In the latter case, the sandstones are well sorted coarse sandstone which represents the alternation between two units, plane lamination and chevron cross-stratification (the typical v-shaped stratification with straight ridge, where the vs closes in down current direction). Sandstone beds in this facies tend to be sheet like with constant bed thickness along the strike. The chevron cross-stratification is present in coset (avg. thickness 8-10 cm). Paleocurrent azimuth obtained from this cross-stratification reveals bimodal E-WSW pattern. On bedding planes there is a rare preservation of straight crested near symmetric ripple like forms, whose wavelength and amplitudes are 6.2 cm and 0.5 cm respectively (Chakraborty, et al., 2005). Both wavy and chevron cross stratification shows the dominance of oscillatory flow. The broad ripple like forms with straight and occasionally bifurcated crests and high wavelengthamplitude ratio possibly replicate shore parallel swash ripple or antidunes, commonly present in wave dominated shoreface. Chevron cross stratification in this facies are interpreted as products of fair weather wave ripples and provide indication for E WSW palaeoshoreline orientation. The hummocky sandstone bodies are overlain by cross stratified bodies which are then capped by tens of cm thick thin bedded rippled fine sandstones. Recurrent development of this stacked, shallowing upward facies succession possibly resulted from repeated progradation of the shore line, alternating with abrupt transgression. (Dalabehera and Das, 2007). Kolhan Limestone: The Kolhan limestone (thickness <20m) exhibits variation in color, texture, structure, composition. The limestone in its lower part show a color variation from white-pale grey pale pink-pale green with argillaceous matrix. Besides calcite, the limestone constitutes quartz, chlorite, opaque ores,
very rarely other carbonates and argillaceous matrix. It is believed that the lower limestone horizon is the result of chemical precipitation in shallow warm sea water. The upper horizon which is extremely variable in thickness represents a metasomatic rock, formed by low temperature replacement of the overlying phyllitic shale by lime bearing solutions derived from the primary carbonate layer (Saha, 1948). The absence of interbedded resedimented deposits led Mukhopadhyay et al. (2006) to suggest a gently dipping homoclinal ramp depositional setting (beyond the zone of coarse clastic sedimentation) for these limestones. But Bandopadhyay and Sengupta (2004) opines that the limestones have deposited in near shore lagoonal environment because of the presence of high content of manganese, phosphorous and sodium. Kolhan Shale: The end phase of sedimentation is represented by a monotonous reddish brown thin bedded shale unit (Jetia Shale, Singh 1998), 100m thick. Mukhopadhyay et al. (2006) reported this shale to be devoid of any siliciclastic / carbonate components coarser than mud and therefore, suggest a deepwater outer ramp/shelf to basin depositional environment. On the other hand Bandopadhyay and Sengupta, (2004) believes this shale to be calcareous towards its basal part and contains laterally impersistent layers and lensoid bodies of limestone and interbedded sequences of limestone and shale/calcareous shale. At places, manganese oxide is present at the contact of shale and sandstone (Dunn, 1940). Presence of fine laminations in individual beds, fine grain size and absence of tide or storm generated structure led Bandopdhayay and Sengupta (2004) to suggest an extremely low energy calm environment for the deposition of the shale from suspension load. Such an interpretation together with lateral facies variations in basal part of the shale supports a lacustrine setting. Within the siliciclastic lake basin, development of fault controlled local topographic lows coupled with changes in chemistry of the
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lake water possibly prompted the deposition of carbonate mud at the total exclusion of fine siliciclastics, resulting in the formation of lenticular units of limestone. The association of the shale with fluvial deposits (Picard and High, 1981; Elmore et al., 1989) is a basis for suggesting a lacustrine setting for the shale. Conclusion: Various workers have carried out sedimentological studies in ChaibasaNoamundi basin. According to Saha (1994), the Kolhan basin represents an intracratonic marine basin within the Singhbhum Orissa Iron Ore craton. Depending upon the source area and other environmental conditions, the lithology of the basin varies. Petrography and geochemistry of Kolhan sediments by Bandopadhyay and Sengupta (2004) suggest passive margin tectonic setting, an intensely weathered low-relief provannce dominantly composed of granitiod rocks and a warm and humid palaeoclimate. Mukhopadhyay et al. (2006) are of the opinion that the Kolhan sediments have deposited in a deep water cratonic depositional setting beyond the reach of coarser detritus. The basin represents an event of major transgression and relative sea level rise. Petrofacies analysis (Dalabehera and Das, 2007) is suggestive of sediments in the Chaibasa and Noamundi basin was derived from various acid plutonic rocks and the Iron Ore Group. These sandstones are quite mature and fall in the terrestrial recycled zone. The hummocky cross stratification and planar cross stratification are the two dominant sedimentary structures indicative of sediment deposition in shallow marine environment / tidal flat environment (Chakraborty et al., 2005). The main basin has undergone a phase of extension. During this phase, the eastern side of the Iron Ore synclinorium was faulted giving rise to a half graben structure, which leads to the sedimentation (Panda and Das, 2007). Sedimentological study by Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969 the basin to be an embayment from a geosyncline. The basin is characterized by transgressive a marine
deposit which usually depicts a medium to low energy environment. Acknowledgements: The author acknowledges the help, cooperation and constant guidance extended by her supervisor Prof. Subashis Das. The author is highly grateful to the Head of the Department of Geology and Geophysics IIT Kharagpur for providing necessary facilities to carry out the present investigation. References: [1] Bandopadhyay, P.C., Sengupta, S (2004) Paleoproterozoic supracrustal Kolhan Group in Singhbhum craton, India and the Indo-African Supercontinent- Gondwana Research, Vol 7(4)-pp.1228-1235. [2] Bhattachrya, A.K., Chatterjee, B.K (1964) Petrology of Precambrian Kolhan formation of Jhinkpani, Singhbhum district, BiharGeologische Rundschau, Vol 53-pp. 758-779. [3] Chakraborty, P. P., Paul, S. Das, A (2005) Facies development and depositional environment of the Mungra sandstone, Kolhan Group Eastern India-Jour Geological Society India, Vol 65-pp.753-757. [4] Chatterjee, B.K. Bhattacharya, A.K (1969) Tectonics and sedimentation in a Precambrian shallow epicontinental basin-Journal Sedimentary Petrology, Vol 39 (4)pp.1566-1572. [5] Collinson, J. D (1996) The Coast. In: H.G. Reading (Ed.), Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy. 3rd Edition, Blackwell Science, London, United Kingdom, pp. 37-81 [6] Dalabehera, L., Das, S (2007) Petrofacies analysis of the sedimentary rocks of Kolhan Basin- a case study from Chaibasa-Noamundi, West Singhbhum, Jharkhand-Vistas in Geological Research, U.U Spl. Publ. in Geology, Vol 6-pp 1-13. [7] Dunn, J.A (1940) The stratigraphy of North Singhbhum-Memoir Geological
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Survey of India, Vol 63(3)-pp. 303369. [8] Elmore, R.D., Milavec, G. J., Imbus, S.W. ENGEL (1989) The Precambrian Nonesuch Formation of the North American mid-continental rift, sedimentology and organic geochemical aspects of lacustrine deposition-Precambrian Research, Vol 43-pp. 191-213. [9] Harms, J.C., Southard, J.B., Spearing, D.R., Walker, R.G (1975) Depositional environment as interpreted from primary sedimentary structures and stratification sequences-Society of Economic Paleontologist and Mineralogist, Vol 2-161pp. [10] Mahadevan, T. M (2002) Geology of Bihar and Jharkhand. DST Publication, Geological Society of India, Bangalore, 563pp [11] Mukhopaddhyay, J., Ghosh, G., Nandi, A.K., Chaudhuri, A.K (2006) Depositional setting of the Kolhan Group: its implications for the development of a Meso to Neoproterozoic deep-water basin on the South Indian Craton-South African Journal of Geology, pp.183192. [12] Nemec, W., Steel, R.J (1984) Alluvial and coastal conglomerates: their significant features and some comments on gravelly mass flow deposits. In: Koster, H.E., Steel, R.J. (Eds.), Sedimentology of gravels and conglomerates: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir, Vol 10, pp.1-31
[13] Panda, M., Das, S (2007) The Kolhan Basin-A Riview. Vistas in Geological Research U.U Spl. Publ. in Geology, Vol 6-pp. 50-57. [14] Picard, M.D., High, L.R (1981) Physical stratigraphy of ancient lacustrine deposits in recent and ancient non-marine depositional environments: models for exploration-SEPM. Special Publication, Vol 31-pp. 233-259. [15] Ray, S., Bose, M.K (1959) Fold patterns in the Kolhan formation-46th Indian Sci. Congr. Proc., pt. III, 202pp. [16] Ray, S., Bose, M. K. (1964) Unique fold pattern in shallow basinRept. 22nd Session, Internationla Geological Congress, Vol 4-pp.163170. [17] Saha, A.K (1948a) A study of limestone near Chaibasa. Geol. Min. Met. Soc. India, Quart. Jour., Vol 20pp.49-58. [18] Saha, A.K (1948b) The Kolhan Series-Iron Ore Series boundary to the west and southwest of Chaibasa, Bihar- Science and Culture, Vol 14pp.77-79. [19] Saha, A. K (1994) Crustal evolution of Singhbhum-North Orissa. Eastern IndiaMemoir Geological Society of India, Vol 27338 pp. [20] Singh, S.P. (1998) Precambrian stratigraphy of Bihar-An overview. In: B. S. Paliwal, (Ed.), The Precambrian, Scientific Publ., Jodhpur, pp. 376-408
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Fig.1 Map of the Singhbhum craton showing the distribution of Kolhan Group in Singhbhum Iron-Ore craton (Saha, 1994)
Fig.2 Geological map of the Chaibasa-Noamundi basin (modified after Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969)
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Fig.3 Schematic cross sections showing the distribution of the lithofacies in the Precambrian Kolhan basin (Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969)
Fig.4 a) Ripple laminated sandstone facies (b) alternation of sandstone and shale units (rhythmic sandstone facies) (c) cross-bedded sandstone facies (d) sheet sandstone facies from Rajanbasa village (Hammer for scale) International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 416-423
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Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a Horizontal Plate Breakwater

SUBBA RAO1, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL2, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE3 AND PRASHANTH S.4
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar, D. K. District, Karnataka, India, Pin 575025.
E-mail:1- surakrec@gmail.com, 2- kshirlal@gmail.com, 3- roobin99@gmail.com, 4- prashanthbajpe@gmail.com
Abstract: Employing submerged breakwaters for inducing wave breaking is a well adopted technique in many places to provide partial protection from waves. They permit exchange of surface water but obstruct the movement of a major portion of the sediments. Plate breakwater can also be used to induce wave breaking and dissipate wave energy. It has the advantages of low interference with current and sediment transport while saving substantial quantity of material. It permits exchange of surface and subsurface water and hence, suitable for ecologically sensitive region. The paper explains the physical model studies to evaluate the transmission, reflection and loss coefficients and wave forces on a thin submerged horizontal plate breakwater at varying wave climate and plate submergence. It is observed that effectiveness of horizontal plate breakwater increases with deep water wave steepness and relative depth but decreases with plate submergence. The study shows that the breakwater consisting of a single horizontal plate is effective for attenuating short waves with a transmission of less than 60% for waves steeper than 0.005 when the submergence ratio is less than 0.33. Key words: Plate breakwater; submergence; wave transmission; reflection; wave attenuation wave force 1. Introduction: Breakwaters are structures constructed to protect the shore from the destructive action of waves and to create a calm lagoon to facilitate various port activities. The major ports need high protection whereas the minor harbours can be permitted to have some amount of wave activity. There are tourist places and recreational and water sporting areas and aquaculture location which need some wave activity throughout the year for their successful operations. In such cases, submerged breakwaters which will reduce the wave activity to the desired limit and provide partial protection is a natural choice. Submerged breakwaters with or without the core are used worldwide for coastal protection. They are efficient at sites where tidal fluctuation is moderate. They are economical as they require smaller armour stones when compared to the conventional breakwater. They are environmental friendly as they allow exchange of surface water. However the submerged breakwaters obstruct the currents and cause settlement of most of the sediment transported, which in turn increase the tendency of erosion on the downstream side. The structures need strong foundation soil which may not be available at all the locations. Their economical viability depends on the availability of armour stones in the nearby quarries. Alternative types of breakwaters are being investigated universally to economise the utilisation of construction materials and to provide eco-friendly solution to coastal engineering problems (Subba Rao et al., 1999). 1.1 Concept of plate breakwater: Ocean waves are surface water phenomena. Most of the wave energy is concentrated in the surface region. Hence the wave activity in an area can be controlled by providing obstruction in the surface region. The particle orbits which are circular in deep water condition and elliptical in shallow water region can get modified by the plate interference. Investigations show that fixed
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Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a Horizontal Plate Breakwater corresponding transmission coefficient is in between 0.3 to 0.5. Experimental investigations on fixed horizontal plate in deep water conditions revealed that minimum transmission of waves occurred when the fixed plate is kept at the still water level, but the loss of energy was maximum when the plate was slightly below the still water level with ds/d = 0.06 (Neelamani and Reddy, 1992). Wang and Shen (1999) conducted mathematical model analyses to evaluate the performance of multiple-plate breakwater. The reflection and transmission coefficients have shown increasing and decreasing patterns with increase of B/L. The minimum value of Kt was when B/L is 0.32. The ratio of depth of submergence of first plate to the total depth (ds/d) influenced the reflection coefficient (Kr). The optimum results were when ds/d = 0.25. It was found that the Kr and Kt depend on plate length, submergence of top plate, relative water depth (d/L) and the gap between the plates. A twin plate breakwater system consisting of a horizontal surface plate and an identical submerged plate just below the surface plate was investigated analytically based on linear potential wave theory. Kt values reduced with increase of relative submergence (d/L) for all plate spacing. Optimum s/d = 0.23 for which the Kt value was in between 0.55 to 0.75. The performance of twin plate system was better than that of the single plate breakwater (Usha and Gayatri 2005). Physical model study on a single surface plate and twin plate barriers with regular and random waves shown that reflection increases and transmission decreases corresponding to the increase of B/L ratio. Twin plate acted just like a single plate when the spacing was 0.04. The reflection increased by 20 to 30% when the s/d increased to 0.4. The value of Kt showed oscillatory nature with increase of s/d. The transmission coefficient was minimum (Kt = 0.60) for s/d = 0.12 compared to (Kt = 0.76) for a single surface plate (Neelamani and Gayathri, 2006).
horizontal plate kept at surface or slightly below the surface can attenuate the wave energy primarily by inducing wave breaking and by turbulence and friction. 1.2 Literature Review: Dattatri et al. (1978) studied hydraulic behaviour of various shapes of submerged breakwaters and observed that the incident wave steepness has an important influence on wave breaking. The waves near critical steepness may be induced to break by the submerged breakwater. The relative depth (d/L, where d is the depth of water, L is the wave length at the site) shown significant influence in wave transmission for relative depth of submergence (ds/d, where ds is the depth of top of breakwater from still water level) values in between 0 to 0.2 A general solution for the problem of wave scattering on a fixed horizontal plate was attempted by Patarapanich (1984). The long wave solution for surface plate and submerged plate was extended to obtain the hydrodynamic forces and overturning moments exerted on the plate. The dimensionless vertical force on the surface plate (Fy/gaB) = 1 (where Fy is the vertical component of force, is the specific weight of water, a is the wave amplitude, and B is the length of breakwater) in shallow water region and it reduced to a value in between 0.75 to 0.5 depending on the relative width (B/L). The maximum dimensionless force decreased with increase of submergence. Normalised force did not show significant variation with respect to the relative depth (d/L) in shallow water but it decreased with increase of d/L in intermediate water depth. Cheong and Patarapanich (1992) have attempted to derive analytically the reflection and transmission coefficients of double plate. Experiments were also conducted using random waves on breakwater consisting of a leeward surface plate and a submerged seaward plate. The width of plate and the longitudinal distance between the plates was kept as 1.0 m. It was observed that the transmission was least when the relative submergence of the plate (ds/d) was about 0.10 to 0.20 and the
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Multiple-layer breakwater consisting of several horizontal plates was investigated using physical model (Wang et al., 2006). The transmission coefficient decreased with increase of relative width. Kt is below 0.5 when B/L > 0.25. When the B/L is below 0.2 the reflection increased with B/L but when B/L > 0.2, Kr does not increase evidently. With the increase of wave steepness (H/L), Kr increased and Kt decreased. The Kt and Kr were not significantly influenced by the relative gap (s/H) of the plates. Shirlal et al. (2007) have suggested possible use of submerged reef for coastal protection as it reduces the wave energy in the leeward side and produces turbulence and hence reduces the silt accumulation behind the structure. It is shown that submerged reef can be designed with B/d ratio of 0.67 to 1.33, h/d ratio > 0.675 and X/d ratio in between 6.25 to 8.33, for which Kt < 0.6. The study of available literature shows that the horizontal plate can attenuate some of the wave energy. It has potential to be used as a costal protection measure at sites with low tidal variation. Most of the previous works were carried out using a thick and long plate. The present study was conducted to find the effectiveness of a thin short plate and to examine the influence of various parameters on Kt, Kr, Kl and wave force. 2 Oblectives: The objectives of the investigation were to study the transmission, reflection and loss coefficients and the forces acting on a breakwater consisting of a fixed horizontal plate acted upon by monochromatic waves in varying water depth and relative submergence. 3 Experimental Procedures: 3.1 Wave flume: Fig.1a. shows the two-dimensional wave flume in which physical model studies of the submerged plate breakwater were conducted. The flume is 50m long, 0.71m wide and 1.1m deep and has a smooth concrete bed for a length of 42m with a 6m long wave-generating chamber at one end and a beach of 1V:10H slope consisting of
rubble stones at other end. The flume is provided with a bottom-hinged flap-type wave generator. The wave generator is operated by an 11 kW, 1450 rpm induction motor which can rotate at 0155 rpm and is regulated by an inverter drive (050 Hz). The system can generate regular waves with wave height ranging from 0.02 to 0.24m and wave periods ranging from 0.8 to 4s at a maximum water depth of 0.5 m. 3.2 Data Acquisition: Capacitance-type wave probes along with amplification units were used for data acquisition. Four such probes were used during the experimental work, three for acquiring incident and reflected wave characteristics (Hi and Hr) and one for transmitted wave characteristics (Ht) as shown in Fig. 1a. The spacing between probes was kept near to one third of the wave length to ensure the accuracy. The signals from wave probes were verified online during the experimentation and recorded by the computer through the data acquisition system. These were then processed for separating the incident and reflected components using a programme based on the method developed by Issacson (1991). 3.3 Model: Model of plate breakwater was constructed using smooth steel plate of 3.0mm thickness. It was supported by steel flats from the top which provide stability against oscillation. The plate was maintained horizontal at the required depth of submergence using adjustable screws at the top of the supporting structure as depicted in Fig. 1a. The load cells for measuring wave forces were connected to the supporting frame as shown in Fig. 1b. The plate and the frame were connected to the supporting frame by using two pairs of hinged links. The system has one degree of freedom which is in the vertical direction. A load cell connected to the frame measures the vertical load acting on the plate and also makes the system fully rigid. A similar arrangement is done for measuring horizontal load also. The vertical and horizontal loads were measured separately.
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Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a Horizontal Plate Breakwater Where
The system along with the load cells has been calibrated for the range of force that is expected to be acting on the plate breakwater for sufficient accuracy. 3.4 Calibration of experimental set-up: The wave flume was filled with ordinary tap water to the required depth (d) of 0.5m. Regular waves of height (Hi) of 0.05m, 0.10m, and 0.15m with varying periods (T) of 1.0s, 1.6s and 2.2s were generated. The flume was calibrated to produce the incident waves of different combinations of wave height and wave periods before starting the experiment. Combinations that produced the secondary waves in the flume were not considered for the experiments. During the experiment, the waves were recorded by the probes which were calibrated at the beginning and at the end of the test runs. The incident wave heights are recorded using the first three probes and transmitted wave heights were measured using the fourth probe. Incident and transmitted wave heights were also measured manually to crosscheck the instrumental data. 3.5 Computation of non-dimensional wave parameters: Non dimensional parameters such as Transmission coefficient (Kt), Reflection coefficient (Kr), coefficient of loss (Kl) are calculated from the incident, reflected and transmitted wave heights. (1) (2)
| Fx |=| Fx | / gaB | Fy |=| Fy | / gaB

on the plate
(4) (5)
| Fx | = the maximum horizontal force acting | Fy | = the maximum vertical force acting on
the plate = specific gravity of water, a = wave amplitude, B = width of plate, g = acceleration due to gravity. 3.6 Variables involved and their range: Fig 2 shows the sketch explaining the variables used in the study. The primary variables and their range in the experimental programme and the non dimensional parameters derived for the study are given in Table 1 and Table 2 below. Table.1 Variables and their selected range for the experimental investigation Variables Wave period Wave height Water depth Depth of submergence of top edge/ free board Length of plate Range 1.0 - 2.2 sc 5 -15 cm 30 -50 cm 0 -15 cm
50 cm
(3) Where Hi is the incident wave height, Ht is the transmitted wave height, Hr is the reflected wave height. The horizontal and vertical forces measured using load cells. The non-dimensional parameters such as normalised horizontal forces | Fx | and normalised vertical forces
| Fy | are calculated.
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Table.2 Non dimensional parameters and their range for the experimental investigation Non dimensional parameters Deep water wave steepness parameter (H0/gT2) Relative depth at site (d/L) Relative submergence of plate (ds/Hi) Submergence ratio (ds/d) Range
0.001 to 0.016
0.08 to 0.35 0.0 to 3.0
0.0 to 0.50
4 Results and Discussion: The experiment was carried out for plate length of 0.50m and for the entire range of other parameters. The incident, reflected and transmitted wave heights were recorded using wave probes. The horizontal forces acting on the plate were measured by using load cells connected to the frame. Graphs are plotted for Kt, Kr, Kl against various non dimensional parameters such as d/L, H0/gT2, ds/Hi, ds/d. Variation of normalised vertical force is also plotted against relative depth. Major observations are presented below. 4.1 Variation of transmission coefficient (Kt): The most important parameter of the study is the transmission coefficient. For submerged breakwater, Kt generally decreases with increase of wave steepness and relative depth. Plate breakwaters also found to exhibit similar trend. Submerged breakwaters are generally designed for a transmission coefficient of 0.6. The detailed analyses are given below. 4.1.1 Influence of deep water wave steepness (H0/gT2): Fig 3 illustrates the best fit line for variation of Kt with H0/gT2 for different ranges of ds/d=0, 0.1 to 0.2, 0.25 to 0.33, and 0.38 to0.50. It is observed that for the entire range of experiments Kt decreases with
increase in H0/gT2. It drops from 0.80 to 0.30 (63%) for ds/d=0, from 0.83 to 0.30 (64%) for ds/d=0.1 to 0.2, from 0.85 to 0.42 (51%) for ds/d=0.25 to 0.33and from 0.87 to 0.48 (45%) for ds/d=0.38 to 0.50. For ds/d from 0 to 0.33, the value of Kt is below 0.6 for value of H0/gT2 > 510-3 for all depths. Small amplitude wave theory shows that the particle velocity decreases with the level of particle below still water surface and the velocity at the top 1/3 of water depth is considerably higher than that of the lower layers. Horizontal plate when placed in the top 1/3 portion offers higher intensity of interaction with water particles, which reduces their speed due to friction. This causes the waves with steepness higher than 5x10-3 to break and reduces the transmission coefficient below 0.6. The influence of horizontal plate is less when ds/d>0.33 or when H0/gT2 < 5x10-3 since the particle velocity is low and the waves are relatively in stable condition. 4.1.2 Influence of relative depth (d/L): Fig 4 shows the best fit line for variation of Kt with d/L. The value of Kt is varying from 0.29 to 0.88 for the entire range of the experiment. The general trend shows that Kt decreases as d/L increases. This is because the wave activity is more predominant in the surface region as d/L increases. The highest values of Kt is for ds/Hi = 3.0 for which the trend line varies from 0.85 to 0.58 as d/L varies from 0.08 to 0.33. The lowest value of Kt is from 0.83 to 0.29 observed when ds/Hi = 0.5. In this case the plate is situated where the particle velocity is high and it will be in contact with water even when the trough of the wave passes the plate, thereby ensuring full time contact and maximum interaction of plate with water. In the cases where the relative plate submergence ds/Hi = 0, 0.33, 0.50, 0.67 and 1.0, the trend lines are very close to each other with highest values of Kt around 0.8 at d/L = 0.08 and low values of Kt around 0.29 to 0.42 at d/L = 0.33. Trend lines of ds/Hi = 1.5 varies from 0.86 to 0.5 and that of ds/Hi = 2.0 varies from 0.87 to 0.54 respectively. The plate breakwater with ds/Hi 1.0 can be used where d/L > 0.17 since Kt is < 0.6.
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Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a Horizontal Plate Breakwater 4.2.2 Influence of relative depth (d/L): Fig 7 shows that Kr is between 0.05 and 0.33 for the entire range of d/L and ds/Hi. The reflection is maximum when ds/Hi = 0.33 and minimum when ds/Hi = 1.5. For ds/Hi = 0.5, Kr shows very little variation with d/L and the maximum value of is about 0.20. The study shows that a non specific relationship exists between ds/Hi and d/L with Kr. The wave reflection from the thin plate may be mainly because the horizontal plate forms a rigid boundary which does not permit the free vertical motion of the particle. The water particles rebound from the bottom of the plate and causes waves which propagates in both seaward and lee ward directions. The seaward component is recorded as reflected wave. The values are near to that found by Nallayarasu et al. (1994) who reported Kr variation from 0 to 0.15 for ds/d = 0.5. Cheong and Patarapanich (1992) found Kr varying in between 0.3 to 0.5 using experimental study. Their values are higher than that of the present study probably because of they used thicker (12 mm) and longer (1.0 m) plate. 4.3 Variation of coefficient of loss (Kl): Effectiveness of a breakwater is to be judged by the portion of the energy it dissipates through friction, turbulence and wave breaking. High value of loss coefficient and low value of Kr is desirable. It is found that there is considerable loss of energy, which emphasises the importance of physical model study since most of the mathematical models neglect the energy loss. 4.3.1 Influence of deep water wave steepness (H0/gT2): The variation of Kl with H0/gT2 for various values of ds/d is depicted in Fig 8. General trend of Kl is to increase with H0/gT2 up to a value of H0/gT2 = 0.011, after which Kl does not increase significantly. Kl increases from 0.0.56 to 0.96 (71%), 0.58 to 0.96 (65%), 0.54 to 0.89(65%) and 0.50 to 0.85 (70%) for ds/d = 0, 0.1 to 0.2, 0.25 to 0.33 and 0.38 to 0.50 respectively as H0/gT2 increases from 0.001 to 0.011. It can be
Fig 5 shows variation of Kt with d/L for a horizontal plate fixed at still water level. Kt decreases from 0.83 to 0.31 as d/L increases from 0.08 to 0.33. The results of other investigators from their physical and mathematical model studies are compared with those of the present study. The present results converge well with that of the physical model study of Gayathri (2003) for d/L > 0.15. For smaller ranges of d/L varying from 0.08 to 0.15, results of the present study fall between those of Gayathri (2003) and mathematical models of Usha and Gayathri (2005) and Patarapanich (1984). It is noticed that the mathematical models tend to predict conservative values of Kt. This may be because they do no take in to account of the loss of energy due to friction and turbulence during the wave transmission across the breakwater, as concluded by Usha and Gayathri (2005). 4.2 Variation of reflection coefficient (Kr): Some of the energy of the incident waves is reflected by the submerged structure. The reflection depends on the submergence ratio and the wave parameters. Rubble mound structures are reported to have low reflection and vertical wall structures have high reflection. Horizontal plate also shows low reflection similar to conventional structures. Influence of various parameters is discussed below. 4.2.1 Influence of deep water wave steepness (H0/gT2) Fig 6 shows variation of Kr with H0/gT2. The reflection coefficient is in between 0.05 to 0.33 for the entire range of the study. Variation of Kr with respect to H0/gT2 for any particular ds/d value is negligible for all ds/d values. The values of Kr is maximum for plate close to the still water level ie. ds/d = 0.1 to 0.2, The values of Kr for a plate at still water level is also very close to this. This is found to be matching with the observation of Neelamani and Reddy (1992) who had reported maximum reflection when the plate is at the surface. The reflection decreases with increase of ds/d.
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seen that the loss is almost same for ds/d 0 to 0.2. 4.3.2 Influence of relative depth (d/L): Kl varies with d/L as shown in Fig 9. General trend of Kl is to increase sharply as d/L increases from 0.08 to 0.25 and moderately there after. Maximum Kl varies from 0.6 to 0.93 for ds/Hi = 0.5, which corresponds to the minimum values of Kt. The minimum values of Kl observed is in between 0.50 to 0.8 for ds/Hi = 3.0. The minimum values of Kl are found to be in good agreement with that of Cheong and Patarapanich (1992) who reported variation from 0.4 to 0.8. 4.4 Variation of normalised forces: Horizontal and vertical forces are measured during the experiments. The horizontal force is found close to zero and hence negligible in comparison with the vertical force. Similar observations were made by Nallayarasu et .al. (1994). The variation of normalised vertical force with d/L for various ds/d are shown in Fig.10. The maximum value is about 0.58 and the minimum is about 0.15. |Fy| increased sharply while d/L increased from 0.08 to 0.23 and there was no significant increase thereafter. The increase of force due to increase of d/L may be due to the fact that the wave energy is concentrated more near the surface in the case of deep water waves. The force on the plate is maximum when ds/d = 0.1 to 0.2. It decreases when the plate is at the surface and also when it moves further down. Lower force observed at the surface level is because of the water force acting only on the bottom side. The decrease of force as submergence increases is quite expected since the particle velocity decreases with the depth. 5 Summary of Observations: The observations made during the physical model study can be summarised as presented below. Kt decreases with increase of H0/gT2 and d/L for the range of experimental values considered in the present study.
Kt is below 0.6 for H0/gT2 > 0.005 for ds/d 0.33. Kt is below 0.6 for d/L > 0.17 for ds/Hi 1.0. Lowest value of Kt is when ds/Hi = 0.5. Lowest values of Kt does not correspond to the highest values of Kr Kr does not depend on H0/gT2 and d/L significantly. Kl increases with increase of H0/gT2 and d/L for the present range of experimental values Wave force increases with d/L and decreases with submergence, however the highest force is when the plate is just below the surface the surface.
6 Conclusions: Physical model study has been conducted using the wave to analyse the characteristics of wave propagation over a horizontal thin submerged horizontal plate using monochromatic waves in a laboratory flume. Our results are found in agreement with other authors reasonably. It is found that horizontal plate of length 0.50 is effective in breaking high waves and it transmits only about 60% of the wave heights for H0/gT2 > 0.005 when ds/d<= 0.33 and for d/L > 0.17 when ds/Hi 1.0. This encouraging result prompts the horizontal plate breakwater as a structural measure to control the harsh wave climate. 7 References: [1] Cheong H. F. and Patarapanich M. (1992) Reflection and transmission of random waves by a horizontal double-plate breakwater, Coastal Engineering (18) 63 82. [2] Dattatri J. (1978) Analysis of regular and irregular waves and performance characteristics of submerged breakwaters, Ph. D Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras. [3] Gayathri, T., (2003) Wave interaction with twin-plate breakwater,
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Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a Horizontal Plate Breakwater
Department of Ocean Engineering. MS Thesis IIT, Madras. [4] Issacson M., Measurement of regular wave reflection (1991), Jr. Waterways Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engg.(117) 553 569 [5] Nallayarasu S., Cheong H. F. and Jothi Shankar N., (1994) Wave induced pressures and forces on a fixed submerged inclined plate Jr. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, (18) 289-299. [6] Neelamani S. Gayathri T.,(2006) Wave interaction with twin plate wave barrier, Ocean Engineering (33) 495516 [7] Neelamani, S., Reddy, M.S., (1992). Wave transmission and reflection characteristics of a rigid surface and submerged horizontal plate. Ocean Eng. 19 (4) 327341 [8] Patarapanich, M., (1984) Forces and moment on a horizontal plate due to wave scattering. Ocean Eng. (8) 279301. [9] Shirlal K.G., Subba Rao, Manu, (2007) Ocean wave transmission by submerged reefA physical model study, Ocean Eng. 34 (2007) 2093 2099 [10] Subba Rao, N. B. S. Rao and Sathyanarayana V. S., (1999) Laboratory investigation on wave transmission through two rows of perforated hollow piles. Ocean Engg, (26) 677-701. [11] Usha R., Gayathri T., (2005) Wave motion over a twin-plate breakwater Jr. Ocean Eng. (32)1054 1072. [12] Wang, K.H., Shen, Q., (1999). Wave motion over a group of submerged horizontal plates. Int. Jr. Eng. Sci. (37) 703715. [13] Wang Y., Wang G. and Li G. (2006) Experimental study on the performance of the multiple-layer breakwater, Coastal Eng. (33) 18291839.
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Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir and its Catchment

ANAND V. SHIVAPUR*, B. VENKATESH** and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI***
* Department of Civil Engineering, SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad 580 002, Karnataka, India ** Hard Rock Regional Centre, National Institute of Hydrology, Hanuman Nagar, Belgaum 590 001, Karnataka, India *** Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar 575 025, India E-mail: av_shivapur@rediffmail.com, bvenki30@rediffmail.com, ravirajmh@rediffmail.com Abstract: The Neersagar watershed is about 200 km2, which is west flowing river situated in plains of Western Ghats on eastern side in Karnataka State. In the present study Soil conservation Service (SCS) model has been used to estimate the yield from the watershed. This method involves various types of information related to vegetation, Hydrologic Soil Group and antecedent moisture condition of watershed. GIS software was used for the rectification of soil and land use map and also to derive SCS Curve Number (CN) for study area. The SCS model was then applied to estimate the yield values of watershed. The estimated annual yield of the tank is 0.4MCM. The results generated using SCS-CN and by monthly water balance method have been then compared. The accuracy of SCS-CN method is higher than the other method; therefore, we can use this method as an alternate method for estimating the yield from any watershed in this region. Key words: antecedent moisture condition; soil conservation services; curve number; land use; yield. Introduction: Water scarcity is among the main problems to be faced by many societies and the world in the 21st century. Water scarcity causes enormous problems for the populations and societies. The available water is not sufficient for the production of food and for alleviating hunger and poverty in the regions, where quite often the population growth is larger than the capability for sustainable use of the natural resources. In regions of water scarcity, the water resources are probably already degraded or subjected to processes of degradation in both quantity and quality, which adds to the shortage of water. Under these conditions, societies face very large problems when a drought occurs or when man-made shortages are created. However, the concept of water availability based on indicators driver from the renewable water resources divided by the total populations should be taken with great care. The water availability of any region depends on its climate and then on the topography and geology. Its sufficiency depends on the demand placed on it. In semi-arid, arid and dry sub-humid regions affected by water scarcity, the processes leading to the water scarcity have specific characteristics, quite different from those of humid or temperate areas. It is important to underline these characteristics that act strongly upon the availability of water and its management. Most of these areas that are likely to be affected by water scarcity have similar factors that make up the identity of their ecosystem and particularly the functioning of the water cycle. These common features are to be found in the climate, the rainfall regime, the conditions of surface runoff and soil infiltration, and in the replenishment regime of deep and surface aquifers. Of equal importance to the above, are also some non-physical processes that may lead to water scarcity such as population growth, mismanagement of resources and climate change. In the present study, an attempt has been made to understand the water availability in
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the Neersagar reservoir, which is a main source of domestic water supply to the twin cities of Hubli-Dharwad in Karnataka State. Of late, it has been felt that, the yield of the reservoir has been depleted due to anthropogenic interference and watershed developmental activities such as water and soil conservation structures are the main reasons. Initially, the reservoir was designed to store 9MGD of water, but at present it provides only 3 MGD, hence the scarcity (shortage) of water for the people of these cities. Keeping this in view, it is planned to study the water yield of the catchment by SCS method. Since 1950s the SCS has been applying to relate the amount of surface runoff from rainfall to soil cover complexes. The underlying theory of the SCS-CN procedure is that runoff can be related to soil cover complexes and rainfall through a parameter known as a Curve Number (CN). The physical processes involved are; that before runoff can occur, rainfall must exceed the infiltration capacity of the soil and any initial abstractions in the watershed that is runoff begins after some rainfall has accumulated, and then becomes asymptotic to a 45 degree line. The SCS-CN procedure is a lumped approach to rainfall-runoff, in that it does not consider time in the calculations: there is an input value of rainfall and an output value of runoff (Hawkins, 1978). The SCS method was applied to the small watersheds of the order of 10-50 ha. Ponce (1989) writes that its indiscriminate use for catchments in excess of 250 km2,. without catchment subdivision is generally not recommended. The runoff curve number was originally developed by SCS for use in midsize rural watersheds therefore its extension to large basins requires considerable judgment However, Johnson (1998), investigated the applicability of SCS method for the catchment more the 25000 ha for a reasonable estimate of the daily flows. Mishra, et.al., (2005) have incorporated the antecedent moisture condition to compute the direct runoff. The results indicates that, the estimates are reasonable even for the catchments of the higher order (i.e., >300 km2). The various
studies reported that the estimates obtained through the SCS are with an higher accuracy of 98% for shorter interval (may be event based at sub-hourly intervals). However, at the daily time steps, the estimates are with an accuracy between 80-90% (Mishra et.al., 2005). In the present study, an attempt is made to compute the runoff from a watershed of the order of 200 km2, by subdividing the watershed on basis of land cover type for computing the storage and curve number. Study Area: The study area (Fig.1) falls under the basin of river Bedti in Dharwad district, Karnataka state. Geographical area of the catchment is 181.84 sq.km and it is located between latitude 15 2640 and longitude 745430.
The elevation of the catchment is about 674.1 MSL. The climate is characterised by average maximum temperature of 37 C and minimum of 14 C., the humidity of the region lies in the range of 65% to 89%. The catchment receives rainfall mainly from southwest monsoon (June to Sept). The average rainfall of the catchment is 700 mm. The soil type found in the catchment is moderately well drained with coarser textures. The major portion of the catchment is under cultivation (75%) and scrub (13%). The forest cover is about 10 %.
ANAND V. SHIVAPUR, B. VENKATESH and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI
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Methodology: One of the major activities in applied hydrology is the estimation of storm event (i.e, runoff) from ungauged small watersheds. Such estimates are often required in the engineering design of small hydraulic structures. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Curve Number Method has proven to be very successful tool for the derivation of runoff from small catchment. Curve number is a dimensionless co-efficient which reflects hydrologic soil group, land cover type and antecedent moisture conditions. The modifications suggested by the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India (1972) to suit Indian condition are included in the study. A brief account of the SCS method adopted for the present study is given below. The fundamental hypotheses of SCS method are Runoff starts after the initial abstraction, Ia, has been satisfied. The ratio of actual retention of rainfall to potential maximum retention S is equal to the ratio of direct runoff to rainfall minus initial abstraction. The initial abstraction Ia is related to S as Ia= aS with the value of a being a function of antecedent moisture condition (AMC) and type of soil. For Indian conditions, the relationship between runoff depth R (in mm) and rainfall P (in mm) in a rainfall event in a catchment is given as (Mishra et.al.,2005, Chandramohan, et.al., 2007)
R=
(P 0.3S )2 (P + 0.7S )
(3)
If P is less than 0.1S in above equation or less than 0.3S, then the runoff is taken as zero. The curve number mainly depends on soil type, land use and antecedent moisture conditions. The first two can be obtained by field survey, while the third parameter refers to the moisture content present in the soil at any given time. The AMC values intended to reflect the effect of infiltration on both the volume and rate of runoff. The following relationships may be used to compute the Curve Number for any AMC conditions knowing Curve Number for AMC type II, the relationship are
4.2CN ( II ) 10 0.058CN ( II ) 23CN ( II ) CN ( III ) = 10 + 0.13CN ( II ) CN ( I ) =
(4) (5)
Data Preparation and Analysis: To undertake the study of estimating the runoff by SCS method, the model requires the daily data pertaining to rainfall of the stations, which are within the catchment area. The soil map, land use map and slope map. Derivation of Slope Map for the Study Area: The slope map was derived using the contours of the catchment area, which are taken from the survey of India toposheet at the scale of 1:50,000. The density of contours on the maps can be used for preparing the slope map that gives various groups or categories of slopes. For the study area following categories of slopes (Fig. 2) are derived (Table 1).
R=
(P 0.1S ) (P + 0.9S )
S=
(1) (2)
Where
25400 254 CN
In which CN is a coefficient called Curve Number This equation is for black soils and AMC of type II and III. The curve number CN is a relative measure of retention of water by a given soilvegetation-land use (SVL) complex and takes on values from zero to hundred. For black soils having AMC of type I and for all other soil types having AMC of types I, II and III the above equation is modified as
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Table.1 Percentage area under each slope category Slope Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Area (Km2) 29.95 52.19 30.48 18.28 25.78 18.81 2.65 % of Area 16.5 28.8 16.81 10 14.2 10.3 1.4
of infiltration, which are obtained from a bare soil after prolonged wetting. The influencing factors for minimum rate of infiltration are seasonal depth of high water table, prolonged wetting and depth up to very slowly permeable layer. The parameter, which indicates the runoff potential of the soil, is the qualitative basis of the classification. The classification is broad but the groups can be divided into sub-groups whenever such a refinement is justified. In the current case, the soil map of Karnataka prepared by the National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP, 1988). The land use map is then superimposed over the catchment area to know the extent of each hydrologic soil group present in the respective area. The hydrologic soil groups identified in the study area are tabulated in the Table 2. The B, C and D hydrological soil groups include factors that produce higher amounts of runoff in the basin. The runoff potential map was prepared based on the soil groups identified in the basin (Fig.3)
From the above table, it can be inferred that the major part (62%) of the catchment area lies in the slope category 1 to 3, which means the catchment is gently sloping. The area under steep category is only 12%, which is negligible. Hence the major part of the catchment is unfavorable for runoff generation. Hydrological Soil Groups: Soil properties influence the process of generation of runoff form rainfall and they must be considered. When runoff from individual storms is the major concern, the properties can be represented by hydrologic parameters. Only those soil properties are considered that influences the minimum rate International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
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Table.2 Hydrological soil groups Soil Group B C D Tank Area (Km2) 96.91 72.35 6.74 5.82 % of Area 53.3 39.79 3.7
Table.3 Land use pattern Category Forest Scrub Crop Tank Area (Km2) 17.37 22.5 136.15 5.82 % of Area 9.55 12.4 74.87
Land Use and Land Cover: Land use and land cover broadly denotes, everything the land is being put to use, as expressed in the vegetation and other human interventions, covering the land surface. Land use pattern generally reflects the extent of resources utilisation and indicate the productivity of the area. Therefore, various land use and land cover category is very important for the resources management. For the present use, the catchment land use pattern was taken from the toposheets that are surveyed in the year 1985 and these data were verified and updated using the recent maps developed by the Karnataka State Remote Sensing Agency. The categories identified were forest area, scrub land and crop land (Fig.4). The area under each category is shown in Table 3.
The major portion of the catchment falls in the category of crop land. However, the percentage areas under different land use category are subjected to the correction as we had used the data of recent years, since the catchment is subjected to significant development activities and therefore, the changes in the areas of all the categories of land use. Rainfall Analysis: Most of the hydrologic problems require knowledge of the average depth of rainfall over the catchment area. In the present study, Theissen polygon method was used for computing areal average depth of precipitation. (weight station data based on relative area represented by each station. This is done trivially using Natural Neighbor interpolation) The catchment is being gauged for rainfall at three locations namely, Mugad, Dharwad and Dhummawad. As mentioned above, the Theissens network was constructed and the respective areas of influence were obtained and the same is presented in Table 4. The estimated average rainfall over the catchment is tabulated in Table.7 Table 4. Theissens method Raingauge Station Mugad Dharwad Dhummawad Area (Km2) 80.07 40.81 60.95 % of Area 44 22 34
Results and Analysis: The runoff curve number procedure for runoff determination, as described by the SCS, uses rainfall data, watershed characteristics in order to estimate the maximum runoff. The runoff curve number, International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
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CN, for the drainage area is determined for average soil-land cover complex and soil moisture conditions. The CN parameter varies between 0 and 100 and is a function of the dominant soil type, infiltration behavior of the soil, vegetative cover, antecedent soil moisture content and land use. Guidelines for the determination are documented in USDA-SCS, 1972 which also presents criteria for discrete partitioning of soil moisture between wet conditions with high runoff potential AMC, III., average conditions with high runoff potential AMC-II and dry conditions with low runoff potential AMC-I. This partitioning suggests that the rainfall-runoff relationship is discrete, implying sudden shifts in CN with corresponding quantum jumps in calculated runoff. In reality, CN varies continuously with soil moisture and thus has continuous values instead of only three. Therefore, the accuracy of runoff simulation can be improved considerably by using soil moisture accounting procedure to estimate S for each storm. It is often needed to use local runoff data when they are available to estimate correct CN values. Long runoff records are needed because the classic method for deriving CN from measured runoff data (USDA, SCS, 1972). Thus, a method for determining CN from limited rainfall-runoff record is desirable (Hauser & Jones, 1991b; Woodward, 1991). However, Hauser and Jones (1991b) found the median of curve numbers derived from field data pairs for short records estimated the curve number close to that of SCS method in the Western Great Plains. In the present study, the catchment is not gauged for the discharge, however, the rainfall amount are being gauged at three locations. Also, the soil and land use maps which were prepared as explained in the previous section were used. Later on, these layers (such as soil, land use layer) were superimposed one on the other to identify the land use under different soil type classification. The classified land use groups are tabulated in the Table 5 below. The Curve Number for the above said class was derived by assuming the AMC-II as the other two AMC conditions represents the
extreme conditions of the catchment. It is reported that, AMC-II conditions would estimates the runoff under any given situation (Yoo, et al, 1993). As the study area fall under the transition zone of subhumid to semi-arid region, the AMC-II condition would a better option to use. Using the AMC-II situation, the curve number for different classes is arrived and the average curve number for the catchment is presented in Table 6. Table.5 Area under different soil type Land Use Area under soil type (Km2) B 4.2 10.31 82.4 C 10.07 12.19 50.09 D 3.09 Nil 3.65 Area (Km2)
Forest Scrub Crop Tank
17.37 22.50 136.14 5.8
Table.6 CN for different land use and land cover Land use Area CN Area * classification (Km2) CN Forest (Open) B 4.2 44 184.8 C 10.7 60 604.2 D 3.09 64 197.89 Scrub land B 10.31 47 484.57 C 12.19 64 780.16 Crop Land B 82.4 86 7086.4 C 50.09 90 4508.1 D 3.65 93 339.45 Tank 5.81 100 581 Average CN=81 Maximum retention, S=75.82 The runoffs were calculated using the derived CN and S values for AMC-II for the areal average rainfall observed in the catchment for 20 year. The estimated runoff values with respect to the rainfall values are given in the Table 7.
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Table.7 Estimated Runoff for Neersagar using the Curve Number Arial Average Rainfall (mm) 753.33 1220.86 1125.81 910.23 638.59 775.91 957.35 783.8 737.81 827.26 973.6 600.52 851.73 Estimated runoff (mm) (SCS method) 89.18 280.49 208.04 125.57 98.47 213.71 221.54 194.18 103.4 127.12 172.57 92.18 124.74
Summary: The study was carried out for the higher order catchment with a complex land-cover type to determine the general applicability of SCS method, as this method is only applied for a smaller catchments (area ranging from 10-100 km2). The present study on Neersagar can summarize the following points. 1. The catchment on the whole is gently sloping. About 62 % of the area falls in the category of 1 to 5% slope. The soils present in the cathcment are B, C and D. Almost half of the catchment is covered with the soil type B and about 40% of C type. 2. The relationship between rainfall and runoff with power type equation yields better estimates. 3. The annual yield of the reservoir is about 416000 cubic meters 4. There is no gauged flow to compare the results thus obtained by the procedure. Acknowledgements: The authors deeply acknowledge the Principal and the Management of S.D.M. College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad for the support and encouragement given for carrying out this study.
Determination of Yield: The yield of the reservoir was estimated using the observed monthly average water level in the reservoir and the monthly average runoff. The losses such as evaporation and seepage were considered. The estimated yield of the reservoir is given in the Table 8. Correlation between Runoff and Rainfall: Runoff coefficient represents the integrated effect of the catchment losses and hence depends upon the nature of the surface, surface slope and rainfall intensity. The relationship between the rainfall and the resulting runoff is quite complex and is influenced by a most of factors relating the catchment and climate. Further, there is the problem of paucity of data which forces one to adopt simple correlations for the adequate estimation of runoff. A relationship has been established between runoff and the rainfall of the area using the different available types of regression tools. The relations developed are Linear Equation: R = 0.0006 P +0.0787 (6) r2 = 0.6884 Power Equation: R = 0.0109 P0.554 (7) r2 = 0.7391 Where R is the runoff and P is the precipitation.
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Table 8. Estimated yield Month Monthly Average Tank Level (m) 8.61 8.11 .69 7.16 6.72 6.98 7.42 8.44 8.64 9.11 9.12 8.87 NTL (m) Area (Sq.m) Monthly average Runoff (mm) 0.001 0.000 0.014 0.231 0.432 1.215 0.985 0.910 0.776 0.68 0.14 0.06 Yield (m3) Monthly Yield (m3)
Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total References:
577.7 577.2 576.78 576.25 575.81 576.07 576.51 577.73 577.73 578.2 578.21 577.96
2666523.29 2666113.92 2396526.6 2277085.13 2206550.74 2275077.3 2279985.32 2667464.84 2668283.57 2948913.31 2955921.89 2780707.4
3.13301 97.123 0 0 32.50177 1007.55 526.8902 15806.70 952.5778 29529.91 2763.693 82910.77 2244.972 69594.13 2427.257 75244.95 2070.786 62123.58 1999.028 61969.86 415.6448 12469.34 165.803 5139.89 415893.84 m3
[1] Chandramohan.T, Dilip G. Durbude., and Venkatesh.B., (2007) Sensitivity of Runoff Curve Number to initial abstraction coefficient, Vol.88, Journal of Agricultural Engineering Division, The Institution of Engineers (India) pp. 39-43. [2] Hauser,V.L., and Jones, O.R., (1991a) Runoff curve number for the Southern High Plains, Transactions of the ASAE:34(1): pp.142-148. [3] Hauser,V.L., and Jones, O.R., (1991b) SCS curve numbers from short runoff records, Jl. of ASAE Paper No.91-2614, St. Joseph, MI: ASAE. [4] Hawkins, R.H., (1978) Runoff curve numbers with varying site moisture, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, 104 (IR4). Pp. 389-398. [5] Johnson, R.R., (1998) An Investigation of Curve number applicability to Watersheds in Excess of 25000 Hectares, Journal of Environmental Hydrology, 6: Paper.7., July.
[6] Mishra, S. K., Jain, M. K., Pandey, R. P., Singh, V. P., (2005) Catchment area-based evaluation of the AMCdependent SCS-CN-based rainfallrunoff models, [7] Hydrological Processes, Volume 19, Issue 14 , pp. 2701 - 2718 [8] National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSSLUP), (1998) Soils of Karnataka, Soils of India Series, Publ. No 47, pp. 88. [9] Ponce, V.M., (1989) Engineering Hydrology Principles and Practices, San Diego State University. [10] USDA Soil Conservation Service, (1984), Users guide for the CREAMS computer model, USDA-SCS Engineering Division, Technical Release 72, Washington, DC. [11] Woodward, D.E., (1991), progress report ARS/SCS curve number work group, Jl. of ASAE Paper No.91-2607, St Joseph, MI: ASAE. [12] Yoo, K.H., Soileau, M., (1993), Runoff Curve Number determined by three methods under conventional and conservation tillage, Jl. of ASAE, Vol.36(1), pp. 57-62.
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Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume High-Performance Concrete

M. NAZEER*, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN**, and S.V. RAJEEVA***
*Department of Civil Engineering, TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, India. ** Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivanagar-575025, India ***Department of Civil Engineering, Dayananda Sagar College of Engg, Bangalore, India * E-mail:nazeertkm@gmail.com Abstract: This paper presents the results of an investigation dealing with the effects of curing periods and the level of replacement of cement with silica fume on the strength and chloride diffusion rate of a few High-Performance Concrete (HPC) Mixes. Laboratory investigations were carried out to determine the chloride diffusion characteristics by Simple Immersion Test and Rapid Chloride Permeability Test. HPC was designed for a target mean strength of 70 MPa. A part of cement was replaced by silica fume at 8, 10 and 12% by mass of cement and the concrete was examined for both strength development and chloride penetration resistance. All mixes were prepared with w/b ratio 0.3, total binder content 483 kg/m3 and coarse aggregate content 1050 kg/m3. Four different mixes with varying silica fume content were examined. The fine aggregate content was modified in silica fume admixed mixes in order to keep the paste volume constant. The experimental study shows that the prolonged moist curing and higher silica fume content improve the chloride penetration resistance of concrete. Keywords: hpc; supplementary cementitious materials; silica fume; permeability; chloride diffusion Introduction: Corrosion is the process by which a refined metal reverts back to its natural state by an oxidation reaction with a non-metallic environment (Broomfield, 1997). The corrosion of steel in concrete is basically an electrochemical process. The damage of concrete resulting from corrosion of embedded steel manifests in the form of expansion, cracks, spalling of concrete, reduction in steel cross sectional area and reduction of bond between steel and concrete. Depending on the oxidation condition, the volume of rust may increase upto six times the volume of pure iron (Mehta and Monteiro, 1997). Concrete is a strong alkaline medium (pH 12-13). According to Pourbaix diagram of electrochemical potential verses pH value, (Hou et al., 2004) corrosion of steel occurs only at pH values lower than 9 or higher than 14. A protective, thin, impermeable iron oxide film on the surface makes the steel passive to corrosion. This passive state can be inhibited by the destruction of this passive film due to the entry of aggressive ions like chlorides and sulphates or by an acidification of the environment closer to the steel reinforcement by carbonation (Poupard et al., 2004). The reinforcement corrosion in concrete exposed to marine environment is due to ingress of chloride ions into concrete through the pores. To reduce the ingress of chloride into concrete, it is necessary to make the concrete less permeable. Addition of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) will reduce the volume of pores to a greater extent and the pores will also be discontinuous, resulting in better strength and durability performance. The discontinuity in capillary pores of such concrete is due to the continued cement hydration and also due to pozzolanic reactivity. Also, for lower w/b ratios, pore volumes will be minimum and thus the moisture exchange between hardened concrete and the environment is minimized (Zhang et al., 1999). A large volume of literature (Mullick, 2000., Papadakis, 2000.,
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Dehwah et al., 2002., shi, 2004) is available on the strength and durability studies of concretes incorporating SCMs. The addition of mineral admixtures in concrete may create a dilution of its alkalinity in the beginning; however it improves the pore structure on hardening. The pozzolanic activity further improves the pore structure by forming secondary cementitious material after consuming calcium hydroxide (CH) resulting from hydration of cement. Hence it is important to study chloride diffusion in concrete with SCM. Experimental Investigation: In the present investigation, four concrete mixes have been studied for strength and performance to chloride diffusion. Chloride diffusion was examined by the Simple Immersion Test (SIT) and by Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT). Among the mixes, one was prepared with cement as the only binder (control mix) and the other three mixes were prepared by partially replacing the cement content with silica fume at 8, 10 and 12 percent (by mass). The water/binder ratio, superplasticiser dosage and coarse aggregate content were kept constant for all mixes. Materials Used: A brief description of the materials used and their physical properties are discussed below: Cement: Ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS 12269-1987 was used. Fine Aggregate: Locally available river-bed sand having specific gravity 2.60 and fineness modulus of 2.17 was used as fine aggregate. The grading of fine aggregate conforms to ZONE III of IS 383-1970. Coarse Aggregate: Crushed granite chips having specific gravity 2.67 and fineness modulus 6.67 were used as coarse aggregate. The particle size varied from 6mm to 20mm.
Silica fume: Silica fume required for the work was supplied by Elkem India. Superplasticiser: A commercially available sulphonated naphthaline polymer based high range water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) was used. Its optimum dosage (2.25 percent by mass of binder) was determined by Marsh cone test method. Water: Tap water, fit for drinking, was used for casting and moist curing of specimens. The chemical compositions of cementitious materials are presented in Table 1. Cement is examined for different characterisation tests as per the relevant standards and the results are presented in Table 2. Scanning Electron microscope images of cementitious materials are shown in Plate 1 and Plate 2. Coarse aggregate and fine aggregates used for the investigation were tested for particle size distribution and specific gravity, and the results are presented in Table 3. Mix Proportions: Concrete mix was proportioned for a target mean strength of 70MPa. The method adopted for the design was similar to the one recommended in the ACI Manual of Concrete Practice (ACI 211). The design basically involves the determination of w/b ratio for the required compressive strength. After selecting suitable water content, depending on the dosage of superplasticiser, the cement requirement was then determined. The coarse aggregate content was fixed based on the average shape of the aggregate particles. The coarse aggregate content was kept constant in all the mixes under investigation as its variation may affect the mechanical properties of resulting mix. The fine aggregate content was then calculated using the absolute volume basis. The volume of entrapped air was assumed to be 2 percent (Aitcin, 1998). The total coarse aggregate content was of two fractions, namely, Fraction I : Size varying from 10mm to 20mm, and Fraction II : Size varying from 6mm to 10mm, blended in the ratio 60:40. Concrete mixes with partial cement
M. NAZEER, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN, and S.V. RAJEEVA
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replacement by silica fume were arrived by adjusting the total sand content in order to keep the paste volume constant for all mixes necessitated by the difference in the specific gravity of cement and silica fume. The details of mix proportions used in the investigation after modifying the trial mix are presented in Table 4. Casting of Specimen: Concrete cylinders of dimensions 150mm diameter and 300mm long and 100mm cubes were prepared from the different mixes mentioned. A horizontal shaft mixer was used for this purpose and the mixing sequence as outlined below was followed: The mixer was initially loaded with coarse aggregate and run for 30 seconds adding just sufficient water for wetting the surface of aggregate. The fine aggregate was introduced to the mixer and mixed continuously till the wet mixture looked homogeneous. Cement and silica fume were added to the mixer and about three-fourth of the water, pre-mixed with the required quantity of superplasticiser was poured in gradually. Mixing was continued for a period not less than four minutes. The balance of water-superplasticiser mixture was added and the mixing was continued for a further period of not less than one minute. This mix was used for casting specimens. Preparation and Testing of Specimen: Cylindrical specimens were cast in cast-iron moulds 150mm diameter and 300mm long. After 24 hours of casting specimens were demoulded and put in water for curing. After their attaining sufficient strength, the specimens were sliced to 50mm thick discs using a diamond toothed saw after discarding 25mm of concrete from the top and bottom of the cast cylinders. The curing process was continued for periods of 3, 7 and 14 days. Cubes (100mm size) were also prepared from each mix for the compressive strength determination.
Compressive Strength: The cubes were tested for the compressive strength after 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90 days of moist curing. Simple Immersion Test: The sliced specimens (150mmx50mm) taken out of water, after specified period of curing, were surface dried and coated with bituminous material to prevent the entry of chloride ions except through one face. This ensures unidirectional movement of ions through concrete when it was immersed in anionic solution. The specimens were immersed in 5% NaCl solution. The specimens were then taken out after 7, 28, 56 and 90 days of immersion and split length-wise. The split surface was sprayed with Silver nitrate solution. The depth of chloride ion penetration was measured from the colour change along the thickness of the specimen at six locations on each split piece and their average was taken to calculate the coefficient of diffusion. Rapid Chloride Permeability Test: The sliced specimens (150mmx50mm) taken out of water, after specified period of curing were placed in a dirt-free environment till testing. The testing was done at the age of 28, 56 and 90 days. A potential of 60V DC was applied between two electrodes placed on the opposite surfaces of the specimen which had been exposed to 0.3 M NaOH solution on one side (Anode) and 3% by weight NaCl solution on the other side (Cathode). The test runs for 6 hours and the total charge passed through the specimen during this period is calculated from the current-time plot (Basheer, 2001). Results and Discussion: It is observed that the addition of silica fume caused a reduction in slump value as shown in Table 4, which however did not affect the mouldability of the concrete. On hardening within moulds the specimens did not show any honeycombing. It was noted that at the administered dosage of superplasticiser (2.25 percent by mass of binder), there was a little delay in the hardening of control concrete, while earlier setting was observed
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for silica fume admixed concretes. This indicates that the pozzolanic reaction of silica fume started even at the early hours of hydration. The development of compressive strength of all mixes upto an age of 90 days is shown in Fig. 1. Higher level of replacement of cement with silica fume caused increase in compressive strength at all ages of test. However, the strength of SFC12 shows a lower value at later age mostly due to the imperfect compaction. Also, the rate of strength development of such mixes was much faster in early ages (upto 28 days). The depths of chloride ion penetration from simple immersion test are used to calculate the chloride ion diffusion coefficient (Basheer, 2001) to get an idea of permeability of concrete. The equation used is as follows: Eqn(1) Where Xd the chloride penetration depth in m, t - the time of exposure in s, and D chloride diffusion coefficient in m2/s. The calculated diffusion coefficient values are used to classify the concrete in terms of their permeability as per the recommendations of the Concrete Society as given below (Basheer, 2001): High permeability concrete: >5x10-12 m2/s. Average permeability concrete: (1 to 5) x 10-12 m2/s. Low permeability concrete:< 1 x 10-12 m2/s. The variation of diffusion coefficient with period of exposure for different curing conditions is plotted and is shown in Fig. 2 to Fig. 4. From these plots, it is clear that for all mixes the coefficients are less than those specified for low permeability concrete. However, the early age test result shows rather higher values of diffusion coefficient at 7 days for control mix and SFC 8 mix. The progressive decrease in values indicates that, the pore refinement is a continuous process for all mixes. It is also observed that the control mix requires longer period of moist curing for pore refinement. The differences in diffusion
coefficient values for a particular age of test with different curing conditions are higher for control concrete and this reduces with the increase in silica fume content. Mixes with higher silica fume content require minimum moist curing for pore refinement; this is due to the enhanced pozzolanic activity of silica fume. The current (ampere) values observed in the Rapid Chloride Permeability Test are used to calculate the total charge passed through the specimen in Coulombs. The area under the current vs time plot is calculated using a formula given in ASTM C1202. To account for the non-standard dimension (diameter) of the specimen used in the test, the calculated charge values are corrected using Eqn (2).
Eqn (2) where Qs is the charge passed through 100mm diameter standard specimen, Qx is the charge passed through x mm diameter test specimen. The total charge passed through the specimen at the age of 56 and 90 days and for different curing conditions is plotted against the silica fume content and presented in Fig. 5. It is observed that, the addition of silica fume in concrete reduces the total charge conductivity. The reduction is more pronounced upto a replacement level of 10 percent. For higher percentages, there is a tendency of increase in charge passed except for concretes, which are moist cured for a longer (7 days or more) period. The probable reason for this higher current through concrete mix with 12% replacement may be due to the poor compaction achieved owing to the reduced workability. All the curves shown in Fig. 5 follow an exponential relation in the form: Eqn(3) Where C is the total charge passed through the specimen during the test period in Coulombs, A is a factor depending on the period of moist curing and age of concrete at the time of test, r is a factor depending on age of concrete at the time of test, and s is the percentage silica fume content in
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concrete. The approximate value of the factor r is 0.09 for 90 days test and 0.08 for 56 days test. Whereas, the factor A may be computed from the relation: Eqn(4) where Cp is the moist curing period in days and P is a constant, 1050 for 90 days test and 1200 for 56 days test. There is an interesting relation between the initial current, I0 (in mA) and the total charge passed, C (Coulombs) through the specimen over six hours test period. Fig. 6 shows this variation irrespective of the silica fume content. This variation satisfies a linear relation in the form: Eqn(5) Accounting for the silica fume content, the parameter k may be written as: Eqn(6) Based on the total charge passed through the specimen, the concrete can be rated as follows as per the ASTM standards: Total charge passed (Coulomb) < 100 100-1000 1000-2000 2000-4000 > 4000
under the category of very low permeability concrete. Conclusions: The effect of silica fume on workability, strength and resistance to chloride ion penetration are investigated and compared for three different curing ages. For the given mix proportions, the addition of silica fume reduces the workability of concrete. Use of high range water reducing admixture is essential to enhance the workability of concrete. For higher levels of replacement of cement with silica fume, higher dosage of superplasticiser may be required for maintaining workability. There is a general trend that the strength of concrete mix increases as the replacement level increases except for SFC12 mix, probably due to imperfect compaction. The chloride ion diffusion coefficients calculated from the depths of chloride ion penetration from simple immersion tests indicates that, 7 days of moist curing makes the silica fume admixed concrete more impermeable. The pore refinement increases with increase in silica fume content. The total charge passed through the specimen in RCPT decreases with increase in silica fume content. The optimum replacement level of cement is 10 percent with respect to the total charge passed through the specimen. There exists a linear relationship between the total charge passed and the initial current in RCP test. Both prolonged moist curing and higher silica fume content improve the chloride penetration resistance of concrete.
Chloride permeability rating Negligible Very low Low Medium High
The total charge passed through the specimens at the age of 90 days is plotted against the period of moist curing and shown in Fig. 7. It is clear that, the charge passed reduces with the addition of silica fume. For any mix, prolonged moist curing causes the reduction in the value of charge passed. This is more pronounced for control mix. For all silica fume admixed concretes, the curves almost coincided, showing that even a small percentage of silica fume addition causes pronounced reduction in chloride penetrability of concrete. All concrete mixes have total charge passed between 100 and 1000 Coulombs and fall
Acknowledgements: The authors acknowledges the support of M/s ELKEM INDIA (P) LIMITED, M/s FOSROC CHEMICALS (India) Pvt. Ltd. and M/s GRASIM INDUSTRIES LIMITED for the supply of silica fume, superplasticiser and cement respectively used during the present investigation.
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References: [1] ACI 211-1-91, (1993), Standard practice for selecting proportions for normal, heavy weight and mass concrete ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1. [2] Aitcin, P.-C., High Performance Concrete. E&FN SPON, New York. 1998. [3] ASTM C1202-97, Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concretes Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 04.02, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 2003. [4] Basheer, P.A.M, Permeation Analysis, in Handbook of analytical techniques in concrete science and technology, Principles, techniques and applications, Ed., V.S.Ramachandran and James J. Beaudoin, Noyes publications, USA., 2001. 658-737. [5] Broomfield JP, Corrosion of Steel in Concrete-Understanding, Investigation and Repair, E&FN SPON, London, 1997. [6] Dehwah HAF, Austin SA, and Maslehuddin M, Chloride Induced Reinforcement Corrosion in Blended Cement Concretes Exposed to Chloride Sulphate Environments, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 54(5), (2002), 355-364. [7] Hou WM, Chang PK, and Hwang CL, A Study on Anti-corrosion Effect in High-Performance Concrete by the Pozzolanic Reaction of Slag, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 34(4), (2004) 615-622. [8] IS 12269 1987, Specifications for 53 Grade ordinary Portland cement, BIS, New Delhi.
[9] IS 383-1970, Specifications for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete, BIS, New Delhi. [10] Mehta PK, and Monteiro PJM. Concrete-Microstructure, Properties and Materials, Indian Concrete Institute, Chennai, 1997. [11] Mullick AK, Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete-an Interactive Durability Problem, The Indian Concrete Journal, (2000) 168176. [12] Papadakis VG, Effect of Supplementary Cementing Materials on Concrete Resistance against Carbonation and Chloride Ingress. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 30(2) (2000) 291-299. [13] Poupard O, Mokhtar AA, and Dumargue P., Corrosion by Chlorides in Reinforced Concrete: Determination of Chloride Concentration Threshold by Impedance Spectroscopy, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 34(6), (2004), 991-1000. [14] Shi, C, Effect of Mixing Proportions of Concrete in its Electrical Conductivity and the Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (ASTM C 1202 or AASHTO T 277) Results, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 34(3), (2004), 537-545. [15] Zhang MH, Bilodeau A, Malhotra VM, Kim KS, and Kim JC, Concrete Incorporating Supplimentary Cementing Materials: Effect on Compressive Strength and Resistance to Chloride Ion Penetration, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 96(2), (1999), 181-189.
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Plate 1: SEM Image of Cement.
Table 2: Physical Properties of Cement.
Plate 2: SEM Image of Silica fume. Table 3: Properties of Aggregate. Property Specific gravity Fineness modulus Grading zone (IS 383) Fine aggregate 2.6 2.17 Zone III Coarse aggregate 2.67 6.65 -
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Table 4: Trial Mix Details.
Fig.2 Comparison of diffusion coefficient for mixes moist cured at 3 and 7 days.
Fig.1 Development of compressive strength.
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Fig.6 Relation between total charge passed and initial current.
Fig.5 Effect of silicafume content, moist curing period and test age on total charge passed through the specimen.
Fig.7 Effect of silica fume content and period of moist curing on charge passed at 90 days RCP Test.
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Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of High Strength Concrete
K. CHINNARAJU*, K. SUBRAMANIAN** AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR***
* Structural Engineering Division, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India ** Department of Civil Engg, Coimbatore Inst. of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India *** P.P.G. Institute of Technology, Saravanampatti, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India E-mail: kcraju@annauniv.edu, drkscit@rediffmail.com, srr_senthilkumar@yahoo.com Abstract: To study the role of silica fume and Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS) on the strength characteristics of high strength concrete a test program has been carried out. A set of 24 different concrete mixtures were cast and tested with different cement replacement levels (0%, 10%, 20% and 30%) of GGBS with silica fume as addition (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5% by weight of cement). For each mixture, super plasticizer has been added at different dosage values to achieve a constant range of slump for desired workability with a constant water-binder (w/b) ratio. Based on the test results the influence of such admixtures on strength aspects were critically analyzed and discussed. A statistical model has been developed to relate compressive strength with flexural and split tensile strengths. Key words: GGBS, Silica Fume, High Strength Concrete, Compressive Strength, Flexural Strength, Split Tensile Strength Introduction: The use of GGBS as additive to cement is in use for a reasonably long period due to overall economy in its production as well as the improved performance characteristics of concrete in aggressive environments. GGBS is a glassy material from by-product of blast furnace iron making. It mainly contains calcium silico aluminate with high reactivity [1]. GGBS can improve the fluidity of fresh concrete, reduce its bleeding and postpone the setting when Portland cement is partially replaced by GGBS in concrete. The early-age strength of the concrete with Portland cement partially replaced by GGBS is almost equal to that of the concrete before replacement while the strength at later ages is even much higher. The introduction of GGBS has a great effect on the microstructure of concrete, which includes the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between aggregates and the hardened bulk cement paste. The ITZ is a weak zone in the microstructure of concrete, but it is one of the most important factors influencing the performance of concrete. The existence of a water-membrane and pores at the ITZ of aggregates results in a much more open microstructure and a high orientation of calcium hydroxide crystals in the zone [4]. The rate of hydration due to addition of GGBS is known to be very slow and hence the silica fume which is very rich in reactive silica content is added along with the GGBS to accelerate the hydration process and compensate the draw backs [5 - 9]. The effect of silica fume in concrete can be explained in two mechanisms, namely the filler effect and the pozzolanic effect. A properly proportioned GGBS and silica fume in concrete mix improves properties of concrete that may not be achievable through the use of Portland cement alone [8]. Experimental Program: To study the effect of GGBS and silica fume in the strength properties of high performance concrete specimens as mentioned in Table 3. GGBS has been used as cement replacement material for 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% cement replacement levels with different values of silica fume (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5% by weight of cement) as addition.
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Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of High Strength Concrete levels for GGBS was 10%, 20% and 30% while those of silica fume were 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% 10% and 12.5% by weight of cement as addition. The mixture proportions are summarized in Table 3 in which the mixtures were designated according to the type and the amount of cementitious materials included. Casting and Testing For the compressive strength determination, 100 mm size cube specimens were used, while 150 x 300 mm cylinder specimens were used for determining the split tensile strength, and for flexural tensile strength, 100x100x500 mm beam specimens were used. A symmetrical two-point loading setup, with beam span of 400 mm, was used for the flexural test. All the specimens were moist cured under water at room temperature until testing. Average of the strength of three specimens has been considered as the strength value. Specimens were tested according to relevant Indian Standards. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS All the 24 mixtures were tested for their corresponding strengths and their results are shown in figures 1 through 4. Figure 1 shows the compressive strength on 7th day whereas figure 2 shows compressive strength on 28th day. From these results it can be seen that at 7th day the compressive strength due to the addition of GGBS as partial replacement of cement is less than the control mix. This is due to the fact that the hydration process will be slow with the addition of GGBS. However when the silica fume is added an appreciable increase in the compressive strength is noticed which is due to the higher percentage of silica content in it. Also it is observed that the ultimate compressive strength reaches when the silica fume addition is 10 percent. The rate of increase in compressive strength is high at 7days and less at 28 days. It can be seen that the increase in compressive strength at 28 days is almost negligible. Split Tensile Strength Figure 3 represents the variation of split tensile strength at 28 days due to the
Materials The properties of the selected materials for this experimental study have been reported as below: Cement Ordinary Portland cement 53 grade with physical and chemical properties as given in table 1 has been used in this experimental study. GGBS Slag(GGBS) obtained from Andhra Cements, Vizak, India confirming to IS: 12089 as mineral admixture in dry powder form has been used in this study. Its physical and chemical properties are given in table 1. Silica fume The silica fume obtained from the M/s ELKEM Pvt Ltd , Bombay, India confirming to ASTM C1240 was used for this study. Its physical and chemical properties are given in table 1. Fine aggregate Locally available river sand (coarse sand) confirming to Grading Zone II of IS: 383 1970 was used in this experimental work. Its physical properties are dealt in table 2. Coarse aggregate Locally available crushed blue granite stones confirming to graded aggregate of nominal size 12.5 mm as per IS: 383 1970 was used in this experimental work. Its physical properties are dealt in table 2. Super Plasticizer Chemical admixture based on Sulphonated Naphthalene Formaldehyde condensate CONPLAST SP430 conforming to IS: 9103 1999 and ASTM C 494 was used in this study. Water Potable water with pH value of 7.0 and confirming to IS 456-2000 was used for making concrete and curing the specimen as well. Mix Proportions A total of 24 concrete mixtures were designed as per ACI 211.4R having a constant water/binder ratio of 0.32 and total binder content of 583 kg/m3. The control mixture of grade M60 included only ordinary Portland cement (OPC) as the binder while the remaining mixtures incorporated the GGBS as cement replacement material and silica fume as addition. The replacement
K. CHINNARAJU, K. SUBRAMANIAN AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR
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addition of GGBS as cement replacements up to 30% with the addition of silica fume up to 12.5% by weight of cement. It is observed that the increase in split tensile strength is moderate when silica fume addition is up to 10% beyond that there is no increase of split tensile strength instead of that a appreciable drop in split tensile strength is noticed. It is also observed during tests that the failure of the specimen was sudden because of more brittleness. The ultimate split tensile strength was obtained for the combination of GGBS at cement replacement level of 20% along with the addition of 10% silica fume. Flexural Strength Figure 4 shows the variation of flexural strength at 28 days age for cement replacements up to 30% by GGBS with silica fume addition of up to 12.5%. The change in flexural strength is very limited for most of the combinations except at cement replacement level of 20% by GGBS along with the addition of 10% silica fume. It is also observed that the flexural strength decreases with higher rate beyond the addition of 10% silica fume. Correlation Analysis Figure 5 shows the correlation between square root of compressive strength at 28 days and split tensile strength and Figure 6 shows the correlation between square root of compressive strength at 28 days and flexural strength. A linear regression analysis has been made and the relationship between compressive strength and split tensile strength, flexural strengths have been arrived along with their corresponding regression coefficient and shown in the figures 5 and 6 for various addition of silica fume. For all these relations the value of regression coefficients shows the better degree of reliability over the relations. By knowing the compressive strength of concrete for the percentage of addition of silica fume along GGBS replacement levels the corresponding flexural / split tensile strengths can be arrived at with the appropriate correlation equations. Conclusions Extensive experimentation has been carried out to determine the effect of addition of
silica fume with the different cement replacements by GGBS on the compressive, split and flexural strengths of high performance concrete. A statistical analysis also has been performed to get the generalized relations between the said strengths. Based on the above experimental and analytical analysis the following conclusions can be drawn. 1. There is no enhancement in compressive strength at 7 days due to replacement of cement by GGBS, however due to addition of silica fume there is appreciable increase in compressive strength and also noticed that the increase in compressive strength is maximum at 10% addition of silica fume. 2. Even though the compressive strength decreases at 7th day due to the addition of GGBS, the 28th day compressive strength attains almost the control specimen value. This shows that the rate of decrease of compressive strength at early stage is compensated at the later stage due to the addition of GGBS and the contribution of silica fume for the later developments of strength is negligible. 3. Based on the results obtained it can be concluded that the 10 % addition of silica fume with any level of cement replacements by GGBS gives the optimum value of compressive strength, split and flexural strengths as well. It can also be concluded that the replacements of 20% by GGBS with 10% addition of silica fume yields an overall optimum value. References: [1] Ganesh Babu, K., Sree Rama Kumar, V., Efficiency of GGBS in concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 30, (2000), pp. 1031 1036. [2] Feng Nai-Qian, High Performance Concrete, China Architecture and Building Press, Beijing, 1996. [3] Tan Ke-Feng, Xin-Cheng Pu, Strengthening effects of FGFA, GGBS, and their combination, Cement and Concrete Research, 28 (12), (1998), pp. 18191825.
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Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of High Strength Concrete fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag, Cement concrete research, 25, (2003), pp. 293 299. [8] Ganesh Babu.K., Surya Prakash.P.V., Efficiency of Silica Fume in Concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 25 (6), (1995), pp. 1273 1283. [9] Rajamane,N.P., Annie Peter,J., Dattatreya,J.K., Neelamegam, M., and Gopalakrishnan, S., Improvement in properties of High Performance Concrete with Partial Replacement of cement by Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag, Institution of Engineers (I) CV, 84, (2003), pp. 38 41.
[4] Gao, J.M., Qian, C.X., Liu, H.F.. Wang, B., Li. L., ITZ microstructure of concrete containing GGBS, Cement and Concrete Research, 35, (2005), pp. 1299 1304. [5] Hassan, K.E., Cabrera J.G., Maliehe, R.S., The effect of mineral admixtures on the properties of highperformance concrete, Cement and Concrete Composites, 22, (2000), pp.267 271 [6] Malhotra, V.M., Mehta, P.K., Pozzolanic and cementitious materials, Advances in Concrete Technology, Gordon and Breach, London, 1996. [7] Gengying Li and Xiaohua Zhao, Properties of concrete incorporating
Table.1 Physical and Chemical properties of cement and admixtures Property/ composition Physical properties Specific Surface Area (Blaine Fineness) (m2/kg) Specific Gravity Standard Consistency Initial Setting Time Final Setting Time Bulk density (kg/m3) Physical form Chemical composition Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) Calcium Oxide (CaO) Magnesium Oxide (MgO) Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) Sodium Oxide (Na2O) Potassium Oxide (K2O) Loss on Ignition Cement GGBS Silica fume
385
400 to 600 2.85 to 2.95 1050 to 1375 Powder form 33.05 % 20.62 % 1.34 % 34.09 % 9.06 % 0.58 % 0.23 % 0.30 % -
20900
3.15 31% 2 hrs 4 hrs 20.78 % 4.44 % 2.88 % 63.78 % 3.66 % 2.75 0.46 0.64 0.61 % % % %
2.20 600 to 700 Powder form 90 - 96 % 0.5 - 0.8 % 0.2 - 0.8 % 0.1 - 0.5 % 0.5 - 1.5 % 0.1 - 0.4 % 0.2 - 0.7 % 0.4 - 1.0 % 0.7 - 2.5 %
Table.2 Basic Properties of Aggregates International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 450-457
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Table.3 Mix proportions
455
Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of High Strength Concrete Table.4 Test Results
70
Compressive Strength (MPa)
60
50
GGBS 0 GGBS10 GGBS20 GGBS30
40 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Slica Fume Content (%)
Fig 1
Compressive Strength on 7th Day
456
90.00
80.00
Compressive Strength (MPa)
70.00
GGBS 0
60.00
GGBS10 GGBS20 GGBS30
50.00 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Fig 2
6.00
Compressive Strength on 28th Day
Split Tensile Strength (MPa)
5.00
4.00
GGBS 0 GGBS10 GGBS20 GGBS30
3.00 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Fig.3 Split Tensile Strength

12.00
11.00
10.00
Flexural Strength
9.00
8.00
GGBS 0
7.00
GGBS10 GGBS20
6.00
GGBS30
5.00 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Fig.4 Flexural Strength International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 450-457
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Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of High Strength Concrete
Fig.5 Square Root of Compressive Strength Vs Split Tensile Strength
Fig.6 Square Root of Compressive Strength Vs Flexural Strength
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Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells
MONSON C. C*, MURUGAPPAN. A* and GOVINARAJAN. M**
* Department of Civil Engineering Annamali University, India ** Muthiah Polytechnic College, Annamalainagar, India E-mail: profam@sify.com Abstract: Kinetic studies on the degradation of vegetable solid waste by microbial composting process in a rotary in-vessel under controlled conditions and varying periods of rotational spells in batch process are important for the design of large scale operations. The composting of vegetable waste was carried out, in a motor driven in-vessel at 3 rpm for 14 days, in four sets of experiments with varying periods of rotational spells, namely (i) Control Mix 1 and Control Mix 2 in idle condition without any rotational spell (ii) a total of 12 hour rotation in a day with 3-hour rotational spells followed by 3-hour idle condition in two trials A1 and A2, (iii) a total of 20 hour rotation in a day with 4-hour rotational spells followed by 1-hour idle condition in two trials B1 and B2 and (iv) Continuously for the entire 24 hours in a day in two trials C1 and C2. The combination of bulking agents used in Control Mix1, A1, B1 and C1, were paddy straw and dry leaves while in Control Mix 2, A2, B2 and C2, wood shavings and dry leaves were used. In all the trials, cow dung was used as a starter along with the bulking agents. The reduction in C/N ratio of the waste in the control mixes and in all the trials is critically compared. Kinetic studies have shown remarkable improvement in the reduction of C/N ratio indicating high decomposition rate and carbon loss. The reaction is found to follow first order kinetics. Trial C1, where the rotational spell was continuous for 24 hours, had resulted in a maximum reduction in C/N ratio of 15.9 along with a temperature rise of 64.5C and a higher reaction rate constant of 0.032 day-1.This is considered to be the best when compared with other cases where their periods of rotational spells were lesser and intermittent. This confirms rotations have to be given continuously as it has greatly influenced the decomposition process ensuring the reduction of composting period. Keywords: vegetable solid waste, composting, rotary in-vessel, Bulking agents, kinetics Introduction: Solid waste management (SWM) is largely becoming a complex problem due to high rate of industrialization and population growth in many Indian cities. The enforcement of the environmental legislation, the rising land cost, the shortage of dumping sites and the evolution of 5060% of methane from landfill emissions leading to global warming has all created much more complexity in India (Gupta et al, 1998). Measures adopted to solve them have only multiplied the problems to several folds, as open dumping with poorly designed land fillings have contaminated the soil and underground sources, Moreover, the burning of wastes in open dumps using poorly designed incinerators have led to atmospheric air pollution. These wide spread practices have brought significant health risks for the public and rapid degradation of a healthy environment (Kalamdhad et al, 2009a). Meanwhile, the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers for crop production has left the soil totally depleted of its indigenous nutrients and fertility (Deluca and Deluca, 1997). Scientists and environmentalist pursuing for fast, ecofriendly and cost effective solid waste management alternative for disposing the heterogeneous nature of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) have considered source reduction with decentralized composting as the preferred waste management strategy (Stelmachowski et al,2003).
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Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells controlled conditions for 14 days. The kinetics of the composting are studied in this work for varying periods of rotational spells, so that the composting time period is reduced. Investigation objectives are to find out the (1) decomposition rate of composting vegetable solid wastes with an initial C/N ratio of around 35 in the experiments. (2) Kinetics of the different trials for varying period of rotational spells and (3) the maturity value of C/N ratio of resultant compost during different trials. Materials and Methods: In this study, vegetable wastes collected from the town were taken from the mixed bunch and are shredded to a size of 25 mm as recommended by Rynk (1992) for providing better porosity, aeration and moisture control. The wastes were amended with cow dung for proper microbial inoculation along with bulking agents of combinations of paddy straw and dry leaves in one trial, wood shavings and dry leaves in the other trial of each set of experiment to provide stability, porosity and integrity to the structure as per Zhang Yun and Yong He (2006). The composting of vegetable waste was carried out, in a motor driven in-vessel at 3 rpm for 14 days, in four sets of experiments with varying periods of rotational spells, namely (i) Control Mix1 and Control Mix 2 in idle condition without any rotational spell (ii) a total of 12 hour rotation in a day with 3-hour rotational spells followed by 3-hour idle condition in two trials A1 and A2, (iii) a total of 20 hour rotation in a day with 4-hour rotational spells followed by 1-hour idle condition in two trials B1 and B2 and (iv) Continuously for the entire 24 hours in a day in two trials C1 and C2. Physical and chemical analyses of the substrate, from the start to the end of the trials were carried out. The ratio of the mix of feedstock materials namely, vegetable waste (S), cow dung(M) and the bulking agents (B) are presented in Table 1and 2.
Composting, which is the oldest traditional way of disposal in India helps to degrade the organic portion of waste, so that it may be effectively composted and returned to the soil (Iyengar and Bhave prashant, 2006). The major drawback of such traditional composting is its long process duration, leading to loss of some nutrients in the heterogeneous nature of the end product. In-vessel composting is an effective alternate method to compost in which the high temperature required for destroying pathogenic organisms is achieved and also the organic matter get composted in a much shorter duration, in a better oxygenated environment (Haug, 1993). The in-vessel composting system has several advantages over the windrow system such that food waste and other organic wastes can be successfully composted. It requires less space, and provides high process efficiency in a controlled atmosphere better than windrows (Kim et al, 2008). Composting, though an oxygen consuming, heat-generating microbial process in a highly dynamic system, is moisture dependent for the function of the microbial composting process but, if there is excessive moisture; it will reduce the airspace in compost matrix and causes oxygen limitation to microbes (Sunderberg and Jonsson, 2008). Though various large composting systems have been proposed, many of them have failed in providing optimal operating parameters for effective degrading environment (Bongochgetsakul Nattakorn and Tetsuya Ishida, 2007). This study was conducted to evaluate the performance of composting in a bench scale motorized in-vessel by adopting variations in rotational spells. Out of 39 tonnes of MSW collected from Chidambaram town in Cuddalore district of Tamilnadu state, 12 tonnes are vegetable wastes mainly from the market that can be easily segregated at the source, before they are dumped in landfills in the town outskirts without any proper treatment. Organic fractions of these vegetable wastes were taken for the study in a motor driven rotary in-vessel developed in the laboratory and composted with proper amendments in
MONSON C. C, MURUGAPPAN. A and GOVINARAJAN. M
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Process: The laboratory scale bio-reactor used for bio conversion of the wastes is a cylindrical vessel with a capacity of 50 litres, made of fibre reinforced plastic material with a coating of Vinylester resin material inside to take care of the load and temperature as well as the chemical changes taking place at the time of the conversion process. Further, a 6 mm thick insulation cover is wrapped on the outer surface of the drum to prevent the heat escape during the initial stages of the process. The drum is made to spin around its horizontal axes, with a low rpm motor and controlled with preset timer device to switch on/off. The composting carried out in the Dano reactor typifies the horizontal drum category, had three or more meters larger in diameter and is rotated at 1-2 rpm for a short duration of three days (Haug, 1993 and Dean, 1978). The design of the Eweson system which differs from that of the Dano system is divided into compartments such that the residence time can be varied throughout the drum (Golueke, 1960). The speed of 3 rpm was arbitrarily chosen here in a 0.35m diameter drum to treat a quantity of 9-11kg of waste. The air flow is provided centrally by an aerator through a stationary central pipe from one end of the drum and with an exhaust pipe on the other end to let out the hot gases (Refer figure 1). The air supply is given steadily with an aerator for the initial period at the rate of not less than 10 l/min which satisfies the requirement of 5% oxygen in the chamber as mentioned by Rynk(1992) which is regulated periodically as per the requirement. Fins are provided inside the periphery of the drum to provide proper mixing. The vessel was filled to its 90% of capacity, anticipating quick volume reduction. Cow urine was added along with water whenever the moisture content was below the 50% level to accelerate the process. The ambient temperature at the time of experiments inside the laboratory varied between 28 to 32C.
Measurement of Physical and Chemical Parameters: A 50 g sample was taken once every two days for laboratory analysis. The moisture content of sample was measured after drying at 105C for overnight. The pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) were measured in the condition of solid-to-water mixture (weight: volume = 1:10). The multi pronged probe of Hitachi make was used daily for instant measurement of temperature, EC and moisture content. The dried sample was ground and then used for determination of Volatile Solids (VS) and Total Organic Carbon (TOC). The VS was measured after igniting the sample at 550 C for 2h in a muffle furnace (APHA, 1995). TOC was calculated using the formula (100 - % ash)/1.8 and Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) was measured using semi-micro Kjeldahl method (APHA, 1995, ASAE, 1986). The initial parameters were given for each trial in Table 3. Reaction Rate Constant: Many researchers have made the kinetic studies of substrate degradation and reported that the reaction is based on first order function. Haug(1993) has given the model based on the BVS which showed a good fit to the selected BOD data at constant temperature over a composting period of 60-348 days and the degradation rate follows the equation of the form given in equation (1). (1) where BVS = the quantity of biodegradable volatile solids (kg), t = time (days) and k = degradation rate constant (g BVS/day). Equation (1) is used to define the first order reaction kinetics of the system. The assumption of first order kinetics has worked well in describing numerous processes involving biological oxidation. A first order model without temperature corrections has also shown evidence of fairly good fit at longer time periods exceeding 70,84 and 168 days in the experiments conducted by Bernal et al (1993).
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Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells highest sustenance of temperature above 55C for more than 4 days, fared better than other trials showing evidence of higher rate of decomposition. The trials A1 and A2 have reached a temperature of 61C and 61.5C on the third day and the temperature in the trials B1 and B2 shot up to 63.5C and 61.5C whereas in trials C1 and C2 the temperature shot up to 64.5C and 64C respectively on the third day. Composting conducted by Kalamdhad et al, (2009b) in a rotary drum at different time intervals, at the gap of 6 h (Run A), 12 h (Run B), 18 h (Run C) and 24 h (Run D) for 15 d has resulted in longer thermophilic phase with a higher rise at temperature of 58 C in Run D (24 h turning frequency) and also obtaining higher mineralization. The sustenance of temperature above 55C was observed for a longer period of 4 days in trials C1and C2 and for the remaining trials it happened for 3 days and declined from 4th day on wards, but all the trials satisfied the stipulations laid by USEPA - 40 CFR Part 503(1994) guidelines that the materials should reach (a) temperature of 40C for at least five consecutive days or (b) 55C for at least three consecutive days or alternately (c) 55C for a minimum period of four hours either in In-vessel or in windrows or in static composting for essential pathogenic destruction. C/N Ratio: The reduction of C/N ratio which is one of the predominant indicators showing the maturity of compost (Haug, 1993) is found to have steep slope in all the trials indicating good decomposition taking place inside the vessel except for the trials kept as Control, the reduction of C/N ratio is from 34.4128.57 in Control Mix1 and 36.82-30.48 in Control Mix2, which is far less compared to all other trials (refer Table 3). The reduction of C/N ratio in all other trials carried out clearly indicated the gradual reduction from 35.36-25.92 in trial A1 and 34.55-23.38 in A2 shown in Figure 3 and 4. In trials B1 and B2 where the rotational spell has been increased to 20 hours a day, there is a marked improvement in the reduction of
Data on Carbon constituents have been expressed here on a C-basis assuming the TOC in percentage as the degradation value against time, it should be noted that the TOC content are calculated from the directly measured values of volatile solids. (2) where C is the biodegradable volatile solids being the remaining mass at any time (%), k is the degradation rate constant (day-1) and t is the time (days).The potential residual amount represents a recalcitrant of the organic matter or C represented in equation (2) does not degrade fully and the degradation function does not reach zero as it requires long term studies. Integrating the equation (2) and letting C = Co initially when t = 0, it gives (3) First order reactions are fitted linearly following equation (3) to find the rate of decomposition in batch system of study. Kinetic plots are obtained by plotting the ln (C/Co) at any time versus time. The R2 value of the best fitted straight line was obtained in each case. The degradation reaction rate constant kday-1 was calculated as the slope of the fittest straight line which was done for all the three sets of trials. The decomposition rate is also ascertained by plotting the C/N ratio versus time. These values together could be used to determine the optimum conditions for the desired period of rotational spells to be given. Results and Discussions: Temperature: The evolution of temperature profile shown by all the trials is shown in Figure 2 ranges between a value of 40.5C in Control Mix 2 to a peak of 64.5C in trial C1 occurring on the third day after the initial increase shown on the 1st and 2nd day. The temperature rose to a high of 64.5C in the trial C1 followed by 64C < 63.5C <61C < 60.5C< 59 C<42 C <40.5 C, in the trials C2, B2, B1, A2, A1,Control Mix 2 and Control Mix 1 respectively. The Trial C1 having 24 hour rotational spell, showed the
462
C/N ratio from 34.24-17.58 and 35.2617.84 respectively, as shown in Figure 3 and 4. The maximum reduction in the C/N ratio from 34.51-15.90 and 35.31-16.48 is observed in trials C1 and C2 with rotational spells for the entire 24 hours, as shown in Figure 3 and 4. For trials B1 and B2, the values of C/N ratio are almost close to 17 (17.58 and17.84) as indicated in Table 3 as well as in Figure 3 and 4. The reduction in C/N ratio in trials C1 and C2 has obtained the acceptable value of less than 17 for compost as indicated by Iyengar and Bhave prashant (2006). Decomposition Rate: The decomposition rates for the trials are obtained by linear plot between C/N ratios versus time. Figure 3 shows the reduction rate of C/N ratio for trials Control Mix1, A1, B1 andC1 and Figure 4 shows C/N ratio for trials Control Mix2, A2, B2 andC2 employed in the study. In Control Mix 1 and Control Mix 2, the C/N reduction is found to be at the rate of 0.377 day-1 and 0.382 day-1 .In trials A1 and A2, the C/N reduction is found to be at the rate of 0.695 day-1 and 0.718 day-1 respectively. The trials B1 and B2 attained a decomposition rate of 1.153 day1 and 1.192 day-1 respectively. The maximum rate of reduction of C/N ratio of 1.308 day-1 is found in trial C1, and trial C2 showed a value of 1.230 day-1. The straight lines are best fitted to the reduction in C/N ratio with time as R-squared values are ranging in a narrow band of 0.983 for trial B2 to 0.922 for trial A2. Reaction Rate Constant: Correlation between ln(C/Co) with respect to time has been fitted linearly and the slopes of the lines have been found to vary with different trials (Refer Figure 5 and 6). The rate constants arrived in the trials carried out by Hamoda et al (1998) indicated high values of 0.17 for a C/N ratio of 30 for the 0.5kg of MSW treated in a 2 litres erlenmeyer conical flask provided with a rate of aeration of 0.3l/h and without any rotation in an enclosed environment, which may be due to the smaller amount of substrate used in that small environment. In peat composting carried out by Eklind and
Kirchmann (2000) in an octagonal rotatable drum of capacity 125 litres for a lengthier period of 590 days by manual agitation given daily, gave a reaction rate constant of 0.061 for organic carbon decomposition following a first order degradation function. Keener and Elwell (1998) has found out the bioconversion to be of first order reaction and the reaction rate constant ranges inbetween 0.024 to 0.083 day-1. Figures 5 and 6 show the plots of ln (C/Co) versus time and the linear fits of trials Control Mix1, A1,B1 and C1, and for trials Control Mix 2,A2,B2 and C2 respectively. Table 5 shows the reaction rate constants for reduction in TOC in different trials. In Control Mix 1 and Control Mix 2, the reaction rate constant is found to be at the rate of 0.005 day-1 and 0.007 day-1 respectively which is of the lowest order compared to all other trials. The reaction rate constants in trials A1 and A2 are found to be 0.008 day-1 and 0.009 day-1 respectively, which are far below the acceptable range of 0.024 day-1 to 0.083 day-1 suggested by Keener and Elwell (1998) Trials B1 and B2 with a 20 hour rotational spells per day showed higher values of reaction rate constant (0.017 day1 and0.016 day-1). These values also fall below the minimum acceptable range of first order reaction rate constant of 0.024 day-1 to 0.083 day-1 suggested by Keener and Elwell (1998). Trials C1 and C2 with continuous agitation for the entire 24 hours a day yielded reaction rate constants of 0.032 day-1 and 0.022 day-1 respectively. The reaction rate constant arrived in trial C1 of 0.032 day-1 employing the bulking agents paddy straw and dry leaves is found to be in the acceptable range suggested by Keener and Elwell (1998) and the linear line fitted between reaction rate constant and rotational spell confirms.(refer figure 7) The lines of fits of the plots of ln (C/Co) versus time for all the trials showed good Rsquared values ranging from 0.880 for trial B1 to 0.986 for trial C2 (Refer Table 5). This is indicative of the bioconversion following first order reaction in all the trials of the study.
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Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells [5] Deluca.T.H.,Deluca.D,K.,(1997). Composting for feedlot manure management and soil quality. Journal of production in Agriculture. vol 102pp 235-241. [6] Eklind.Y.,Kirchmann.H.,(2000) Composting and storage of organic household waste with different litter amendments. I: carbon turnover, Elsevier publications, Bio resource technology vol 74-pp115-124. [7] Golueke, C.G.,(1960) Composting Refuse at Sacramento, California, Compost Science, vol 1(3), Autumn 1960. [8] Haug.R.T., (1993). The practical handbook of compost engineering, Lewis Publishers, Florida, U S A, [9] Hamoda.M.F., Abu Qdais.H.A., Newham.J., (1998) Evaluation of municipal solid waste composting kinetics, Elsevier publications, Resources, Conservation and Recycling vol 23-pp209-223 [10] Iyengar.S.R., Bhave prashant.P.,(2006) In-vessel composting of household wastes, Elsevier publications, Waste Management, vol 26-pp 1070-1080. [11] Kim Joung-Dae., Joon-Seok Park., Byung-Hoon In., Daekeun Kim., Wan Namkoon., (2008). Evaluation of pilot-scale in-vessel composting for food waste treatment, Elsevier publications, Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol 154-pp 272277. [12] Kalamdhad Ajay., Kazmi S., and Absar.A.,(2009a) Rotary Drum composting of different organic waste mixtures, Waste Management and Research -Sage Publications, vol 27pp 129-137. [13] Kalamdhad Ajay, Kazmi S., and Absar.A.,(2009b) Effects of turning frequency on compost stability and some chemical characteristics in a rotary drum composter, Elsevier publications, Chemosphere- vol 74, (10)-pp 1327-1334. [14] Keener.H.M.,Elwell.,(1998) Specifying Design/operation of composting systems using pilot scale
Conclusions: When the rotational spells are increased during composting, the rate of decomposition in the vegetable waste has increased. This has been duly indicated in the kinetic studies made. Determination of decomposition rate based on C/N ratio and the reaction rate constant based on carbon loss following a first order function have been found for all the trials considered in the study. The decomposition rate in trial C1, where the rotational spell is continuous for 24 hours a day, is found to be high at 1.308 day-1.The highest reaction rate constant of 0.032 day-1 is obtained in trial C1 compared to other trials where their periods of rotational spells were lesser and intermittent. The reduction of C/N ratio achieved in trials C1 and C2 has also been found to be high. The C/N ratio attained after 14 days of composting in trial C1 (with paddy straw and dry leaves as bulking agents) and trial C2 (with wood shavings and dry leaves as bulking agents) are respectively 15.90 and 16.48. These values are well below the C/N ratio of 17 regarded as a good maturity indicator of compost. Hence, it is concluded that quality compost could be achieved with increase in period of rotational spells of in-vessel. References: [1] APHA (1995).Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste water.19th edn. APHA /AWWA/WPCF, Washington. DC [2] ASAE(1986).Standards. ASAES524. The society for engineering in agriculture.M I49085-9659. [3] Bernal M.P.,Lopez-Real J.M., and Scott.K.M., (1993). Application of natural zeolites for reduction of ammonia emissions during the composting of organic wastes in a laboratory composting stimulator. Elsevier publications, Bio-resource Technology vol 43-pp 35-39. [4] Dean R.B., (1978) European Manufacturers Display Systems at Kompost 77, Compost Science, vol 19(2)-pp18-22, March/April 1978
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Data, Elsevier publications, Applied Engineering in Agriculture vol 13 (3)pp 377-384. [15] Bongochgetsakul Nattakorn., Tetsuya Ishida., (2007).A new analytical approach to optimizing the design of large-scale composting systems, Elsevier publications, Bio resource technology vol 99(6)-pp 1630-1641. [16] Rynk R., (1992). On-Farm Composting Handbook. NRAES. Ithaca, New York. [17] Stelmachowski M., Jaststrzebska Magdalena., Zarzycki Roman., (2003)In-vessel composting for utilizing of municipal sewage-sludge, Elsevier publications, Applied Energy vol 75-pp 249-256.
[18] Sunderberg.C., Jonsson.H.,(2008) Higher pH and faster decomposition in bio-waste composting by increased aeration, Elseiveir Publications. Waste Management vol 28pp 518526. [19] Shuchi Gupta.,Krishna Mohan., Rajkumar Prasad., Sujata Gupta., Arun Kansal., (1998)Solid waste management in India: Options and Opportunities, Elsevier publications, Resources, Conservation and Recycling vol 24-pp 137-154. [20] USEPA - 40 CFR Part 503 USEPA ., (1994)Land Application of Biosolids[online].Availablefrom:http:/ /www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/biosolids/50 3pe
Table.1 Feedstock characteristics of Control Mix 1, Trials A1, B1 and C1(S:M:B) (5.2:1.14:1) Materials Vegetable waste(S) Cow dung(M) Dry leaves and Paddy straw(B) Moisture % 55-70 60-75 Mass Kg 9-Jul 1.51.74 0.871.73 Volume m3 0.028 0.0023 BD Kg/m3 345285 758875 86104 C/N ratio C 3442 2933 4560 N 0.891.15 1.7-2.7 34.1538.25 10.7414.21 67.2379.07
11-Aug
0.0147
0.450.65
Table.2 Feedstock characteristics of Control Mix 2, Trials A2, B2 and C2(S:M:B) (5.91:1.17:1) Moisture % 55-70 60-75 9-12.5 Mass KG 9-Jul 1.51.74 0.911.54 Volume m3 0.029 0.003 0.013 BD Kg/m3 345285 758875 62-125
Materials Vegetable waste(S) Cow dung(M) Dry leaves and Woodshavings(B)
C 3442 2933 5585
N 0.891.15 1.7-2.7 0.380.61
C/N ratio 34.1538.25 10.7414.21 101.00145
465
Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells
Table.3 Characteristics of the waste on the 0th day and 14th day of each composting trial Day MC % pH EC mS/cm LOI VS /Ash (%) (%) Control-Mix 1 26.9 73.1 37.56 62.44 Trial A1 26.8 73.2 35.14 64.86 Trial B1 30.35 69.65 48.1 51.9 TrialC1 28.56 71.44 53.34 46.66 Control-Mix 2 24.56 75.44 32.52 67.48 TrialA2 23.5 76.5 31.98 68.02 Trial B2 27.33 72.67 42.52 57.48 Trial C2 29.45 70.55 48.98 51.02 TOC/ Carbon (%) 40.61 37.71 40.67 36.03 38.69 28.83 39.69 25.92 41.91 37.49 42.5 37.79 40.37 31.93 39.19 28.34 TKN/ Nitrogen (%) 1.18 1.32 1.15 1.39 1.13 1.64 1.15 1.63 1.17 1.23 1.23 1.55 1.145 1.79 1.11 1.72 C/N ratio
0th 14th 0th 14th 0th 14th 0th 14th 0th 14th 0th 14th 0th 14th 0th 14th
65.12 43.23 63.18 45 61.67 46.12 61 45 64 43.33 63.12 44.12 60.17 43.5 62 56.5
6.21 7.76 6 7.35 6.61 7.23 6.45 8.43 5.45 7.83 6.87 8.13 6.48 7.83 6.58 7.83
1.54 1.78 1.23 2.22 1.56 2.04 1.34 2.07 1.37 1.84 1.11 2.48 1.56 1.97 1.56 1.88
34.41 28.57 35.36 25.92 34.24 17.58 34.51 15.9 35.82 30.48 34.55 24.38 35.26 17.84 35.31 16.48
Table.4 Reduction rate of C/N ratio Control Mix 1 Control Trials
Trials C/N Reduction rate(day-1) R-squared value
A1
B1
C1
A2
B2
C2
0.377 0.971
0.7 0.94
1.15 0.98
1.31 0.97
0.382 0.987
0.72 0.92
1.19 0.98
1.23 0.98
Table.5 Reaction rate constant for reduction in TOC Trials Reaction rate constant, k (day-1) R squared value Control Mix1 A1 B1 C1 Control Mix2 A2 B2 C2
0.005 0.939
0.01 0.96
0.02 0.88
0.03 0.97
0.007 0.956
0.01 0.89
0.02 0.95
0.02 0.99
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Fig.1 Schematic Diagram of the Rotary Composter
Fig.5 Profile of ln C/Co vs. Time (Control Mix 1, Trials A1, B1 and C1)
Fig.2 Temperature profile of different trials Fig.6 Profile of ln C/Co vs. Time (Control Mix 1, Trials A1, B1 and C1)
Fig.3 Profile of C/N ratio vs. Time (Control Mix1, Trials A1, B1 and C1) Fig.7 Reaction rate constants vs. Rotational spell
Fig.4 Profile of C/N ratio vs. Time (Control Mix 2, Trials A2, B2 and C2) International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
Geological Remote Sensing

S. VISWANATHAN* G.VENKATARAMAN** * Powai, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay Campus, Mumbai-40076, India **CSRE (Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering), Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Mumbai-400076, India Email: sviswam123@yahoo.com The term Geological Remote Sensing is presently used to denote extraction of geological and geo-related information based on the raw digital data obtained through a variety of sensors of the numerous satellites of different international space agencies such as the ISRO(Indian Space Research Organisation). The raw data from American Satellite Landsat or IRS (Indian Remote sensing Satellite) of individual band are usually studied for geological information. Better results are obtained through myriad digital processing techniques and the composite images highlight different aspects of geomorphic, geological and many other geographic features as Soil types and their distribution, Crop pattern, Forest density, Glacier configuration, Forest fires, oil sleeks and land use. Combinations of digital data from different Satellites with different spectral andl spatial resolutions are also attempted for a specified area or scene to understand how far such exercises are helpful in enhancing specific desired theme. Normally with even single band imagery geomorphic features like topography and drainage lines, geological features such as layering, large scale shear or fracture zones are fairly traceable. For drainage related studies the satellite images and toposheets of the survey of India are used in conjunction to make out the attitudes and lengths of the streams of different orders. In the case of recognition of specific rock types and exposures of rock units which are massive intrusive, there doest not seem to have been any break through. It is hence peremptory to undertake serious study by resorting to all possible image processing, image improvement techniques to answer the following:1. What is the best Digital Processing Technique to highlight true geologically linear zones both of larger and smaller dimension? The term lineament is vague and hence it would be wiser to use the term fracture, shear or fault. 2. Have attempts been made to separate the Deccan lava flows and recognize the dykes, feeders, and non- feeders based on spectral signatures. Which satellite image, raw or processed is best suited to study the volcanic terrain?
3. Can layered sedimentaries and parametamorphics be compositionally recognized and if so up to what scale?
4.
Boundaries of large bodies of granitoids are demarcated after a strenuous field coverage and sampling. Can the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the apparently homogenous plutons like the close pat granite be tested for any spectral anomalies due to chemical and mineralogical variations?
There are varieties of rocks such as Kimberlites, Carbonatites and the like. They have to be investigated for their spectral reflectance. Like Land-sat, Sea-sat, Carto-sat, days should not be far when we would have Petro-sat. Till now Aircraft borne multi-spectral data are not available over any part of our country, which perhaps would give more details with cartographic accuracy. It is thus clear that only when an earth scientist directs his attention to the probing of the specific enhancement techniques to bring out litho-logical and structural features, he can lay his claim as a specialist in geological remote sensing. As it is every field geologist looks at remote sensing as a preliminary tool to avail of what-ever feature is possible in the ISROs satellite data products.
Report on Workshop
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERED LANDFILLS

(October 3-4, 2009) A workshop on solid Waste Management and Engineered landfills was organized in the department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam on the occasion of 126th birthday Karl von Terzaghi, acclaimed worldwide as the father of Soil Mechanics. The workshop was organised by Indian Geotechnical Society Visakhapatnam Chapter in association with The Institution of Engineers (India) Visakhapatnam Local Centre. Mr B. Jayarami Reddy, Chief Engineer, GVMC, inaugurated the workshop which was presided over by Prof P.S.N. Raju, Principal, A.U. Engineering College. Prof. C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy, Andhra University and Honorary Secretary, IGS Visakhapatnam Chapter coordinated the workshop. The workshop started with an overview of Solid waste by Dr Sasidhar (Managing Director, SAGES), who emphasized the need to look at micro management of landfills, as silting of large landfills is becoming a challenge all over the country. This was followed by Engineered Landfills as option for disposal of solid waste and Geosynthetics applications for landfills applications by Dr G. Venkatappa Rao. His comprehensive coverage of the topic helped participants to appreciate the varied applications of geosynthetics. Prof. C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy shared his experience of working on Jerosite landfill Construction with reinforced Zinc Slag bund at Hindustan Zinc limited, Visakhapatnam and demonstrated how geosynthetic application was carried out in that engineered landfill to contain the solid waste. Prof. S. Ramakrishna Rao of Environmental Engineering shared his experience of solid waste management project carried out in Vizianagaram and highlighted some of the current challenges in the solid waste management across the city. Various product manufacturers, M/s Garware Wall Ropes, Pune, M/s Maccaferri, Mumbai, M/s KK Enterprises, Kolkata and M/s GeoSol, Hyderabad shared their experiences of site applications of geosynthetics in engineered landfills and indicated that this is a viable sustained solution for growing issue of solid waste. The two day workshop also covered overview of various regulations that are required to be complied with in regard to solid waste management. A book on Solid Waste Management and Engineered Landfills, authored by Dr G Venkatappa Rao and Dr R S Sasidhar (a SAGES Publication), was released on this occasion which was well received as the first of its kind of book on this topic, with Indian scenarios and case studies. More than 120 Delegates from different engineering departments namely GVMC, VUDA, Visakhapatnam Port Trust, Essar Steels, Coramandal Fertilizers Limited, HPCL, ITDC, Irrigation Department, Public Health Engg. Dept., AP Pollution Control Board etc., researchers and academicians participated in the event. (C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy) Honorary Secretary IGS Visakhapatnam Chapter
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Nuclear minerals -Uranium

Nuclear mineral Production in the world Canada, Australia and Kazakhstan produce over half of worlds production of uranium minerals. A statistical records about recoverable resources of Uranium (tonnes U, %0 of world indicates Canada produces the largest share of uranium from mines (23% of world supply from mines), followed by Australia (24%) and Kazakhstan (17%). (Canada 9%), USA (7%), South Africa (7%) Namibia (6%) Brazil (6%) Niger (5%), Russia Fed. (4%), Uzbekistan (2%) Jordon (2%), India (1%), China (1%), others (6%).World total tones U=4,743,000 Reasonably Assured Resources plus Inferred Resources, to US$ 130/kg U, 1/1/05, from OECD NEA & IAEA, Uranium 2005: Resources, Production and Demand.(WNA-2009) What is uranium? How does it work? Uranium is a very heavy metal which can be used as an abundant source of concentrated energy. It occurs in most rocks in concentrations of 2 to 4 parts per million and is as common in the Earth's crust as tin, tungsten and molybdenum. It occurs in seawater, and can be recovered from the oceans. It was discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, a German chemist, in the mineral called pitchblende. It was named after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered eight years earlier. Uranium was apparently formed in supernovae about 6.6 billion years ago. While it is not common in the solar system, today its slow radioactive decay provides the main source of heat inside the Earth, causing convection and continental drift. The high density of uranium means that it also finds uses in the keels of yachts and as counterweights for aircraft control surfaces, as well as for radiation shielding. Its melting point is 1132C. The chemical symbol for uranium is U. (WNA,2009)
Nuclear power in the World The first commercial nuclear power stations started operation in the 1950s. There are now some 436 commercial nuclear power reactors operating in 30 countries, with 372,000 MWe of total capacity. They provide about 15% of the world's electricity as continuous, reliable baseload power, and their efficiency is increasing. 56 countries operate a total of about 280 research reactors and a further 220 reactors power ships and submarines(Source-World Nuclear Association, March 2009)
Nuclear Power in India (May 2009) India has a flourishing and largely indigenous nuclear power program and expects to have 20,000 MWe nuclear capacity on line by 2020. It aims to supply 25% of electricity from nuclear power by 2050. Because India is outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty due to its weapons program, it has been for 34 years largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant or
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materials, which has hampered its development of civil nuclear energy until 2009. Due to these trade bans and lack of indigenous uranium, India has uniquely been developing a nuclear fuel cycle to exploit its reserves of thorium. From 2009, foreign technology and fuel are expected to boost India's nuclear power plans considerably. India has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle. However, India has reserves of 290,000 tonnes of thorium - about one quarter of the world total, and these are intended to fuel its nuclear power program longerterm(Source-WNA,2009)
(Permitted use WNA website-Warwick Pipe-Web Manager Warwick Pipe <pipe@worldnuclear.org> for IJEE)
Discovery of water molecules in the polar regions of the moon

NASA, USA scientists have discovered water molecules in the polar regions of the moon. Instruments aboard three separate spacecraft revealed water molecules in amounts that are greater than predicted, but still relatively small. Hydroxyl, a molecule consisting of one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom, also was found in the lunar soil. The findings were published in Thursday's edition of the journal Science. NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper, or M3, instrument reported the observations. M3 was carried into space on Oct. 22, 2008, aboard the Indian Space Research Organization's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft. Data from the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, or VIMS, on NASA's Cassini spacecraft, and the High-Resolution Infrared Imaging Spectrometer on NASA's Epoxi spacecraft contributed to confirmation of the finding. The spacecraft imaging spectrometers made it possible to map lunar water more effectively than ever before.
The confirmation of elevated water molecules and hydroxyl at these concentrations in the moon's Polar Regions raises new questions about its origin and effect on the mineralogy of the moon. Answers to these questions will be studied and debated for years to come. "Water ice on the moon has been something of a holy grail for lunar scientists for a very long time," said Jim Green, director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA Headquarters in Washington. "This surprising finding has come about through the ingenuity, perseverance and international cooperation between NASA and the India Space Research Organization." From its perch in lunar orbit, M3's state-of-the-art spectrometer measured light reflecting off the moon's surface at infrared wavelengths, splitting the spectral colors of the lunar surface into small enough bits to reveal a new level of detail in surface composition. When the M3 science team analyzed data from the instrument, they found the wavelengths of light being absorbed were consistent with the absorption patterns for water molecules and hydroxyl. "For silicate bodies, such features are typically attributed to water and hydroxyl-bearing materials," said Carle Pieters, M3's principal investigator from Brown University, Providence,
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R.I. "When we say 'water on the moon,' we are not talking about lakes, oceans or even puddles. Water on the moon means molecules of water and hydroxyl that interact with molecules of rock and dust specifically in the top millimeters of the moon's surface. The M3 team found water molecules and hydroxyl at diverse areas of the sunlit region of the moon's surface, but the water signature appeared stronger at the moon's higher latitudes. Water molecules and hydroxyl previously were suspected in data from a Cassini flyby of the moon in 1999, but the findings were not published until now. "The data from Cassini's VIMS instrument and M3 closely agree," said Roger Clark, a U.S. Geological Survey scientist in Denver and member of both the VIMS and M3 teams. "We see both water and hydroxyl. While the abundances are not precisely known, as much as 1,000 water molecule parts-per-million could be in the lunar soil. To put that into perspective, if you harvested one ton of the top layer of the moon's surface, you could get as much as 32 ounces of water." For additional confirmation, scientists turned to the Epoxi mission while it was flying past the moon in June 2009 on its way to a November 2010 encounter with comet Hartley 2. The spacecraft not only confirmed the VIMS and M3 findings, but also expanded on them. "With our extended spectral range and views over the north pole, we were able to explore the distribution of both water and hydroxyl as a function of temperature, latitude, composition, and time of day," said Jessica Sunshine of the University of Maryland. Sunshine is Epoxi's deputy principal investigator and a scientist on the M3 team. "Our analysis unequivocally confirms the presence of these molecules on the moon's surface and reveals that the entire surface appears to be hydrated during at least some portion of the lunar day." NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., manages the M3 instrument, Cassini mission and Epoxi spacecraft for NASA's Science Mission Directorate in Washington. The Indian Space Research Organization built, launched and operated the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft. (For additional information and images from the instruments, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars . (For more information about the Chandrayaan-1 mission, visit: http://isro.gov.in/chandrayaan/htmls/home.htm . (For more information about the EPOXI mission, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/epoxi . (For more information about the Cassini mission, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/cassini
The Editor-in-Chief, IJEE wish to acknowledge NASA/Jet propulsion, Laboratory California, USA-for permitting the reproduction of the above data
Announcement/ Forthcoming Seminars/Symposiums/Technical meets

Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, the nodal agency for promotion of Earth Sciences related studies in the country plans to launch 1) a major programme in Andaman and Nicobar Island to understand the geodynamics of the region and to 2) to develop damage scenarios for various urban centres that lie in the vicinity of the Himalayas. Proposals are solicited from scientists/academicians working in the related areas of different institutions in the country; Proposals may be submitted to address the following issues: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Crustal structures studies Earthquake occurrence processes Detailed plate motion Geodynamic models Tsunami modeling 6 Structure safety and public awareness,
Details and further information can be obtained from Head, Geosciences/Seismology Division, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Room NO.507,Sat,Met Building ,Mausam Bhavan, Lodhi Road, New Delhui-11003, Email:bansalbk@nic.in International seminars on earthsciences and engineering view web site for details: http://www.conference-service.com 2010 3rd International Perspective on Current & Future State of Water Resources & the Environment , 5 to 7 January 2010, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, http://content.asce.org/conferences/india2010/index.html ICESE 2010: "International Conference on Earth Sciences and Engineering, Cape Town, South Africa, January 27-29, 2010 The International Conference on Earth Sciences and Engineering aims to bring together academic scientists, leading engineers, industry researchers and scholar students to exchange and share their experiences and research results about all aspects: http://www.waset.org/conferences/2010/capetown/icese/ Safety Conference, Austria, Leoben Jan, 2010 Construction in Soils and Rock, Germany, Jan 26-27, 2010 IDC-6 6th International Dyke Conference 04 Feb 2010 07 Feb 2010; Varanasi, India http://www.igpetbhu.com/ 04 Feb 2010 07 Feb 2010; Varanasi, India http://www.igpetbhu.com/ 2010 RPSD, IRD & BMD Joint Topical Meeting Radiation Protection and Shielding Division, Isotopes and Radiation Division and the Biology and Medicine Division (RPSD, IRD and BMD) Joint Topical Meeting 2010, 19 Apr 2010 23 Apr 2010; Las Vegas, NV , United States weblink: http://www.ans.org/meetings/index.cgi?c=t Third International Conference on Debris Flows, 24 May 2010 26 May 2010; Milan, Italy, http://www.wessex.ac.uk/10-conferences/debris-flow-2010.html Fifth International Symposium on Computational Wind Engineering (CWE2010 Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA, May 23-27, 2010,
vi
http://www.cwe2010.org 3rd International Workshop on Rock Mechanics and Geo-Engineering in Volcanic Environments, as ISRM Sponsored, Spain Cruz (Tenerite, Puerto de la,31May-1 June,2010 Conference on Nuclear Fuels and Structural Materials for the Next Generation Nuclear Reactors ,13 Jun 2010 17 Jun 2010; San Diego, California, United States http://www.new.ans.org Uranium 2010 Conference, 14 Aug 2010 18 Aug 2010; Saskatchewan, Canada related subject(s): Mining & Mineral Processing, http://Ed_Lam.com The International Mineralogical Association- 20 th General Meeting of in Budapest Hungary, 21st to 27th to August, 2010th http://www.univie.ac.at/Mineralogie/IMA20 ISRM-EUROCK-2010-Rock Mechanics in Civil Engineering, Switzerland, Lausanne 15th June-18th June, 2010 http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf ICCE 2010 32nd International Conference on Coastal Engineering, Shanghai, China, 30 Jun 2010 05 Jul 2010; http://www.icce2010.cn/ ISRM-5th International Symposium on In-Situ Rock Stress ,China-, Beijing,25-27 th Augut http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf IAEG2010 11th Congress of the International Association for Engineering and the Environment, Auckland, New Zealand.05 Sep 2010 10 Sep 2010; http://www.iaeg2010.com/ Plutonium Futures - The Science 2010 19 Sep 2010 23 Sep 2010; Bloomfield, CO, United States http://www.new.ans.org/meetings/c_2 IX Congress of the Carpathian Balkan Geological Association CBGA2010 Thessaloniki, Greece, 23 - 26 September 2010 www.cbga2010.org International Workshop on Glacier Hazards, http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf SEG 2010 Society of Economic Geologists Conference, Keystone, Colorado, United States of America, 02 Oct 2010 05 Oct 2010; http://www.seg2010.org/ 11th Congress of the IAEG (IAEG-2010) 59th Geomechanics Colloquy-2010, Austria. Saizburg, 7th-8th, August, 2010 http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf International Society of Rock Mechanics (ISRM) International Symposium on Advances in Rock Engineering, New Delhi, India, 25 -27th October, 2010 http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf Geological Society of America (GSA) Annual Meeting
vii
Denver, Colorado, United States, 31 Oct 2010 03 Nov 2010; http://www.geosociety.org/calendar/2010meet.htm 5th National Conference on Coastal and Estuarine Habitat Restoration, 13 to 17 November 2010, Galveston, Texas, United States http://www.estuaries.org 2011 IUGG XXV General Assembly Earth on the Edge: Science for a Sustainable Planet, Melbourne, Australia, 27 June - 8 July 2011 13th International Conference on Wind Engineering, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, July 1015, 2011 http://www.icwe13.org/ ISRM 2011 12th International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Beijing, China, 16 Oct 2011 21 Oct 2011, http://www.isrm2011.com/ American Geophysical Union 2011 Fall Meeting, San Francisco, California, United States, 12 Dec 2011 16 Dec 2011 http://www.agu.org/ 2012 2012, Shanghai, China 7th International Colloquium on Bluff Bodies Aerodynamics & Applications (BBAA 7) 11th International Symposium on Landslides, Canada, Banff 3-6 June-, 2012 American Geophysical Union 2012 Fall Meeting, San Francisco, California, United States, 14 Dec 2012 18 Dec 2012 http://www.agu.org 34th International Geological Congress (IGC) Australia 2012 Brisbane, Australia -2-10 August 2012 www.34igc.org
viii
The 34th International Geological Congress (IGC) AUSTRALIA 2012

Brisbane, Australia, 210 August, 2012
Oceania Invites You: The 34th International Geological Congress (IGC), to be known as AUSTRALIA 2012, will be held at the Brisbane Convention and Exhibition Centre (BCEC), Queensland, from 2nd-10th August 2012. This high profile event will be of considerable interest to all people involved in geoscience, be they in universities, industry, government or the broader public. The IGC has a tradition dating back to 1878, and is generally held every four years. AUSTRALIA 2012 Organization: The legal entity responsible for AUSTRALIA 2012 is the Australian Geoscience Council (AGC) Incorporated, the peak representative body of Australias geoscientists comprising the Presidents or Chief Executive Officers of eight geoscience-related societies in Australia. This has been formalized in an agreement between the Australian Academy of Science and the AGC. As the national geo-science and geospatial information agency, Geo-science Australia (GA, see www.ga.gov.au) is making considerable contributions towards AUSTRALIA 2012 in the form of financial and in-kind support. GA is providing the President Dr Neil Williams and the Secretary General Dr Ian Lambert who will represent the 34th IGC Organizing Committee at meetings of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) Executive and Council, and the international IGC Committee. In addition, GA is contributing to promotions of AUSTRALIA 2012, and providing personnel as required facilitating delivery of products for the 34th IGC. State and Northern Territory geological surveys and GNS New Zealand is contributing some funding towards the Congress and organizing field trips. Circulars for the 34th IGC will be distributed electronically. Arrangements will be made for getting printed circulars to countries where electronic communications prove difficult. Local Organizing Committee: The core Organizing Committee for AUSTRALIA 2012 has been appointed and held several meetings. It comprises: President Dr Neil Williams (GA) Secretary General Dr Ian Lambert (GA) Deputy Secretary General, Canberra Mr Paul Kay (GA) Deputy Secretary General, Brisbane Dr Paulo Vascencelos (University of Queensland) Treasurer Ms Miriam Way (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy) Scientific-Program Co-ordination Dr Lynton Jaques (GA/Geological Society of Australia) Exhibitions Ms Andrea Rutley (Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists) Sponsorship Ms Shalene McClure (Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia) Field Trips Mr Dave Mason (Geological Survey of Queensland) Australian Geo-science Council representatives Dr Trevor Powell, Dr Michael Leggo New Zealand representative Dr Des Darby (GNS New Zealand) A Brisbane-based Professional Conference Organizer (PCO) Carillon Conference Management has been appointed to work with the Organizing Committee. Delegate Information: The state-of-the-art Brisbane Convention and Exhibition Centre (BCEC) venue will readily hold more than 7,000 delegates.
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Regional participation will be maximized by integrating meetings of the major Australian and regional geo-scientific societies into AUSTRALIA 2012. Efforts are also being made to attract a range of international groups to hold meetings timed close to, or during, the IGC. The registration fee in Australian dollars, to be set in 2011, is anticipated to be similar to that for the 33rd IGC. A modest abstract handling fee will also apply. Scientific Program: AUSTRALIA 2012 will have a wide-ranging scientific program under the theme Unearthing our Past and Future. This theme will encompass the crucial contributions of geo-science in meeting societal needs and sustaining planet Earth with particular emphasis on future mineral and energy supplies, climate change and its impacts on land and water management, and mitigation of geo-hazards. The comprehensive technical program will comprise plenary theme-of-the-day sessions, symposia on a wide range of geo-scientific topics, poster sessions, workshops and short courses. In an effort to minimize overlap between symposia, with consequent small audiences, we are planning: a limit of one oral presentation per delegate, although an individual will be able to coauthor several oral papers; symposia will be convened by selected local geoscientists working closely with representatives of groups affiliated with IUGS; to accord poster sessions a high profile; and organize plenary sessions so as to avoid overlap with other symposia and business meetings.
Public lectures and student events will be organized to broaden the messages of the Congress to the general public. Engineering Geology: The IGC organizers are endeavoring to maximize delegate participation in 2012 by the alignment of affiliated gatherings with the congress. Initial contact has been made to achieve this objective for the Engineering Geology strand of earth sciences. We also anticipate a plenary session with a strong focus on Engineering Geology. Field trips: The 34th ICG is planning approximately 30 pre- and post-Congress field trips, which offer diverse opportunities to see the fascinating geology of the region. Collectively, these field visits will take in all Australian states and the Northern Territory. Field trips are also being planned to New Zealand, Malaysia and New Caledonia/Vanuatu, while trips to Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Indonesia are under consideration. Sponsorship and Exhibition: The support of Queensland Events Corporation (QEC) for the promotion of the 34th IGC is gratefully acknowledged. This is the first time a scientific Congress has been supported by QEC. The professional and learned societies under the AGC are investing in the Congress. Sponsorship is currently also being sought from industry. A large GeoExpo (trade show) is expected to occupy two exhibition halls. It is planned to offer the opportunity for petroleum and minerals industry exhibitors to take booths for different halves of the Congress. This will be complemented by design of the scientific program to have major minerals and petroleum symposia in periods aligned with the exhibits. International exhibitors will also include geological surveys, professional/learned societies, scientific publishers, consultants and technical services/products providers. Further Information: The www.34igc.org website is the key information outlet for AUSTRALIA 2012.
20th - 21st February 2010, Website: www.icetedrjjmcoe.in Organized by Dr. J. J. Magdum College of Engineering [JJMCOE], Jaysingpur, Kolhapur Dist., Maharashtra - 416 101, INDIA In Technical collaboration with CAFET-INNOVA Technical Society CONTRIBUTED PAPERS: The papers submitted by academicians, research scholars, professors, etc are considered as contributed papers. The papers need to be orginal research work containing well stimulated results, tabulated readings, graphs, etc. STUDENT PAPERS: The papers sudmitted by graduate and under graduate students pursuing their program in affiliated colleges are consdered as student papers. The papers need not be an original concept or invention but the student's idea and imaginations in terms of emerging technology with the student's involvement in the paper is sufficient. IMPORTANT DATES: Last Date for submission of papers: 14th November 2009 Intimation Date for selected papers: 30th November 2009 Last Date for submission of camera ready papers: 26th December 2009 Last Date for Registration of selected papers: 16th January 2010 Date of the Event: 20th - 21st February 2010 EVALUATION FEE: Contributed Papers: Rs. 500/- per paper Student Papers: Rs. 300/- per paper REGISTRATION FEE (After Selection): Contributed Authors: Rs. 3, 000/Student Authors: Rs. 2, 000/Other Participants: Rs. 1, 000/CONTACT US: Prof. Anil K. Gupta Organizing Chairman - ICETE 2010 Dr. J. J. Magdum College of Engineering Jaysingpur, Kolhapur Dist., Maharashtra - 416 101, INDIA Mobile: 9372720011, 9422728195 Tel: 02322-221825 Fax: 02322-221831 Website: www.icetedrjjmcoe.in

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ISSN 0974-5904

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

Registered by Government of Andhra Pradesh under the AP Societies Act. 2001

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

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Advisory Committee: Dr. Paul M. Santi

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News and Notes

Innovations in Composite Materials and Structural Design

Volume 2, No. 5, October 2009

Innovations in Composite Materials and Structural Design

SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH

Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in Garhwal Himalaya, India

#02020501 Copyright 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY

Figure. 3 Surface movement detection due to landslides using InSAR

VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY

Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in Garhwal Himalaya, India

VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY

Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine, Dinajpur, Bangladesh

#02020502 Copyright 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

S m =0.3, S =0.3m, Or, S=0.75 m

Table: 2 Calculation sequence of predicting strain profile.

#02020503 Copyright 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

Fig.1 Geology and location map of the study area

A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA

A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA

Table.5 Rare earth elements of banded magnetite iron-formation of Tirthamalai region

A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA

A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA

Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in ChaibasaNoamundi Basin A Review

#02020504 Copyright 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin A Review

Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin A Review

Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin A Review

Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin A Review

Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a Horizontal Plate Breakwater

#02020505 Copyright 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

SUBBA RAO, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE AND PRASHANTH S