UNIT

Power Conditioning and Amplifying:

The Basics of Power Regulation and Operational Amplifiers Your Name Date of Submission
CHEMISTRY 6158C Department of Chemistry University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32611
(Note: Much of the material in this handout was rewritten/updated in 2001 by graduate student Andrew K. Ottens.)

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Introduction: This unit will focus on power conditioning used in power supplies, and power amplification provided by the operational amplifier. Conversion between AC and DC power requires many components, which will be examined in greater detail. A major step in converting an AC waveform into a non-varying DC output is the use of diodes. As discussed in lecture, diodes are most commonly made from semiconductor materials. In lecture we explored the idea of p-n junctions, and discussed how a p-n junction when forward biased will allow for large current conduction, but when reverse biased allows no significant current to flow. The actual current flow when forward biased is described by the Shockley equation, i = I i (e qV / kt 1) , where Ii is the intrinsic current, and is minimal, q is the charge on an electron, V is the applied voltage, and T is temperature. From the Shockley equation it is possible to see the resulting exponential current characteristic of a diode in forward biased mode. To put it simply, diodes are semiconductor devices that generally pass current in one direction (forward bias) and not the other. Some specialized devices, such as photo diodes, require that the diode be reversed biased. Light emitting diodes, on the other hand, will produce a cascade of electrons being demoted from excited energy states when forward biased. The higher the energy state, the more energetic the photons released when electrons fall back down. This leads to the various colors of LEDS from red to yellow to green, and now even blue (colors in order of increasing photon energy). Transistors are the heart of most electrical circuits today. There are a variety of transistors; bipolar junction (BJT), junction field effect (FET), metal oxide field effect (MOSFET) are the most common classifications. Symbols for the various transistors and a description of their operation can be found in Supplement 3 of the textbook. A number of you would benefit from knowledge of transistors and their use in electrical circuits. Therefore, it is strongly suggested that you read through Supplement 3. There you will find detailed information on how transistors are used in various circuits. For example, on page 399 the internal components of an LF351 op amp are shown. You will use this op amp later on in this unit, and reading the text will help you understand the working of operational amplifiers. One idea you should keep in mind, which is further explained by looking at the op amp circuit, is that the output of an op amp derives its power from the power terminals of the chip. In the case of the LF351, very little power is taken from the two inputs due to the characteristic high impedance of the gate of a JFET. Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) is often used in electrical components to control signals. The logic gate ICs that you used in Unit 2 contain TTL architectures. Information on the internal components of most ICs can be found on the manufacturers websites. To understand TTL you need to know the basic operation of all types of transistors. Note that BJTs and MOSFETs are very different in their design and will react differently in circuits. However, all forms of transistors are used as either switches or amplifiers. We will cover amplification later in this unit. For information on wiring transistors as switches refer to Supplement 3. Diode Characteristics: Differing applications require various types of diodes. This section will compare the current-voltage curves for three types of semiconductor diodessignal, power, and Zener. The diodes are connected to a simple curve tracer, which uses the function generator to Page 2 Version 1.09

continuously vary the current through the diode and the oscilloscope (X-Y mode) to display the resulting response curve. On the ELVIS II breadboard, connect the current voltage curve tracer circuit shown in Figure 1. Use a banana-BNC adapter plugged into BANANA A and BANANA B to input the signal from the FG. Be sure to insert the adapter so that the bump on one side of it (indicating which side is connected to the grounded shield of the BNC connector) is on the side connected to the black BANANA B connector. Use the BNC 1 and BNC 2 connectors to output signals from the circuit to the analog scope horizontal and vertical channels. Be sure to connect one of the holes next to BNC 1 -, BNC 2 and BANANA B to ground, as well as the bottom end of the 10 ohm resistor shown in Figure 1. Use the loose resistors provided in the drawer labeled Unit 4.

Wavetek FG 10

Figure 1: Curve tracer circuit

The 1 k resistor is used to limit the current in the circuit to a safe value for the function generator. The 10 resistor functions as a current sensing resistor by providing a voltage proportional to the circuit current. The oscilloscope is operated in the X-Y mode (selected using the time base knob) so that the vertical deflection is proportional to the current through the device under test (V=IR). The horizontal deflection is proportional to the voltage across the test device plus the voltage across the current-sensing resistor. A small resistor has been used for R(sense) to minimize its contribution to the horizontal deflection voltage. The current-voltage curve of the test device is displayed on the oscilloscope as the function generator output voltage varies between its peak positive and negative values. Set the analog oscilloscope horizontal sensitivity at 2 V/div and the vertical sensitivity at 10 mV/div. For R(sense) = 10 , this setting gives 1 division of vertical deflection per mA of current through the test device. Adjust the horizontal and vertical sensitivities as needed. With both inputs switched to GND, center the dot in the scope display. Set the function generator for a 1000 Hz triangular wave. Connect a 2.4 k resistor as the test device. Switch the scope horizontal input to DC, and adjust the function generator amplitude and offset until the horizontal line displayed is 6 divisions long and centered on the oscilloscope. Switch the vertical input to DC. Record the horizontal and vertical voltages for 2 points on the line for a slope determination. The voltage V(x) is V(x) = V(test) + i(y)R(sense) and the current is i(y) = V(y)/R(sense).

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Horizontal divisions

Vertical divisions

V(x), V

i(y), mA

Question 1. Calculate the slope of the line, i.e., i(y)/V(x). The slope of the line has the units A/V = -1. At any point on the line V(x) = i(y)[R(test) + R(sense)]. From this equation, calculate the slope expected from the nominal value of the components and compare it with the measured value. What % error is introduced because of R(sense)? Replace the test resistor in the curve tracer with a signal diode (1N914) (see arrow 1 on Fig. 2 for location of diodes on the ELVIS II breadboard) and repeat the measurements. Connect the diode

Figure 2 so that the banded end (the cathode) is connected to R(sense). The vertical deflection (voltage drop across R(sense)) is proportional to the current through the diode while the horizontal deflection is the voltage across the diode (plus a small error due to the voltage drop across R(sense)). Sketch the general shape of the curve and label the axes appropriately.

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The exponential behavior of the diode can be observed by expanding the portion of the curve near zero using the oscilloscope. Change the horizontal and vertical sensitivity on the oscilloscope to give the best possible reading and fill in the table below. Current(mA) 0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 Voltage(V)

Question 2: Plot the current-voltage curve for the diode using a spreadsheet. On the same graph, plot the curve correcting for the iR drop across R(sense). Use the corrected values to plot log I-vs-V for the diode. Calculate the slope of the log I-vs-V plot. With the curve tracer circuit in the same configuration, compare the forward voltage drops of the three diode types below for a 5 mA forward current. (Diode numbers generally begin with 1N such as 1N914, 1N4731, etc.) Diode Type Power Signal Zener diode # 1N4004 1N914 1N4731 V(X) scope V(diode) scope

With the curve tracer circuit, set the oscilloscope to 2 V/div horizontal deflection and return the 0,0 point to the center of the graticule. Determine the current-voltage curves for a power and zener diode and sketch them below.

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Question 3.

Which diode is best suited for voltage regulation? Why?

Disconnect the curve tracer. The ELVIS II unit has two connections that allow diode current-voltage curves to be displayed (and the data points saved) on the computer. Locate the DUT+ and DUT- labels on the left side of the breadboard (see arrow 2 on Figure 2), and insert the lead connected to the banded end of the 1N914 diode into one of the four holes next to DUT- and the lead connected to the other end into one of the four holes next to DUT+. Run the Two-Wire Current-Voltage Analyzer program from the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher tool bar. Adjust the program settings to: start voltage -0.5 V, step size 0.05 V, end voltage + 0.75 V, lower current limit - 40 mA, upper current limit + 40 mA, low gain, linear voltage and current display, auto scaling. Compare the curve you obtained to the one you graphed above. Change to a log current display and again compare your result to the log I vs. V plot you obtained above. Use the Log command on the lower right corner of the screen to save text files with your data for these two plots, import the data into a spreadsheet program, and turn in the (fully labeled) plots with your report for this unit. A diode can be checked with an ohmmeter. The polarity of the diode can also be determined when the polarity of the ohmmeter leads is known. Connect the common lead of an ohmmeter to the cathode (banded end) of the power diode. Connect the other ohmmeter lead to the other terminal of the power diode. Record the resistances measured. Reverse the leads and repeat. Direction Forward Reverse

Question 4. Which lead from the ohmmeter is positive and how do you know this? Remember, the ohmmeter applies a voltage to the leads to make a resistance measurement. Question 5. Obtain an encapsulated rectifier bridge and use the ohmmeter to determine the internal arrangement of the four diodes which are connected between the four terminals of the device. Sketch the internal circuit. Identify the terminals by the designations used on the package. Power Transformer Voltages: This section covers power transformer connections and uses the function generator associated with the ELVIS II unit to output a 60 Hz AC signal similar to that obtained from the secondary of a power transformer. The maximum peak to peak voltage Page 6 Version 1.09

generated by the function generator is 10 V, which can safely be read by the measurement devices you will use for this series of lab exercises. NOTE: It remains very important to build the circuits carefully with all power supplies off, check to circuits for connect wiring, and then turn on the ELVIS II main power (so it communicates with the computer) and the breadboard power (so the +5 volts, etc. are provided to the breadboard).

Question 6. Read through the specifications for the NI ELVIS II unit. You can find this information in one of the packets available in the lab. What are the maximum input voltages allowed when using the Scope program? What is the frequency range of signals that can be digitized and displayed on the scope? How do these values compare with the range of outputs from the frequency generator program Computer acquisition: Open the frequency generator program and set it for a sine wave, 60 Hz, 10 V p-p, normal operation (not sweep). Verify the AC signal produced using first the analog scope and the channel 0 of the digital scope. We will use the computer scope program in the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher tool bar for most of the subsequent exercises in this unit. You will have to use two short BNC cables to connect from BNC 1 and BNC 2 on the top (lower left side) of the NI ELVIS II unit to the BNCs labeled 0 and 1 on the left side of the unit (next to the SCOPE label) for the (many) measurements that require two scope inputs. Start the scope program, and turn on the AC transformer. You will need to turn on scope Channel 1 if you wish to both AC waveforms. If you only are examining one waveform, you can disable Channel 1 and only use Channel 0. Note that, like the diode V-I tracer program used above, if you click on the Log button you can save scope data to a text file. However, there may be many points depending on the scope timebase you are using and the frequency of the signals you are observing. Rectifier Circuits: Here we will study half-wave, full-wave, and bridge rectifier circuits and their characteristics by connecting them on the power supply job board and observing their input and output waveforms with the oscilloscope. Connect the half-wave rectifier circuit shown in figure 3 utilizing the power diode you examined earlier. Note that since we are simulating the secondary of a transformer with the 60 Hz output of the function generator, for this and the next 4 circuits you will connect the output of the function generator, row 33 of four holes, labeled FGEN (visible just below the end of arrow 2 in Figure 2) to point A in the circuits shown. Make sure point C is connect to ground on the breadboard.

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Connect BNC 1 and BNC 2 to the analog scope, observe the signals, and once you have verified that they are in a range, switch to using the computer scope. Obtain a hardcopy of the input and output waveforms for the half-wave rectifier. (You should be able to do this using the print screen function on the computer, and then editing the saved image with the Paint program, finally either printing the Paint figure to the printer or saving it on a USB drive to print at your convenience elsewhere.) Indicate each channel on the hardcopy. Disconnect the half-wave rectifier. If you were using a real transformer with a center-tapped secondary, you could connect the full-wave rectifier circuit shown in figure 4.

Question 7. The full-wave rectifier can be thought of as two half-wave rectifiers that conduct during alternate half cycles. Based on the signals you saw with the half-wave rectifiers, sketch the signals you predict you would obtain at BNC 1 and BNC 2 in Figure 4. Question 8. Why is the voltage from the full-wave rectifier approximately half that obtained from the half-wave? Page 8 Version 1.09

Connect the bridge rectifier circuit of figure 5. The four power diodes on the ELVIS II breadboard are arranged in this configuration but may need to be jumpered together.

Obtain a hardcopy of the output waveform (BNC 2) and note the signal amplitude. The signal at BNC 1 is the voltage across one of the diodes in the bridge. Observe the complete waveform and obtain a hardcopy. Leave the bridge rectifier connected for the next experiment. Question 9. What are the peak negative and positive voltages?

Question 10. During which part of the BNC 1 waveform is the diode conducting? Remember, you measured the voltage across, not the current through the diode. What is the maximum forward voltage drop (the voltage drop during conduction)? What is the peak inverse voltage across the diode? Assuming all the diodes in the bridge are the same, what is the total voltage loss due to forward voltage drops across the diodes in the bridge rectifier? Capacitive Filters: This section investigates the characteristics of capacitive filters including the variation in output voltage and ripple voltage as a function of load by connecting various values of filters capacitors and load resistors to the bridge rectifier circuit. Revise the bridge rectifier circuit to include the filter and load as shown in figure 6. The electrolytic capacitors are polar and therefore must be inserted with the correct polarity. Connect the (-) lead to common. Three capacitor values and two load resistor values will be used.

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Connect the first capacitor and load combination given in the table below. Measure the VRMS of the signal between A and C using a DMM and record below. Then measure the DC output with CH1 of the analog scope (use DC mode). Next, measure the peak-to-peak ripple voltage using CH2 of the analog scope in AC mode. Repeat these three measurements for the other filter and load values in the table and record results. Table of Filter Capacitors and Resistors Load VRMS of A-C V(out), CH1 resistor 10 k 10 k 10 k 15k 15k 15k

Filter capacitor 100 F 1000 F 10 F 10 F 100 F 1000 F

Ripple Vp-p, CH2

Question 11. Estimate the average DC output voltage as V(DC) = V(out) Vp-p(ripple). Compare the estimated average V(DC) with the theoretical value of

1 ] 2 fC ( filter ) R ( load ) where V(rms) is the transformer voltage (A-C) for each filter combination used. Note that f should be the frequency of the capacitor charging which is not equal to the line frequency for a full-wave or bridge rectifier. Calculate the ripple factor (r=Vac/Vdc) for each of the filter and load combinations studied. Compare the experimental values with the theoretical value: V ( dc ) = 1. 4V ( rms)[1
r= 1 2 3 fC ( filter ) R ( load )

Voltage Regulation: Integrated circuit (IC) voltage regulators can be connected with a bridge rectifier circuit affecting the output voltage stability and ripple voltage amplitude. Connect the circuit of figure 7 using C=1000 F and R between 2.2 and 2.7 k. Use a 78L05, +5V regulator. Measure the ripple on the output using CH2 of the analog scope.

Figure 7: Regulated power circuit Page 10 Version 1.09

Question 12. What is the Vp-p(ripple) when using the regulator IC? Sketch the output of both CH1 and CH2 to show the relationship between the regulated and unregulated outputs. Use the DMM to measure the exact DC output voltage. Repeat the scope and DMM measurements for C=100 F, C=10 F, and C disconnected (no filter) with R being between 3.9 and 5.6 k and R between 15 and 82k loads. Fill in the table below.

Filter Capacitor 1000 F 100 F 100 F 10 F 10 F 0 F 0 F

Load Resistor Range 2.2 k-2.7 k 3.9 k-5.6 k 15 k-82 k 3.9 k-5.6 k 15 k-82 k 3.9 k-5.6 k 15 k-82 k Actual

V(in), peak

V(in)ripple, p-p

V(out), 0-peak

V(out)ripple, p-p

V(out), DMM

Question 13. Describe the conditions in the above experiment for which the regulator does not maintain a constant output. Suggest an explanation. Question 14. Describe a power supply used in your research. Be sure to include what type and the output voltages as part of your discussion. Op Amps: This section will teach the basic principles of operational amplifiers (op amps) and their applications. The op amp is the key element in analog electronics for measurement, control, signal processing, and computation. This section assumes prior knowledge of how to use the computer and the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher programs for the measurements to be made, in a manner similar to earlier units and the measurements above. No details are Page 11 Version 1.09

provided in this unit as to how the measurements are performed. Where appropriate, obtain hardcopies of results. Powering IC chips: The ICs (integrated circuit) used in this and other units require power before signals are connected to them; this prevents damage to the IC. Many of the chips are prewired to the power on the breadboard. Therefore, do not remove any of the jumpers from the job board. Failure to power the IC is the most common problem when a circuit does not behave as expected. Null Voltage Measurement: The op amps and other components you will need have been placed in available locations on the ELVIS II breadboard. They include one high-quality op amp (LF351) with offset adjust, two medium-quality op amps (TL072 or TL082), one general purpose op amp (A741), one quad analog switch (LF13202), and one high speed comparator (LF311). Resistors you may need are in the plastic drawer labeled Unit 4. Figure 8 not used any more because op amps are at various locations on the breadboard Wire the circuit shown below using one of the TL072 or TL082 op amps. TL072 op amps are a low-noise version of the TL082. Note that the power connections to each IC on the op amp job board are NOT necessarily pre-wired. Care should be taken to ensure that ICs are powered whenever an external signal is applied. Failure to do this will destroy most ICs. The pinouts for the op amp can also be found in figure 9. Using QUAD DC: 1) Use the DAC0 output (controlled by QUAD DC) on the interface card for v(unk) and set it to approximately 0.5 V and monitor the voltage using the computer scope channel 0 (via BNC 1, remember to connect AO ground on the interface card and the BNC 1 connector to ground on the breadboard). 2) Use the + variable power supply output to connect to the inverting input of the op amp and monitor its voltage with the readout on the variable power supply program. Do not use the manual mode for this power supply, but rather enter the various voltages you are using into the box on the screen displayed when the program is running. 3) Monitor the op amp output using the analog scope and the DMM

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Adjust the output of the variable power supply until the transition from one output voltage limit to the other occurs at the output of the op amp. Determine the positive and negative voltage limits of the op amp output from the DMM. Parameter +limit -limit Observed value

Using the analog scope as an indicator, adjust the variable power supply output (carefully) to a value where the op amp output just begins to decrease from its positive limit, then to where it is as close to zero output as you can set it and finally to where it is not quite to the negative limit. Record these three values below. Repeat these observations several times.

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+VPS value for: near + limit near 0 near - limit

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Now, without changing any settings, use the computer scope program to measure v(unk). Parameter v(unk) Actual value

Question 17. Estimate the op amp input offset voltage and the op amp open loop voltage gain from the above measurements. Hint: The open loop gain refers to the output voltage divided by the difference in voltage between the op amp inputs. Disconnect the circuit from the op amp and wire the circuit shown below (pinout for LM311 is shown in figure 10. Use the 100 k and 470 resistors and the 20 pF capacitor that are in the Unit 4 drawer. Replace them in the drawer when you are done with this exercise. Use one of the LEDs on the ELVIS II unit as an LED indicator..

Using the QUAD DC program, adjust the value of DAC0 to somewhere around 0.5 V and monitor its value with the computer scope. While observing the output of the LM311, carefully adjust the output from the + variable power supply to determine the minimum change in input voltage required to complete the output transition from one state to the other. Approach the transition region first from one direction then the other. Record your data below.

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Parameter v(unk) + output voltage limit - output voltage limit

Observed value

Trial 1 + VPS, beginning of transition + VPS, completion of transition

Trial 2

Trial 3

Trial 4

Question 18. Determine the window of uncertainty in the comparator input voltage from the above measurements. Relate these to the accuracy that would be obtained when this comparator is used for a null voltage measurement. Compare the oscilloscope and LED output level indicators as the +VPS voltage is adjusted slowly through the transition region. The oscilloscope will probably indicate some rapid oscillation in output states at some point in the transition region. The output oscillation in the comparator response can be eliminated if the input voltage passes quickly enough through the transition region. Question 19. Describe this behavior and the state of the LED indicator during the oscillation. Voltage Follower: Connect one of the TL072 or TL082 op amps as a voltage follower as shown below. Dont forget to provide power to the IC.

Use DAC0 for v(in) and the computer scope channel 0 to measure v(out) and the computer scope channel 1 to measure v(in) for three or more voltage settings in the range 10V. Calculate the gain from gain = v(out)/v(in). v(in) v(out) Gain

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A 1 k resistor will be used in series with the DAC0 output to simulate a voltage source with a 1 k internal resistance. A 10k resistor will be used to simulate the input resistance of a voltage measurement device being used to measure the source voltage. Wire the circuit below using the resistors in the Unit 4 plastic drawer, set v(in) to a value between 1 V and 2 V, and measure v(in) and v(out) with and without the 10 k load connected. When measuring without the load connected simply unplug the jumper shown.

v(out) v(in)

Parameter Observed value v(in) v(out) [w/o load] v(out) [w/ load] Now connect an op amp voltage follower (TL082) to buffer the voltage source from the load resistance below. Measure v(in) and the follower output voltage with and without the 10 k load resistor connected.

DAC0

v(out)

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Parameter Observed value v(in) v(out) [w/o load] v(out) [w/ load] Question 20. A transducer has an output resistance of 80k (this is the source resistance). Describe how a follower could be used to decrease the loading error if the transducer output voltage is to be measured with a 1 M input resistance oscilloscope (this is the load resistance). What would the percent error be if the follower were not used?

Wire the following circuit:

DAC0

Use 5V as V(in). To measure v(out) without the load, remove R(load) and measure the voltage. Repeat using the 100 and 47 load resistors. Again, measure the actual resistances used. Calculate the output current. R(load)(nominal) R(load)(actual) v(out) with load v(out) w/o load i(out) with load 1 k 100 47 The small output voltage change observed with the 1 k load indicates the very low output resistance of the voltage follower. At lower load resistances, it is possible to exceed the maximum output current capability of the op amp and a significant loading of the output occurs. Question 21. On the basis of the change in output voltage with and without the 1k load, estimate the output resistance of the voltage follower. If no change was observed, calculate the value the output resistance would have if the smallest observable change had been measured. Question 22. Calculate the maximum output current the op amp can supply, based on your observations with the 100 and the 47 loads. Hint: Make a plot of i vs. R, and roughly estimate the current at R = 0 . Page 17 Version 1.09

Question 23. Given that the TL082 op amp has an input resistance of 1012 , explain how the voltage follower operates as an impedance buffer. Calculate the ratio of the input to output resistance. Hint: Does the high input impedance load the source? Can the op amp supply more current than the source may be able to? Follower with Gain: Next we will connect and characterize a follower-with-gain amplifier by comparing its observed and expected gains and noting the effects of amplifier input offset voltage. Use the TL082 op amp to wire the follower with gain as illustrated below. Connect R1 = 10 k and R2 = 100 k resistors from the resistors in the Unit 4 drawer to the op amp as shown below.

Connect the + VPS output as V(in) and set the input voltage to approximately 0.2 V. Measure v(out) using the computer scope and calculate the gain. Repeat for the other nominal v(in) values shown in the table below. Accurately measure both v(in) and v(out). v(in), nominal 0.2 V 0.4 V 0.8 V 1.0 V 2.2 V 5.4 V v(in), measured v(out) Gain

Question 24. Compare the measured gain to that expected from the nominal resistor values. Is the difference within the tolerance of the resistors and the measurement? Question 25. What limits the gain for large values of v(in)? Explain. Adjust the V(in) voltage value to approximately 9.8 mV. Now R2 will be changed to provide higher gains by using R2 = 1 M and then R2 = 10 M. For each value of R2 measure v(out) and v(in) and calculate the gain. Page 18 Version 1.09

R2 100 k 1 M 10 M

v(in)

v(out)

Gain

Question 26. Compare the measured gains to those expected and explain any deviations. Question 27. Can you obtain a gain of less than one with the follower with gain circuit? Explain why or why not? At high gains an error may be observed due to the amplifier input offset voltage, v(offset). This effect can be illustrated by disconnecting the follower input from DAC0 and then connecting the follower input to common and measuring v(out) for the same R2 values above. Be sure to disconnect the DAC0 from the follower input before connecting the input to common. R2 100 k 1 M 10 M v(out)

Question 28. What percent error in gain did v(offset) cause for the nominal gain of 100 amplifier? How does the error due to v(offset) compare to the error resulting from resistor inaccuracy? Current-to-Voltage Converter: Connect the TL082 as a current-to-voltage converter (current follower) as shown below.

DAC0

Use the 10 M precision resistor in series with DAC0 to provide an input current i(in) equal to v(DAC0)/107. Adjust DAC0 to provide input currents in the A range near the nominal values listed in the table below. Measure the corresponding values of v(DAC0) and v(out) and record the results in the table. i(in) (A) Rf nominal 0.2 10 M 0.4 10 M i(in) actual v(out),measured v(out),expected %error

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0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.8

1 M 1 M 10 k 10 k 10 k 10 M

Question 29: In which situations will the input offset voltage affect the measurement of small currents more: when the current source is a small voltage and small resistor or when it is a large voltage and large resistor? Inverting and Summing Amplifier: Here a current follower will be used as inverting and summing amplifiers and the operation of balancing the amplifier offset voltage by balancing an LF351 op amp will be used to test the responses of inverting and summing amplifier circuits. As illustrated in the previous section, the input offset voltage of op amps can contribute significantly to amplifier output errors. Many op amps such as the LF351 (shown in figure 11) on the breadboard have provision for adjusting the offset to zero. In preparation for subsequent experiments that require small offsets, the LF351 will now be balanced.

A simple procedure that works well for any op amp configuration is to connect the amplifier with a gain of approximately 10, connect the input to common, and adjust the balance potentiometer until the op amp output is nearly zero. Referring to the figure below connect the LF351 as an inverting amplifier with Rf = 100 k and R(in) = 10 k.

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Connect the free end of R(in) to common, and measure v(out) with the analog DMM on the most sensitive scale. Adjust the balance pot until v(out) is 1 mV or less (v(offset) 0.1 mV). Leave the potentiometer connected. Now remove the connection to ground from R(in) and connect R(in) to either VPS or + VPS. Measure v(out) for five or more values ranging from -0.7 to 0.7 V.

v(in), observed -0.7 -0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0.6

v(in), actual

v(out), measured

v(out), expected

%error

Question 30: Based on the knowledge that the summing point of the op amp is at virtual common and based on previous experiments in this unit, would you expect the inverting amplifier to load the DAC? Why or why not? Once the LF351 has been carefully balanced, it should not require rebalancing within a single laboratory period. The balance should, however, be checked prior to each use, and adjusted if needed (if v(offset) > 0.5 mV). A quick check can be made using the voltage follower configuration. The inverting amplifier configuration is used to perform several mathematical operations. The summing amplifier provides an output related to the algebraic sum of two or more signals. Connect the circuit shown below.

DAC0 DAC1

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Use the QUAD DC program to generate the DAC voltage sources for the above circuit. Measure v(out) for six combinations of input voltages. Keep one constant for at least three of the values of the other and vice-versa. v1 v2 v(out)

Plot v(out) versus v2 for constant v1 and v(out) versus v1 for constant v2. Identify the slopes and intercepts of the plots and values of the circuit components. Disconnect the summing network from the LF351 in preparation for the following experiment. Do not disconnect the balancing network or power connections to the chip. Op amp Integrator: Here we will observe the response and limitations of the analog integrator implemented with a carefully balanced op amp and a good quality capacitor. Observations are made of the response of the integrator to DC signals, step changes in the input signal level, and waveforms from the Wavetek FG. When a capacitor is used as the feedback element in the inverting configuration, the result is an op amp circuit that integrates. Wire the LF351 op amp integrator as shown below. Use the 1 F low leakage, mica capacitor (black box capacitor) found in the parts drawer for Unit 4. High quality capacitors are necessary in this application since small deviations from ideality in the capacitors may contribute substantial error. The touch contact will be a solid state switch which changes from switch open to switch closed by application of a digital logic signal from the Digital Writer program. The IC used is the DG445 quad solid-state switch shown in figure 12. Power must be applied to this chip before external signals are applied. Otherwise, the chip will be destroyed. When the control input is HI (+5V), the switch is closed and there is virtually no resistance for the switch. When the control level is LO, the switch is open, and has a very large resistance. You can use the handheld DMM to check this.

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Figure 12 DG445 Solid State Switch The computer function generator will be used to control integrations, so connect its output to the control line of the DG445 (IN1) using one of the four holes next to FGEN. Also connect another of these holes via BNC 1 to the TRIG BNC on the top of the left side of the NI ELVIS II unit. If the Function generator is set up to produce a 5 V p-p square wave with a +2.5 V offset, then the output will alternate between 0 and 5 volts, and when the Run button is pressed, on the first positive going pulse of the generator the computer scope will be triggered and the switch will be closed, starting the integration. Make sure to set the duty cycle of the function generator such that the square wave will remain high for as long as you need to follow the integration.

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With v(in) = 100 mV, measure the times required for the output to change by 1 volt, 3 volts, 5 volts, and 8 volts. This is accomplished in one run when the proper acquisition parameters are selected. Timing begins when the square wave generation program is begun. Repeat the v(out) = 1 V measurement three times and report the precision of the measurements. v(out) 1V 3V 5V 8V t, experiment t, calculated %error

Question 31: What is the %RSD of a single measurement? Question 32: What are the advantages of using the DG445 over manual operation? Set up the circuit shown below. The Cf = 1.0 F capacitor between the FG and the integrator serves to remove the dc component of the square wave. Using a 1 kHz, 5Vpp square wave with no dc offset and observe the circuit response.

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Question 33: mathematics?

Explain the shape of the waveforms.

How are they related with general

Op amp Differentiator: Reversing the positions of the resistor and capacitor of the op amp integrator produces the differentiator function. Connect the circuit below using the component values shown. Select a 1 kHz, 5 V peak-to-peak triangular waveform as the signal source for the differentiator. Select Cf = 100 pF, a small capacitance added to reduce the high frequency response of the differentiation and thus make it less subject to noise.

Mathematically calculate the slope of the triangular wave and record the height of the square wave resulting from the differentiation. Question 34: How do the results compare to one another? Explain any discrepancies between the observed and calculated values.

Now change to the square wave input, and sketch the results.

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Question 35: Describe how a differentiator can be used in a particle counter (Coulter counter, Geiger counter, etc.). Op amp Characteristics: Here we compare the limiting characteristic such as offset voltage and input bias current among several types of commonly available op amps by measuring these characteristics for each of three or more types. It is important to recognize the limitations of op amps so that measurement errors may be avoided in instrumental applications. We will explore two important characteristics of several different common integrated circuit op amps. To measure the input offset voltage, v(offset), connect the op amp as a voltage follower and connect the non-inverting input to common, the output is v(offset). The LF351 should be balanced using the potentiometer as before so v(offset)=0. Perform this measurement for three different types of op amps on the op amp job board. Repeat for at least two different TL082 IC op amps. The pinouts of the 741 op amp are the same as the LF351. If v(offset) < 0.2 mV, use a voltage follower with a gain of ten. To measure the input bias current, i(bias), a 10 M resistor should be connected between the non-inverting input of the voltage follower and common. The iR drop across the resistor results from the bias current. The output voltage v(out) is the sum of the offset voltage, v(offset), and the iR across the resistor. Thus i(bias)=[v(out)-v(offset)]/R. Carry out this determination for each of the op amps under investigation and enter the results in the table below. Op amp TL082 #1 TL082 #2 LF351 741 v(offset) i(bias)

Question 36: Op amp current-to-voltage converters are often used in readout devices for photomultiplier and electron multiplier circuits. If a particular application requires the measurement of a current of 10 nA, calculate the measurement error due to input bias current for each op amp studied above. Question 37: What effect does v(offset) have on the measurement described in question 36? Question 38: Describe an op amp circuit used directly in your research. Please include the description of the instrumentation in which the circuit is used and the chemical or physical significance of the measurement being made. Be sure to include why the op amp is a necessary component in the circuit. Question 39: By now you should realize why these ICs are called operational amplifiers. If you wish to amplify the signal from a transducer you can use one of the discussed circuits. Pick one of the following transducers and describe what op amp circuit you would use to boost the signal Page 26 Version 1.09

output, and give an application where you might use the amplified transducer signal: Photoresistor, RTD, speaker, pH probe, or any other you can think of. Question 40: Describe a power supply that could be used to power your transducer or your op amp. Draw a schematic that includes the power supply, the transducer and the amplifier circuit. Be sure to include component values (ohms, capacitance, etc.). What is the expected output of the circuit? Describe its operation. (Assume that you have access to a 60Hz 115VAC conventional wall outlet.) Unit 4 is an edited compilation of material originally prepared by James Ridge, Department of Chemistry at Michigan State University. The material enclosed has been made to match the current lab unit format, and to include use of new hardware and software.

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