MECH7350 Rotating Machinery

14. Condition Monitoring

14. CONDITION MONITORING

14.1 Introduction to Condition Monitoring Techniques Maintenance is the management, control, execution and quality of those activities which will ensure that optimum levels of availability and overall performance of plant are achieved, in order to meet business objectives - The British Department of Trade & Industry (DTI) (Rao, B.K.N.).

Maintenance strategies can be characterised as a) general purpose, b) essential and c) critical (Scheffer and Gridhar).

Fig. 14.1 Maintenance Strategies (from Scheffer and Gridhar).

a) General Purpose Failure does not affect plant safety Not critical to plant production Machine has an installed spare or can operate on demand These machines require low to moderate expenditure, expertise and time to repair Secondary damage does not occur or is minimal

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b) Essential Equipment Failure can affect plant safety Machine that are essential for plant operation and where shutdown will curtail a unit operation or part of the process They may or may not have an installed spare available Start-up is possible but may affect production process High power and speed might not be running continuously Some machines that demand time-based maintenance These machines require moderate expenditure, expertise and time to repair

c) Critical Equipment If their failure can affect plant safety Machines that are essential for plant operation and where a shut-down will curtail the production process Machines which do not have spare parts These machines have high capital cost, they are very expensive to repair or take a long time to repair

14.1.1 Run-to-failure Maintenance This applies to non essential equipment and machinery where shutdowns do not affect production, materials and replacement are readily available. It allows the machinery to run to failure and only repair or replace damaged components when the machine comes to a complete stop. Disadvantages: Interrupt production Large inventory of spare parts Maintenance personnel have to work at odd time and interrupt normal activities and tend to work overtime.

14.1.2 Preventive Maintenance Preventive or time-based maintenance is to schedule maintenance at predetermined time intervals, based on running hours of machines. In this case replacement of damaged 14-2

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equipment is carried out before problems occur. This allows the machine to run continuously and where the personnel have enough skill, knowledge and time to perform the preventive work. Disadvantages: Performing maintenance tasks either too early or too late Replacement of components before the end of residual life Reduced production due to unnecessary maintenance Possibility of diminished performance due to incorrect repair methods Possibility good parts being disassembled and discarded and improper fixing of replaced parts can lead to other problems

14.1.3 Condition-based Maintenance Condition-based or predictive maintenance periodic monitoring involves periodic monitoring on the health of the machine and scheduling maintenance only when a functional failure is detected. This allows trends of the machine component be constructed and time to failure be estimated. Maintenance can be conveniently planned and allows lead-time for organisation of parts and maintenance personnel and be scheduled. This leads to full utilisation of the machine and possible increase in production capacity. Disadvantages: Incorrect assessment of the deterioration of machines Inaccurate prediction of the lead-time Requires specialised equipment to monitor the trend and highly skilled personnel.

14.1.4 Proactive Maintenance Proactive or prevention maintenance involves tracing all failures to their root cause and to ensure that failures are not repeated. It utilises predictive/preventive maintenance techniques in conjunction with root cause failure analysis (RCFA). RCFA detects and identify the cause of failure and ensures that proper installation and repair techniques are used. It also identifies need for redesign of machine to avoid future occurrence of the same problems and improve the reliability of the machine. Disadvantages: Needs highly skill personnel with a vast knowledge of all aspects of maintenance May require outsourcing to private consultants and problems with confidentiality

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Requires specialised monitoring equipment and management support.

14.2 Introduction to Condition Monitoring Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines according to ISO, Sub-committee 9ISO/TC/108/SC5. The scope of this Sub-committee Standardisation of the procedures, process and equipment requirement uniquely related to the technical activity of condition monitoring and diagnosis of machines in which selected parameters associated with an operating are periodically or continuously sensed, measured and recorded for interim purpose of reducing, analysing, comparing and displaying the data and information so obtained and for the ultimate purpose of using this results to support decisions related to the operation and maintenance of the machine (Rao, B.K.N.).

Condition monitoring attempts to detect symptoms of eminent failure and approximates time of a functional failure. It utilises a combination of techniques to obtain the actual operating condition of the machines based on collected data such as vibration analysis, oil and wear debris analysis, ultrasound, temperature and performance evaluation. The specific techniques used depend on the type and operation of the machines.

Examples condition monitoring techniques (Scheffer and Gridhar): (a) Vibration monitoring this is the most commonly used and effective technique to detect internal defects in rotating machinery. (b) Acoustic emission monitoring this involves detection and location of cracks in bearings, structures, pressure vessels and pipelines. (c) Oil analysis lubrication oil is analysed and the occurrence of certain microscopic particles in it can be connected to the condition of bearings and gears. (d) Particle analysis worn machinery components, whether in reciprocating machinery, gearboxes or hydraulic systems, release debris. Collection and analysis of this debris provides vital information on the deterioration of these components. (e) Ultrasonic monitoring this is used to measure thickness of corrosion or crack on pipelines, offshore structures, pressure vessels. (f) Thermography this is used to detect thermal or mechanical defects in generators, overhead lines, boilers, misaligned coupling and cell damage in carbon fibre structures on aircrafts. 14-4

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(g) Performance monitoring this is used to determine the performance problems in equipment. The efficiency of machines provides a good inside on their internal conditions.

14.3 Relevant Industrial Standards a) ISO 18436-1 Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines Requirements for

training and certification of personnel Part 1: Requirements for certifying bodies and certification process. This part of ISO 18436 defines the requirements for bodies operating certification systems in no-intrusive machine condition monitoring, diagnostics and correction technologies. General requirements for certification body personnel are contained in this part of ISO 18436. Specific requirements for personnel in condition monitoring and diagnostics will be contained in subsequent parts of ISO 18436.

b) ISO 18436-2 Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines Requirements for training and certification of personnel Part 2: Vibration condition monitoring and diagnostics. The part of ISO 18436 defines the requirements against which personnel in the non-intrusive machine condition monitoring and diagnostics technologies associated with vibration analysis are to be carried and the methods of testing such personnel. Conformity assessment for certification in vibration analysis will be performed by a body accredited to the requirements of ISO 18436-3.

c) ISO 17359:2003(E) Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines general guidelines. This International Standard presents an overview of a generic procedure recommendation to be used when implementing a condition monitoring programme and provides further detail on the key steps to be followed. It introduces the concept of directing condition monitoring activities towards root cause failure modes, and describes the generic approach to setting alarm criteria, carrying out diagnosis and prognosis and improving the confidence in diagnosis and prognosis, which are developed further in other International Standards.

d) ISO 13379:2003(E) Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines General guidelines on data interpretation and diagnostics techniques. This International Standard contains general procedures that can be used to determine the condition of a machine relative to a set of baseline parameters. Changes fro the baseline values and comparison to alarm 14-5

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criteria are used to indicate anomalous behaviour and to generate alarms: this is usually designated as condition monitoring. Additionally, procedures that identify the cause(s) of the anomalous behaviour are given in order to assist in the determination of the proper corrective actions: this is usually designated as diagnostics.

e) ISO 13380:2002(E) Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines General guidelines on using performance parameters. This International Standard provides guidelines for condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines using parameters such as temperature, flow rates, contamination, power and speed, typically associated with the performance, condition, safety and quality criteria. The evaluation of machine function may be based on performance, condition, product quality or safety.

f) ISO 13374-1:2003(E) Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines Data processing, communication and presentation Part 1: General guidelines. This part of ISO 13374 establishes general guidelines for software specifications related to data processing, communication and presentation of machine condition monitoring and diagnostics information.

14.4 Vibration Monitoring Vibration generated from a machine contains vital information on the health of the machine and can be used to identify developing problems. Regular vibration monitoring can detect deterioration or defective bearings, mechanical looseness, worn or broken gears, misalignment and unbalance of rotor.

Fig. 14.2 Simple harmonic motion (from Scheffer and Gridhar).

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All rotating machines produce vibrations that are a function of the machine operating conditions and machine dynamics. The most classical example is that of a body with mass M attached to a spring of stiffness K. Due to weight of mass M, the object will stabilised at an equilibrium position at a distance xo. When the mass is displaced by a certain displacement x and released, it moves up and down about the equilibrium position and reaches the top and bottom limits. The motion can theoretically continue indefinitely if there is no damping and is called periodic or harmonic motion. The relationship between the displacement of the mass and time is expressed in the form of a sinusoidal equation: X = X0 sin t (rad/s). Velocity can be obtained by taking the first derivative of the displacement equation. V = X0 cos t or the second derivative of the displacement equation. A = -X0 2 sin t (14.3) (14.2) (14.1)

Where X displacement at any given time t; X0 - maximum displacement; = frequency

Similarly, the acceleration can be obtained by taking the derivative of the velocity equation

Fig. 14.3 Waveform of displacement, velocity and acceleration of mass in SHM (from Scheffer and Gridhar).

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Table 14.1 Some useful vibration parameters

Displacement (m) Frequency (Hz) Power Spectral Density Crest factor (CF) Standard deviation (SD) Phase (deg)

Velocity (m/s) Bandwidth (Hz) Peak Value Arithmetic mean (AM) Kurtosis (K)

Acceleration (m/s ) Spike Energy (gSE) Root mean square (RMS) Geometric mean (GM) Skewness

Using Vibration to Machinery Fault Detection A typical machine system is shown in Fig. 14.4. It consists of a driver, such as electric motor, diesel engines, gas engines, steam turbines and gas turbines. The driven equipment could be pumps, compressors, mixers, agitators, fans, blowers and others. The driven equipment is connected to the prime mover via a gearbox, belt drive, coupling and other connectors.

Fig. 14.4 A typical machinery system (from Scheffer and Gridhar).

Each of these rotating parts is further comprised of simple components such as: Stator (volutes, diaphragms, diffuser, stator poles, etc) Rotors (impellers, rotors, lobes, screws, vanes, fan blades, etc.) Seals Bearings Couplings Gears Belts and pulleys

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All rotating and moving parts are prone to wear and failure after a period of service and when mechanical defects occur, they generate high vibration levels. Some of the common faults are listed in Table 14a.
Table 14.1a Common machine faults

Unbalance of rotating parts Worn or damage gears and bearings Electromagnetic forces Looseness

Misalignment of couplings and bearings Bad drive belts and chains Aerodynamic forces Rubbing

Bend or bow shafts

Torque variations

Hydraulic forces Resonance

The causes of machinery vibration and resulting vibration characteristics can be classified in terms of characteristics vibration frequencies and their harmonics. Table 14.2 shows the most common causes of machinery vibration and the resulting characteristic frequencies. Table 14.3 shows possible causes of vibration from known characteristic frequencies. Some of the common causes of bearing failure are shown in Table 14.4. It has to be pointed that these faults are not easily identifiable and these tables are provided to be used as a reference guide.

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Table 14.2 A guide to causes of vibration (from Bruel & Kjaer 2).

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Table 14.3 Common faults from known vibration characteristic frequencies (from Rao, B.K.N.).

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Table 14.4 Troubleshooting rolling element bearing failures (from Rao, B.K.N.).

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