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INSTRUMENTATION AND REGULATORY CONTROL LAYER REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE LNG APC APPLICATIONS
Dr Sebastien Osta APC Consultant IPCOSAptitude Ltd. Cambridge, United Kingdom www.ipcosaptitude.com

ABSTRACT
Good instrumentation and reliable online analyzers are generally considered as a prerequisite before any Advanced Process Control (APC) solutions can be deployed on a process unit. In addition, the process design around the Main Cryogenic Heat Exchanger often requires that several valves that compose the basic control layer (i.e. the PID loops) are operated in Manual mode. The first part of this paper describes the authors experience in terms of mandatory instrumentation, expected performance of the online analyzers and requirements for the basic control layer before any APC application can be developed on a LNG plant. In the second part of the paper, the author describes a real case example of the application of APC on a world-scale LNG plant, together with technical challenges and areas of achieved benefits.

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INTRODUCTION
LNG Liquefied Natural Gas is a mixture of light hydrocarbons, ranging from methane (C1) to butane (C4), with approximately 85 to 95% methane, and little C5+. The main usage of LNG is domestic heating as well as fuel for producing electricity. LNG quality is measured and classified by High Heating value (HHV), which is a characteristic of energy content, and by Wobbe Index (WI), which is used for Gas interchangeability in burning processes. The stages involved in the LNG chain are gas extraction, separation, liquefaction, shipping, storage and regasification. LNG is found in gas state during the exploration stage. It is then processed and liquefied in a LNG train. Liquid LNG will be stored at the LNG terminal then loaded onto dedicated vessels for transportation. LNG will be unloaded at the reception terminal and stored. LNG will finally be regasified so that it can be transported by pipe to the end users. Liquefaction of LNG isnt a simple cooling operation. It involves several separation columns, vessels (including slug catcher), compressors, catalytic reactors, dryers, heat exchangers (including the Main Cryogenic Heat Exchanger), pumps, pipes, relief and control valves, flare system, measurement instruments, online analyzers, Distributed Control Systems (DCS), etc The careful selection of appropriate instrumentation and control systems is a key requirement for a successful implementation of Advanced Process Control (APC). Once the unit is ready for implementation of APC, then a specific methodology has to be applied in order to obtain a control solution that is accepted by operators and delivers the expected benefits.

CHAPTER 1 GETTING READY FOR APC

Instrumentation Design Phase Instruments shall be available such that, as a minimum, the following functions are well covered: Mass balance is maintained; in many places, any change in feed flow from the production area will cause an unbalance that will require an operator intervention to close or open a valve somewhere along the process. This isnt a best practice of course. Level, Pressure and Flow measurements shall be installed at locations where changes in feed flow and pressure shall be taken care automatically without human intervention. Heat balance is maintained; in some places like the liquefaction section, the temperature of the product is a production objective. In other parts of the process, temperature measurements will serve to calculate exchanger duty and fouling conditions, such that preventive maintenance can be scheduled. Lastly, temperature is also an indication of purity when located at sensitive trays in a separation column. Temperature measurements shall be installed at locations where monitoring of fouling and separation can then be managed. Temperature profile is maintained; Catalytic reactors, for instance, do require a specific temperature profile in order to be able to detect channeling (channeling is observed when the processed stream follows a preferential path in the catalytical bed rather than being spread homogeneously across the entire active area).

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Pressure profile is maintained; the feed comes at one end, and converted and unconverted materials have to leave as product(s) at the other end. Pressure measurements shall be located at each side of major equipments such that pressure drops can be monitored. Detecting abnormal pressure drops at a particular point of the process will help scheduling preventive maintenance. Additionally, measurements of delta pressure shall be located in distillation columns where flooding conditions would be critical for the operation of the plant. Delta Ps allow to detect not only flooding but also deposit of salts and formation of ice. Safety trips can be avoided; often safety of the equipments is handled outside the DCS, directly into redundant Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). These PLCs receive direct measurements from the field instrumentation, and take action as necessary (stopping automatically equipments, up to shutting down the entire train). Instrumentation shall be made available at DCS, for each possible trip programmed in the PLCs, such that an operator can take actions before the trip conditions are met. Intermediate streams and final products are on specification; online analyzers shall be located at places in the process where it allows the equipments to be operated safely, such as dew point measurements at the outlet of the dryers, or C5+ content in the inlet of the MCHE. Online analyzers shall also be located such that the quality of the final products can be monitored and guaranteed, like for instance Wobbe Index or nitrogen content of LNG, and vapor pressure of condensate. Control valves are allowing smooth control; Control valves shall be designed such that the control of the associated measurement level, pressure, flow, temperature can be done smoothly and across the entire range of the valve travel.

Instrumentation Operation Phase Once the train is in operation, instrumentation shall be reviewed such that potential instrumentation problems are revealed and addressed. Here a key remark has to be brought: a problem can only be addressed if its cause can be detected. For the majority of the potential problems listed hereafter, the analysis of the cause of the problem is done through trending of historical data. Some may think that DCS are equipped with trending tools such that instrumentation problems can be detected, but the reality is often far from that. Low frequency acquisition, compression and exception are techniques used by data historian systems for reducing the number of binary digits required to represent data. If these techniques are useful such that several years of data can be stored onto a central server, most of the time the resulting data cant be used for addressing the challenge of detecting instrumentation problems. The instrumentation and control engineers need to have access to a data historian system where fast acquisition of raw data is performed, and where powerful visualization capabilities are available. Instrument noise; the noise of the instrument shall be filtered such that control elements (such as valves) shall not travel unnecessarily. The filter time is often defined as:

G ( s) =

1 , with F being the filter time in minutes F s +1

In order to optimize the filter of an instrument attached to a control valve, the control valve shall be put into manual mode. Then the raw signal (without filter) shall be trended in real 3

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time with appropriate scaling (e.g. 2 minutes time axis for a flow measurement) and be superposed, if possible, with the filtered signal. In the Figure below, the filter constant is too small as shown in the picture located at the left, too big as shown in the picture located at the right and appropriate in the picture located at the center.

Figure 1. Instrument Noise Tip: It isnt uncommon to find filters at several stages of the instrument loop. A filter may be applied at the instrument located in the field, then at the input point in the DCS, and finally in the control loop in the DCS. Of course the best practice consists in having only one filter constant per loop.

Table 1 displays the minimum, typical and maximum filter times according to the type of instrument. Table 1. Filter Time Instrument Type Flow meter Pressure Level Temperature Minimum 0 0 0.1 0 Typical 0.05 0 0.2 0 Maximum 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.05

Valve characteristic is probably the most critical source of control problems for the operation of a LNG train. To en extreme, engineering companies tend to make a confusion between on/off valves and control valves, assuming that operators might just be interested in closing or opening a valve fully, or making big adjustments in Manual mode. Figure 2 below displays the typical characteristics of control valves.

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Figure 2. Valve Characteristic In order to analyze the behavior of a valve, it is necessary to plot the flow and the valve opening together, as illustrated in Figure 3. The instrument engineer can then understand if a mismatch can be detected. In the Figure below, the flow output has to move to approximately 15% before a flow value can be measured, and to 18% before the flow exhibit a linear relationship as a function of the controller output. In this example, the mismatch between output and flow at the beginning of the curve may mean that the flow meter could be faulty and would need in that case recalibration. On the other hand the actual valve position in the field might be offset by comparison to the flow controller output in the DCS, such that the valve might still be closed in the field when the controller output shows 15% in the DCS. In that case, the instrument department shall take action to reduce the offset between output in the DCS and actual valve opening in the field. This isnt always possible while the plant is in operation, unless there is a bypass around the control valve.

Figure 3. Flow vs Valve Position

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The most common problem with valves is stiction. Stiction means stickiness and friction. Stiction is represented as the force necessary to start a body in motion. In a control loop the stiction is in the valve stem. A change in the amount of force applied to the stem is required for it to move. Figure 4 below illustrates a stiction phenomenon. When the flow measurement is below setpoint, the controller output increases, whereas the flow remains constant. At a certain point, the flow measurement jumps and gets higher than the setpoint. The controller output starts ramping down, whereas the flow is constant again. And so on...such that the pattern of the flow measurement looks like crenels. Stiction is often characterized with two numbers: the percentage of stiction and the valve opening where stiction is present. In that case the instrumentation department can sometimes grease the various moving parts of the valve while the plant is in operation. Again this may require bypassing the control valve. In a lot of cases, the servicing of the valve will have to take place during the following scheduled turn-around.

Figure 4. Valve Stiction Distributed Control Systems (DCS) provide various possibilities for configuring simple PID loops and cascades, including feed-forward effects, etc In particular, options around filter time, PID equations and PID terminology are fairly different from a DCS to another. This is often a source of confusion, and also a large contributor to improvements as part of an APC project. As an example, the table below provides some of the typical terms used across various DCS that are commonly available at LNG sites. A lot of additional parameters and options are available in these DCS, like non-linear gains, gap gains, minimum and maximum limits on some of the parameters, external reset feedback, propagation of wind-up signals, etc The most common mistake is to use the wrong PID equation. It is often found that a control loop where derivative action is present (that is, a non-zero derivative time) uses a PID equation (Proportional, Integral and Derivative action on Error) rather than PI-D (Proportional and Integral action on Error, and Derivative action on Measure). The difference may be subtle, but the consequences can be pretty severe. The role of the control engineer will be to carefully review the configuration of all loops, adapt and optimize the control schemes and the PID equations, filter time, and PID constants such that the PID loop can be kept in Automatic in most cases and work efficiently. 6

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Commercial packages are often used to monitor and improve the behavior of the PID loops. Table 2. PID Terminology in DCS DCS Type / Naming Honeywell TDC3000 Filter Tf (min) Gain K Integral T1 (min) Derivative T2 (min) PID Equations A, B, C, D, Real, Ideal (1) PID, PI-D, I-PD, I Invensys Foxboro I/A Ft (min) Pband Int (min) Deriv (min) (2) ModOpt (3) P, I, PD, PI, PID, NIPID, PITAU, PIDTAU Yokogawa Centum CS3000 0, 1, 3 or 7 sec P (Pb) I (sec) D (sec) PID, I-PD, PI-D, Auto determination
(4)

ABB Mod 300

Lag Time (min)

Gain

Reset (min-1)

Preact (min)

Preact (min)

(1) PI-D reads as Proportional and Integral on Error, D on Measure (2) Additional parameter KD is the gain factor applied to derivative as DTIME/KD (3) Additional parameter SPLLAG varies from 0 to 1; when set to 0, no proportional term is applied to setpoint changes (4) Auto determination can take 2 forms; Auto means I-PD in Auto mode and P-ID in Cas and RCas mode; Auto 2 means I-PD in Auto and RCas modes and P-ID in Cas mode

Online analyzers have to be treated as special input signals. Indeed, these signals are often discontinuous and equipments are subject to faults. Figure 5 below exhibits several of the behaviors encountered when dealing with online analyzers, and listed as follows. 1. This online analyzer is shared by two product streams. The analyzer measures the composition of one stream during 4 hours, and then measures the composition of another stream during the next 4 hours. An automated washing cycle ensures that no contamination is taking place in the measurement device. Therefore the analyzer signal is only available 50% of the time on each stream. 2. During the washing cycle, a spike is systematically introduced, and isnt representative of the product quality. 3. The analyzer signal can freeze during time when composition is below analyzer detection capability.

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4. The analyzer exhibits a spike whereas it is impossible for the process to have generated such change in composition for the product stream. This spike is coming from an analyzer fault. The analyzer department needs to have a program in place with proactive maintenance and periodical comparisons with laboratory samples, such that the availability of the online analyzers is maximized. The control engineer has to implement a real-time functionality to process the analyzer signals that automatically removes spikes, detects freezing and abnormal values. Sometimes analyzers also deliver specific alarms (low flow in the fast loop, washing cycle, general fault detection, etc) that could be used in the signal processing. Commercial packages are often used to monitor the behavior of the online analyzers, compute a validated analyzer signal, and include for instance additional capabilities such as applying automatically an offset from measurements performed in the laboratory.

Figure 5. Online Analyzer It happens that a key online analyzer is missing or isnt working on a continuous basis such that operators rely also upon laboratory measurements to ensure that products are on specification. In that case it may be required to develop virtual sensors. Virtual sensors, often called inferentials, are online calculations representing an estimation of the product qualities. In order to ensure that inferentials are suitable for being used as part of multivariable control, accuracy and consistency will have to be achieved. Commercial packages exist for the development of inferentials through various statistical methods, and include for instance additional capabilities such as applying automatically an offset from measurements performed in the laboratory and from an online analyzer, when this one is declared valid by the validation processing function.

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CHAPTER 2 APC IMPLEMENTATION

Advanced Process Control (APC) has been used in the refining and petrochemical industries for more than 20 years with great success. Typical benefits include significant increased throughput and reduction in utility consumption. In the past few years, this technology is increasingly adopted by the midstream business, including LNG and NGL production plants. By definition, APC is a technology with multivariable, closed-loop model predictive control with constraint handling and linear optimization. APC is multivariable as the controller accounts for the dependencies of several control loops in the process. APC is model predictive as it contains all of the necessary dynamic relationships between independent and dependant process variables. APC is a closed-loop system capable of sending setpoint and output targets every minute to the regulatory control layer and correct itself in feed-back. Lastly, APC embeds a linear optimizer (LP Linear Programming or QP Quadratic Programming) capable of defining the optimum operating point of the plant while honoring process and equipment constraints. The LNG process Figure 6 shows a typical process arrangement for a set of onshore LNG production trains.

Figure 6. LNG Unit Block

The inlet facilities section is designed to receive feedstock from the 2-phase feed pipelines produced by the offshore production facilities, and to provide gas/condensate separation. In order to protect aluminium in the main cryogenic heat exchanger (MCHE), mercury has to be removed from LNG in the gas treatment section before sending the gas to the liquefaction units. The Acid Gas Removal section is designed to remove hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and other sulphur compounds by means of chemical/physical absorption from gas coming from the treated gas. The dehydration section is designed to dry the gas leaving the acid gas removal section, which is saturated with water, using molecular sieve driers. The objective of the gas chilling and liquefaction section and Refrigeration section is to produce Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) from the treated natural gas. Refrigeration section consists in a propane circuit and a mixed refrigerant (MR) circuit. Liquefaction is achieved in the main cryogenic heat exchanger (MCHE). The purpose of the Refrigerant Preparation section is to produce ethane and propane suitable for

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refrigerant make-up, to separate heavy hydrocarbon (C5+) to avoid sending them to the MCHE and to produce a stabilised plant condensate. The function of the Nitrogen Rejection section is to flash the nitrogen from the LNG product and deliver the nitrogen rich gas to the fuel gas system. Finally, the Sulphur Recovery Unit is designed to recover sulphur (mainly under H2S form) contained in the acid gas feed from the Acid Gas Removal section, and to convert it into liquid sulphur. APC objectives The general operating objectives for the Inlet Facilities APC controller are typically: Absorb disturbances from offshore operations in the Slug Catcher Stabilize condensate stripper and ensure good stripping Maximize valuable products by running at high vapor pressure Minimize overall energy usage

Figure 7. LNG Inlet Facilities The general operating objectives for the LNG liquefaction controller are typically: Maximize LNG production when running in maximum production mode Maximize valuable products when running at fixed feed rate according to relative prices of LNG, plant condensate and field condensate Run the temperature at the top of the Main Cryogenic Heat Exchanger against a target when so desired Avoid sending heavy hydrocarbons (C5+) or water in the MCHE Maintain the product qualities of LNG (HHV, WI) on specification Minimize overall energy usage

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Figure 7. LNG Liquefaction and Separation sections APC design around MCHE The following control functions are generally identified for LNG trains: Control the pressure in the Scrub column and LNG inlet to cold bundle Control the content of C5+ in the scrub column overhead Ensure Mixed-Refrigerant (MR) circuit is providing the appropriate duty to the MCHE Control the temperature profile along the MCHE Honor MR compressor constraints Honor Propane compressor constraints Control the quality of LNG at the Nitrogen Rejection section with balancing the reinjection of LPG Maximize LNG production, subject to exit LNG temperature target

The APC controller generally manipulates the 2 Joule-Thompson valves and the MR compressor speed in order to set the appropriate circulation rate of MR. This strategy will allow achieving the desired temperature at the top of the MCHE, while maintaining the temperature profile along the MCHE (warm, middle and cold bundles). Additional constraints might give a limitation to the MR circulation rate, such as maximum delta P limit in the cold bundle, compression ratio range and MR separator overhead maximum flow. The APC controller will also ensure that the MR compressor constraints typically maximum exhaust temperature, distance from surge at each stage, suction pressure are kept within limits. In order to achieve this, the APC generally manipulates the speed of the MR compressor and the kickback valves. For quality control purpose, the APC controller typically manipulates the suction pressure of the fuel gas compressor, as well as the flow of LPG re-injection from the Refrigeration Preparation section. The fuel gas compressor can be amperage constrained. If the MCHE exit temperature or the plant throughput starts to rise, then the load on the fuel gas compressor will start to increase. A typical case is that the fuel gas compressor reaches its amperes limit, which means that the throughput should not be further increased. During LNG maximization mode, the APC maximizes 11

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gas flow to the plant, while controlling MCHE top temperature, LNG HHV, WI and nitrogen content, as well as MR and fuel gas compressor constraints. Figure 8 hereafter illustrates a real-life application of APC on a LNG train. In the top part, the graph is showing a decrease in throughput decided by the plant supervisor due to logistical constraints imposed during ship loading operation. The MCHE temperature is kept very accurately at the desired target here -147C as the APC adjusts automatically the 2 J-T valves (middle graph) as well as the MR compressor speed (bottom graph). All other process constraints and products qualities, including LNG WI and HHV, are kept safely within operating limits.

Figure 8. APC in operation APC project execution An APC project on a LNG train will last approximately 6 to 8 months. The typical steps involved during the execution of an APC project can be listed as follows: Benefit study (external contractor) and project justification (internal) 12

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Tendering phase and APC vendor selection Pre-tests, including review of instrumentation, tuning of all relevant control loops, functional design of the APC application (APC controller design, HMI interface, DCS interface) Plant test, often performed on 24 hours basis, to make steps on key plant variables and collect the necessary information in real time Modeling, when dynamic relationship between independent and dependent variables are computed Tuning and Simulation of the APC controller (offline) to compare scenarios and set economical directions for the controller to maximize throughput and minimize energy consumption, if relevant to the site Implementation of DCS interface Commissioning of the APC application and operator training Documentation of the application for operators and engineers Post-audit of the application to compare results with a baseline, in order to compute the payback of the project

Benefits from APC The benefits associated with the APC control system are realized through smoother operation due to a reduced impact from process disturbances and the constraint handling capability of the controller. This results in an ability to run the process at the true system constraints, rather than having to operate at some safe distance from these constraints in anticipation of large upsets. As part of an audit of an existing APC project, the process sections of a LNG plant have been identified as contributors to the overall benefits with the repartition displayed in the following table. However, the location of active constraints in the production plant is impacting drastically the repartition of the potential benefits. Imagine that the Sulphur Recovery Unit would be slightly undersized to process a more sour gas composition, and then the areas of benefits will completely different. Table 3. Example of benefits Process Area Inlet facilities Acid Gas removal Liquefaction (LNG production) Fractionation (Ethane, Butane, C5) Benefits (% of total) 10% 10% 60% 20%

In addition this project was found to have a payback of approximately 5 months.

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CONCLUSION
APC is a powerful and profitable technique for maximizing LNG production while monitoring the process and equipment constraints on a minute-by-minute basis. In addition, implementing APC will generate intangible benefits such as the ability to change the feed rate faster and a more consistent approach to run the plant across the operation crews. But in order to achieve this goal, the foundations have to be solid. The careful review of the instrumentation and analyzers, with the optimization of tuning parameters (including filter time and PID equation type) is a critical step before any APC plant test can take place. Experience shows that up to 30% of the total benefits of the implementation of APC can be accrued just when this stage is completed. The selection of appropriate independent and dependent variables is the next key aspect of a successful APC project. The myth that consists in stating that a plant should be run fully in automatic (i.e. no PID controller in Manual) isnt founded, and especially not when looking in particular at the basic control layer associated to the MCHE. APC can cope very well with PID loops in Manual mode. All together, executing an APC project is a way to question a lot of the operational and logistical aspects of a LNG production plant. Details such as being able to change Mixed Refrigerant and Propane suction pressure from the DCS rather than an external computer device cant be overlooked. But then the result is a renewed basis of knowledge and information about production, process, instrumentation and control, shared by several technical departments.

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