Limits Fits

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process; By Dr. Saied. M.
Darwish

1
CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances
CHAPTER ONE: FITS AND TOLERANCES

1.1 Dimensional Tolerances Some of the dimensional tolerances terms are defined as
following:

1.1.1 Dimension:
A geometrical characteristic such as length, diameter, angle, center distance, etc.

1.1.2 Size:
Size is the designation of magnitude (when a value is assigned to a dimension, it is referred to
as the size of the dimension.)

1.1.3 Actual size (of a part):
The value of the size as practically obtained by measurements.

1.1.4 Basic size:
The size by reference to which the limits of size are fixed.

Figure: 1 Basic terms of dimensions and limits
The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process; By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

2

1.1.5 Design size:
The combination of the basic size and the limits of size chosen by the designer.

11..6 Limits of size:
The two extreme permissible sizes of a part between which the actual size should lie.

1.1.7 Maximum limit of size:
The greater of the two limits of size.

1.1.8 Minimum limit of size:
The smaller of the two limits of size.

1.1.9 Maximum material limit:
The maximum limit of size of an external dimension or the minimum limit of size of an
internal dimension.

1.1.10 Minimum material limit:
The minimum limit of size of an external dimension or the maximum limit of size of an
internal dimension.

1.1.11 Tolerance:
Difference between the maximum limit of size and the minimum limit of size (difference
between upper deviation and the lower deviation).


3
Tolerance
Tolerance zone
Zone line

1.1.12 Zero line:
The zero line is the line of zero deviation and represents the basic size.

1.1.13 Upper deviation:
Algebraical difference between the maximum limit of size and the corresponding basic size.

1.1.14 Lower deviation:
Algebraical difference between the minimum limit of size and the corresponding basic size.

1.1.15 Tolerance zone:
Zone comprised between the two lines representing the limits of tolerance, and defined by its
magnitude (tolerance) and by its position to the zero line.

1.1.16 Unilateral tolerance:
Is the tolerance in which the variation in size is permitted only in one direction from the basic
size.

1.1.17 Bilateral tolerance:
Is the tolerance in which the variation in size is permitted in both directions from the basic
size.

4
Basic shaft
Basic hole

1.1.18 Shaft:
Term used by convention to designate all external features of a part, including parts which are
not cylindrical.

1.1.19 Hole:
Term used by convention to designate all internal features of parts, including parts which are
not cylindrical.

1.1.20 Basic shaft:
It is the shaft, the upper deviation of which is zero. It is the shaft chosen, as a basis for a shaft
basis system of fit.

1.1.21 Basic hole:
It is the hole, the lower deviation of which is zero. It is the hole chosen, as a basis for a hole
basis system of fit.

1.1.22 Fit: Relationship resulting from the difference, before assembly, between the sizes of
the two parts which are to be assembled.


5
Clearance fit
shaft
hole
Interference fit
hole
shaft

Figure 2: Clearance and interference fits

1.1.23 Basic size of a fit:
Common value of the basic size of the two parts of a fit.

1.1.24 Clearance fit:
The fit which always provides a clearance (the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above
that of the shaft)

1.1.25 Interference fit:
The fit which always provides an interference (the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely
below that of the shaft)


6
Min. clearance
shaft
hole
Max. clearance
shaft
hole
Max. clearance
shaft
hole

1.1.26 Transition fit:
The fit which may provide either a clearance or an interference (the tolerance zones of the
hole and the shaft overlap)

1.1.27 Minimum clearance:
In a clearance fit, difference between the minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of
the shaft.

1.1.28 Maximum clearance:
In a clearance or a transition fit, difference between the maximum size of the hole and the
minimum size of the shaft.


7
Max. interference
shaft
hole
shaft
hole
Max. interference
Min. interference
hole
shaft

1.1.29 Minimum interference:
In an interference fit, magnitude of the (negative) difference between the maximum size of
the hole and the minimum size of the shaft, before assembly.

1.1.30 Maximum interference:
Magnitude of the (negative) difference between the minimum size of the hole and the
maximum size of the shaft, before assembly.

1.1.31 Shaft-basis system of fits:
System of fits in which different clearances and interferences are obtained by associating
various holes with a single basic shaft.

1.1.32 Hole-basis system of fits:
System of fits in which different clearances and interferences are obtained by associating
various shafts with a single basic hole.

8

Figure 3: Basic hole and shaft system


9

Figure 4: Hole and shaft system

10

1.2 Symbols for Tolerances and Deviation and Symbols for Fits

1.2.1 Tolerance values:
The tolerance value is a function of the basic size and is indicated by a number
called the grade.

1.2.2 Tolerance position:
The position of the tolerance zone with respect to the zero line, is indicated by a
letter symbol, a capital letter for holes and a small letter for shafts.
The tolerance size thus defined by its basic value followed by a symbol composed
of a letter and a number.
Example: 45 g7
1.2.3 A fit:
A fit is indicated by the basic size common to both components, followed by
symbol corresponding to each component, the hole being quoted first

Example: 45 H8 g7
Possibly 45 H8 g7
Or 45 H8/g7

1.3: Grades of tolerances
Eighteen grades of tolerances are provided IT01, ITO and IT1 to IT16
The Table 1.1 gives the possible degrees of precision or grade of tolerance, achieved with
different machine tools.


11


Table 1.1: Possible degree of precision or grade of tolerance

Tolerance grade Intended for Applicable to components or machines
I T 01
Gauges
Slip blocks, Reference gauges I T 0
I T 1
I T 2
High quality gauges I T 3
I T 4

I T 5
Fits
Ball bearing
I T 6 Grinding, Honing
I T 7 Broaching
I T 8 Center lathe turning
I T 9 Worn automatic lathe
I T 10 Milling
I T 11 Drilling, Rough turning

I T 12
Not for fits
Light press work
I T 13 Press work
I T 14 Die casting
I T 15 Stamping
I T 16 Sand casting

12

Figute 5: Position of the various tolerance zones for a given diameter in the ISO system


13

Figure 6: Respective positions of various tolerance zones for hole


14

1.4 Fundamental tolerance unit

1.4.1Values of standard tolerances:
T = 10
0.2 (G 1)
(0.45 3D + 0.001D)
G = Tolerance grade IT6 IT 16
K = multiplier factor, depending on the tolerance grade G

1.4.2 Fundamental deviations:

1.4.2.1 Shaft deviation:
1) For each letter symbol defining the position of the tolerance zone, the magnitude
and sign of one of the two deviations which is known as the fundamental deviations (upper
deviation) es or lower deviation ei are determined by a formulae given in Table 6.
2) The other deviation is derived from the first one using the magnitude of the
standard tolerance IT, by means of the following algebraic relationship:

or

3) The fundamental deviation given by the formulae in Table 6 is, in principle, that
corresponding to that limit closet to the zero line, in other words, the upper deviation es for
shafts (a) to (h), and the lower deviation ei for shafts (j) to (Zc).

ei = es IT

es = ei + IT


15

1.4.2.2 Hole deviation:
For each letter symbol, defining the position of the tolerance zone, the magnitude and
sign of the fundamental deviation (lower deviation EI for holes (A) to (H) and upper
deviation ES for holes (J) to (Zc), are derived from the fundamental deviation es or ei
of the shaft with the same letter.

1) EI = - es for A to H
ES = -ei for J to Zc

2) The other deviation is derived from the first one, using the magnitude of the tolerance IT
by means of the following relationships.

or

1.4.3 Numerical values:
Fundamental shaft deviations:
Table 1.2 gives, for each dimension step, the values of the fundamental shaft
deviation:
Upper deviation es for shafts with symbols (a) to (h).
Lower deviation ei for shafts with symbols (J) to (Zc).
The other deviation can be derived from the fundamental deviation, as indicated before, by
adding or subtracting, as the case may be, the value of the standard tolerance IT are given
in Table 1.2 for the grade in question.

ES = EI + IT

EI = ES - IT


16

Figure 7:

Two comparable fits, with basic hole and basic shaft, in which a hole of a given grade is
associated with a shaft with next finer grade (H7/P6 and P7/h6), have exactly the same
clearance or interference.


17

Table 1.2: Values of fundamental tolerances

Grade 01 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14* 15* 16*
S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

t
o
l
e
r
a
n
c
e
s

i
n

m
i
c
r
o
n
s
(
0
.
0
0
1
m
m
)

f
o
r

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

s
t
e
p
s

i
n

m
i
l
l
i
m
e
t
e
r
s

< 3 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.2 2 3 4 6 10 14 40 60 100 140 250 400 600
> 3 to 6 0.4 0.6 1 1.5 2.5 4 5 8 12 18 48 75 120 180 300 480 750
> 6 to 10 0.4 0.6 1 1.5 2.5 4 6 9 15 22 58 90 150 220 360 580 900
> 10 to 18 0.5 0.8 1.2 2 3 5 8 11 18 27 70 110 180 270 430 700 1100
> 18 to 30 0.6 1 1.5 2.5 4 6 9 13 21 33 84 130 210 330 520 810 1300
> 30 to 50 0.6 1 1.5 2.5 4 7 11 16 25 39 100 160 250 390 620 1000 1600
> 50 to 80 0.8 1.2 2 3 5 8 13 19 30 46 120 190 300 460 740 1200 1900
> 80 to 120 1 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 15 22 35 54 140 220 350 540 870 1400 2200
> 120 to 180 1.2 2 3.5 5 8 12 18 25 40 63 160 250 400 630 1000 1600 2500
> 180 to 250 2 3 4.5 7 10 14 20 29 46 72 185 290 460 720 1150 1850 2900
> 250 to 315 2.5 4 6 8 12 16 23 32 52 81 210 320 520 810 1300 2100 3200
> 315 to 400 3 5 7 9 13 18 25 36 57 89 230 360 570 890 1400 2300 3600
> 400 to 500 4 6 8 10 15 20 27 40 63 97 250 400 630 970 1550 2500 4000

- up to 1 mm, grades 14 to 16 are not provided

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process; By Dr. Saied. M. Darwi h 19


PROBLEMS

Problem 1

Define each of the following terms (use sketches whenever possible)
Basic size - Dimension - Size - Maximum material limit - Upper deviation - Lower
deviation - Basic hole - Basic shaft - Transition fit - Clearance fit - Maximum
interference Straightness error - Cylindricity error - Roundness error - Run out (axial
and radial).

Problem 2

A shaft with a nominal size of 42 mm is fitted with an inner ring. The fitting condition is
K 5/h6.
- Determine the type of fit between the shaft and the hole.
- Mention, whether it is a hole-based or a shaft-based.
- Find the shaft and hole dimensions with upper and lower deviations.

Problem 3

(a) Describe by sketch the available classes of fits. What is the
difference between the unilateral and bilateral tolerance systems.
Then sketch a unilateral hole-based clearance fit.

(b) A shaft with a nominal size of 35 mm is fitted with an inner region of a ball
bearing bearing (hole). The fitting condition is H7/P6

- Determine which type of the fit class is between the shaft and the hole. Find the
hole and shaft dimensions with upper and lower deviations.

Problem 4

Figure (1-a), shows a stepped shaft with four concentric diameters and a flange which must
run true with the datum axis. The shaft is to be located within journals at X and Y and these
are identified as datums. Fig. (1-b) shows a group of dial gauges used to test the geometrical
tolerances given in Fig. (1-a). Define each of these geometrical tolerances, ten give the
reading that each dial gauge should indicate.


CHAPTER ONE: Fits and Tolerances


CHAPTER TWO: FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CUTTING

2.1 Geometry of single point tool
The chip removal process may be performed by cutting tools of definite geometry. These
cutting tools can be classified as single point cutting tool, used in lathe, planer and, slotter
and multi point cutting tool used in milling, drilling and broaching.
A typical single point cutting tool for lathe and its geometry is shown in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Nomenclature of a single point cutting tool

2.1.1 Right cut tool
A right cut tool is the tool in which the main cutting edge faces the headstock of the lathe,
when the tool is clamped and in this case the tool cuts from right to left.

2.1.2 Left cut tool
In this case the main cutting edge faces the tailstock of the lathe and consequently the tool
cuts from left to right as shown in figure 2.2.


CHAPTER TWO: Fundamentals of Metal Cutting

Left cut Right cut

Figure 2.2: Two basic types of single point cutting tools

2.1.3 Tool planes
To define the tool angles, some reference planes are suggested.
a-The basic plane: Is the plane containing the tool base.
b-Auxiliary plane of main cutting edge: Is the plane containing the main cutting edge and
perpendicular to the basic plane.
c- Auxiliary plane perpendicular to the projection of main cutting edge: It is the plane
perpendicular to the projection of the main cutting edge and both planes mentioned above. As
shown in figure 2.3

Figure 2.3: Tool planes



2.2 Tool angles
The main tools angles are shown Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Single point cutting tool angles

2.2.1 Clearance angle : It is the angle between the main flank and the auxiliary plane z,
measured in the auxiliary plane c.

2.2.2 Wedge angle : It is the angle between the tool face and the main flank, measured in
the auxiliary plane c.

2.2.3 Rake angle : It is the angle between the tool face and a plane passing through the
point of the intersection of the main cutting edge with auxiliary plane c and parallel to the
basic plane a, it also measured in the auxiliary plane c.

2.2.4 Cutting angle : It is the sum of the clearance angle and wedge angle.

| o o + =


According to the figure.
90 = + + | o

The rake angle may be positive when the face slopes downwards, and negative when the face
slope is upward, with respect to the basic plane. It is equal to zero when the face is parallel to
the basic plane.

2.2.5 Auxiliary angles
In addition to the above mentioned main angles, the single point tool has auxiliary angles,

90 ' ' ' = + + | o

2.2.6 Nose angle
It is the angle included between the projections of the main and auxiliary cutting edges on the
basic plane.

2.2.7 Setting angles
It is the angle between the projection of the main cutting edge on the basic plane and the
direction of the feed.
Generally the tool angles are chosen with respect to:

1- The material to be machined, negative rake for hard and brittle materials and positive
for ductile materials.
2- The tool material.
3- The machining method.



2.3 Requirements of tool materials:

2.3.1 High hardness and high hot hardness: The tool material must posses higher hardness
then that of the machined workpiece. It should have high hot hardness, (the ability to retain
hardness at high temperatures).
2.3.2 High wear resistance: The tool material must resist mechanical abrasion caused by the
sliding contact with the chips and machined surfaces.
2.3.3 High strength and toughness (impact resistance): The tool material should have
sufficient strength and toughness to withstand static and impact loads.
2.3.4 High thermal conductivity: Cutting tool materials possing higher thermal
conductivity is desirable, since it enables part of the heat generated at the cutting edge
to be transferred readily to the tool post and machine parts.
2.3.5 Low cost: For economical production, the tool cost must be as low as possible.

2.4 Common tool materials

2.4.1 Tool carbon steels: It contain 0.6 1.4 percent carbon and low percentages of Mn, Si,
S, P, and heat treated, it withstand temperatures < 250
C.
2.4.2 Alloy tool steels: The cutting performance of steel can be improved by adding alloying
elements such as chromium (Cr), vanadium (V), molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (Tn). When
these steels properly heat treated, they can work at temperatures up to 300
C.
2.4.3 High speed steels: It contain 8 19% tungsten and 3.8 4.6% chromium. They can
withstand temperatures up to 600
C.
2.4.4 Cemented carbides: Also known as sintered carbide, they have high wear resistance at
high temperatures. These carbides are used to produces cutting tools by powder metallurgy
technology.



Carbide cutting tools can be used at considerably higher cutting speeds, and they can be used
in case of those materials which are hard and difficult to cut by other tools. The applications
of common sintered carbides are summarized in Table 2.1.
Common types of carbides used in the manufacturing of cutting tool are as following.

2.4.4.1 Straight tungsten cemented carbide: It consists of grains of tungsten carbide held in
a matrix of cobalt. It also known as tungsten carbide, used for machining of cast iron and
other ductile materials.

+Co WC Tungsten Carbide

2.4.4.2 Titanium -Tungsten cemented carbides: Contain grains of solid solution of
tungsten carbide in carbide of titanium bonded by cobalt. It can be used for machining of
unhardened carbon and alloy steel.

WC + TiC + Co Titanium-tungsten Carbide
Tungsten Titanium Cobalt
Carbide Carbide (binding agent)

2.4.4.3 Titanium Tantalum Tungsten cemented carbides: Contain grains of solid
solution of titanium carbide in tantalum and tungsten carbide, cobalt is used as binding agent.

TiC + WC + TaC + Co
Titanium Tungsten Tantalum Cobalt
Carbide Carbide Carbide (binding agent)

According to ISO, sintered carbides are grouped into three main groups, identified by the
letters P(blue), M(yellow), and K(red).



1- GroupP: Mainly intended for machining of steels and they contain a relatively
higher percentage of titanium carbide and tantalum carbide. Titanium carbide and
tantalum carbide are characterized by their hardness and lower toughness. Therefore,
they can withstand high speeds but they are sensitive to shocks and vibration.

2- Group K: Mainly composed of tungsten carbide and Cobalt. Tungsten carbide is
characterized by its toughness, used for machining materials producing short broken
chips and they withstand shocks and vibrations.

3- Group M: It is an intermediate group that contains higher percentage of tungsten
carbide. They are tougher than those in group P. used for machining of cast iron and
steels.

2.4.5 Ceramic tool materials

Ceramic materials are made by compacting followed by sintering of aluminum oxides at high
temperature (1700
C). They are enable to machine all materials at very high cutting speeds
with higher surface finish and no coolant is required. The ceramic tools are inexpensive as
compared with cemented carbide tools. Al
2
O
3
is the common material used in producing
ceramic. Brittleness and low impact strength are the disadvantages of ceramic. When ceramic
tools replaced sintered carbides, the machining time is reduced by 30 50 %, due to the
increase in cutting speeds.

2.4.6 Diamonds

Diamonds are the hardest materials; they can work up to 1500
C. It is found in nature or
synthetically produced from ordinary graphite by subjecting it to extremely high pressures
and temperatures. They are used for finishing ferrous metals and alloys, dressing and truing
grinding wheels. Metal cutting tools, wire drawing dies, penetrators of hardness testers, and
lapping powder are common applications of diamonds.



2.4.7 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)

Cubic Boron Nitride is the hardest known material next to diamond. It is ment to transform
the crystal structure of carbon from hexagonal to cubic. CBN does not react with iron and
nickel, therefore the applications of CBN is the machining of steel and nickel based alloys.
CBN is expensive, and the application must justify the additional tooling cost.

Figure 2.5: Improvement in cutting tool materials have reduced machining time

Figure 2.6: Typical hot hardness relationship for selected tool materials. Plain carbon steel
shows a rapid loss of hardness as temperature increases, while cemented carbide and
ceramics are significantly harder at elevated temperatures.


2.5 Methods of fixation of sintered carbides, ceramics and diamond tools

The cutting tools made from sintered carbides, ceramic and diamonds are available in the
form of tips (inserts). These inserts can be used with the common tool shank. There are two
methods of fixation commonly used. One is brazing and the other is mechanical clamping,
both methods have their advantages and disadvantages.

2.5.1 Mechanical clamping

Mechanical clamping is used for cemented carbides, ceramics, and other hard materials. In
this method the cemented carbide, ceramic, and diamond inserts clamped mechanically with
the tool shank.

2.5.2 Brazing
In this method of fixation, the tool bits are bonded with the shank by applying soldering
materials.
2.6 Disadvantages of mechanical clamping
- Mechanical clamping of cutting inserts does not always ensure a contact stiffness that
is sufficiently high to prevent vibrations which develop in machining.
- These vibrations shorten the life of the insert and often produce machined surfaces
with poor finish.
- The clamping arrangement is often of comparatively large size, which in many cases
limits the cutting parameters of the tool such as depth of cut, width of cut.

2.7 Disadvantages of brazing
- Micro fissures are often produced due to the high temperature of the brazing
operation.
- The proportion of rejects due to cracks in tips is 10 40%.
- High skills is required for brazing.
- Difficulty in changing the worn insert.



Figure 2.7: Method of fixation brazing and mechanical clamping



Table (2.1): Application of different types of sintered carbides

Group Type Material machined Application
P
(blue)
P01 Steel and cast steel
Fine turning and boring, high speeds,
small chip cross-sections, high accuracy
and good surface quality, vibrations not
allowed.
P10 Steel and cast steel
Turning, copying, threading, milling,
high speeds, small and medium chip
cross-section
P20
Steel, carbon steel, tempered
cast iron
Turning, copying, milling, medium chip
cross-section, medium speeds, fine
planning
P30
Steel, carbon steel, tempered
cast iron
Turning, milling, planning, small and
medium speeds, medium and great chip
cross-sections
P40
&P50
Steel, carbon steel with
enclosures
Turning, planning, low speeds, great
chip cross-sections may be applied on
automatics
M
(yellow)
M10
Steel, carbon steel,
manganese carbon steel, cast
iron, alloy cast iron
Turning, planning, low speeds, great
chip cross-sections may be applied on
automatics
M20
Steel, cast steel, austen steel,
manganese steels, cast iron,
Turning, milling, medium cutting
speeds, medium chip cross-sections
M30
Steel, cast steel, austen steel,
cast iron, heat resistant steels
Turning, milling, planning, medium
cutting speeds, medium chip cross-
sections
M40
Automatic steels, light
metals
Turning, form turning, cutting off;
applied on automatics
K
(red)
K01
Hard cast iron, aluminum
alloys with high Si contents,
hard steels, plastics,
porcelane
Turning, fine turning and boring, fine
milling, scraping
K10
Cast iron BH>220, copper,
brass, aluminum, wood
Turning, milling, boring, reaming,
scraping, broaching
K20
Cast iron BH<220, copper,
brass, aluminum, wood
Turning, milling, planning, reaming,
broaching
K30
Cast and steels of low
strength, wood
Turning, milling, planing
K40
Soft and hard wood, non-
ferrous metals
Turning, milling, planing

Table (2.2): Composition, mechanical and physical properties of different types of
sintered carbide.

Group
Material
machined
Type
H
a
r
d
n
e
s
s

1

T
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s

2

Composition
Spec.
wt.
g/cm
3
V
i
c
k
e
r
s

K
g
/
m
m
2

B
e
n
d

s
t
r
.

K
g
/
m
m
2

C
o
m
p
r
.

S
t
r
.

K
g
/
m
m
2

Mod. of elast.
Kg/.mm
2

Ceoff.
of lin.
exp.
10
-6
/C
H
e
a
t

c
o
n
d
.

C
a
l
/
c
m
.
C
.
s

TiC
TaC
%
Co
%
WC
%
P (blue)
Steel, Cast
Steels,
tempered C.I.
P 01.2
P 01.3
P 01.4
P 05
P 10
P 20
P 25
P 30
P 40
P 50

1 2
64
43
33
18
28
14
20
8
12
15
6
6
5
5
9
10
9
10
13
17

Rest

7.2
8.5
10.1
12.2
10.7
11.9
12.5
13.1
12.7
12.5
1800
1750
1750
1700
1600
1500
1450
1450
1400
1300
75
90
100
110
130
150
175
175
190
210

490
500
500
500
470
400

45,000

53,000
54,000
55,000
56,000
56,000
52,000

7.5

6
6.5
6
6
5.5
5.5

0.04

0.07
0.08

0.14
0.14
M
(yellow)
C.I, alloy C.I.
tempered
C.I., non-
ferrous
metals,
Steels,
Manganese
steel, steel,
cast steel
M 01
M 20
M 30
M 40

1 2
10
10
10
6
6
8
9
15

Rest

13.1
13.4
14.4
13.6
1700
1550
1450
1300
135
160
180
210

500
480
440

53000
57000
5400

5.5
5.5

0.12
0.15
K (red)
C.I. hard C.I;
nitrided steel,
non-ferrous
metals, wood,
plastics, non
metallic
materials
K 01
K 05
K 10
K 20
K 30
K 40

1 2

4
3
2
2
1
-
4
6
6
6
9
12
Rest
15.0
14.5
14.8
14.8
14.5
14.3
1800
1750
1650
1550
1400
1300
120
135
150
170
190
210
590
570
550
480
450
63000
63000
62000
58000
57000
5
5
5
5.5
0.19
0.19
0.17
0.16



Table (2.3) : Ks Values according to Prof. Kienzle (1957)

Material
Strength or
hardness
Kg/mm
2

z 1 - z
ks = k
s1.1
h
-z

K
s 1.1
h = 1mm
h = 0.1mm h = 2.5mm
St 50 52 0.26 0.74 199 361 158
St 60 62 0.17 0.83 211 308 182
St 70 72 0.30 0.70 226 450 174
Ck 45 67 0.14 0.86 222 304 196
Ck 60 77 0.18 0.82 231 315 181
16Mn Cr5 77 0.26 0.74 210 383 167
18Cr Ni5 63 0.30 0.70 226 451 175
34Cr Mo4 73 0.26 0.74 250 450 200
Hard CI RC 46 0.19 0.81 206 319 174
Grey CI HB 200 0.26 0.74 116 211 93


CHAPTER THREE: Mechanics of Metal Cutting

CHAPTER THREE: MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

3.1 Mechanics of metal cutting
Till now, there is conflicting evidence about the nature of the deformation zone in metal
cutting. This has led to two basic schools of thought in analyzing the metal cutting
operation.
Many workers such as Merchant have favored the thin plane model, where as some
others such as Palmer & Oxley have based their analysis on a thick plastic zone.
The observations indicate that the thick model may describe the cutting process at very
low cutting speed, and at higher cutting speeds, the thin model is likely to be the most
useful for practical cutting conditions.
Here we shall deal only with Merchant analysis which is based on the thin-zone model.

Figure 3.1: The two basic models for chip formation

3.2 Basic methods of metal cutting
There are two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point tool, namely orthogonal
or two dimensional and oblique or three dimensional cutting.

3.2.1 Oblique cutting
In this case the resulting cutting force R is resolved into three mutually perpendicular
components acting on the tool, as shown in figure 3.2, these components are



A: The main cutting force Ps, which is tangential to the surface of the cut and
coincidence with the direction of the cutting speed V.
B: The axial or feed force P
f
which acts parallel to the work axis, in the opposite
direction of the feed motion.

C: Radial force Pr which is acting in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the
work.
The resultant cutting force R is
2 2 2
r f s
P P P R + + =

The relationship between the three components, depends on the cutting variables, tool
geometry, work material, and tool wear.

Figure 3.2: Force components in Oblique cutting


3.2.2 Orthogonal cutting
The essential features of orthogonal cutting are:
1: The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction of tool travel.
2: The cutting edge clears the width of the workpiece on either ends.
3: Only two perpendicular components of the cutting force are acting on the tool, that is
the entire force system lies in a single plane as shown in figure 3.3

Figure 3.3: Orthogonal cutting

3.3 Measuring the cutting force components
When using the three components force dynamometer, the values of the three
components can be measured.
1: The main cutting force Ps is the power component and is responsible for
producing internal shear.
2: The feed force Pf forms the energy required to feed the tool into the work.



3: The radial force Pr is a result of the elastic deflection of the work surface being
cut.
Both Ps and P
f
are responsible for lateral deflection and hence the accuracy of the
product.

The examples of orthogonal cutting are mentioned in figure 3.4

Figure 3.4: Examples of orthogonal cutting



PROBLEMS
Problem 1
A shaper tool, making an orthogonal cut, has a -10 rake angle. The depth of cut t
1
= 0.6
mm, the width of cut b = 3 mm. The cutting speed V
c
= 40 m/min. Two components
dynamometer is used to determine the main cutting force (P
s
= 3600 N), and normal
component (P
f
= 2400 N). A high speed photograph shows a shear plane angle 20.

Calculate:
1. The expected chip thickness t
2
.
2. The shearing stress on the shear plane
s

3. The machining power P
m
.
4. The specific cutting energy k
s
.

Draw to scale the Merchant force diagram and determine
1. Friction force P
fr

2. Shearing forced P
sh

Problem 2
Derive an expression for the spec. cutting energy k
s
in terms of shear angle and the
shear strength of the work material
s
in orthogonal cutting.

Problem 3
An orthogonal cut 3.0 mm wide is made at a speed of 45 m/min and a feed rate of 25
mm/rev, with a high-speed steel tool having a 15 rake angle. The chip thickness ratio r
is found to be 0.58, the cutting force, P
s
is 1000 N and the normal force P
f
is 280 N.

Calculate:
- chip thickness t
2
.
- shear plane angle
- resultant cutting force R.
- machining power P
m
and spec. cutting energy k
s

Draw to scale the Merchant force diagram and determine
- coeff. of friction on the tool face
- the force component normal to the shear plane P
ns



Problem 4

A workpiece is being cut at V
c
= 100 m/min. The machining power is found to be 3 kW.
The feed f = 0.2 mm/rev., and depth of cut t=0.5mm.
a) What is the main cutting force P
s
in N.
b) What is the spec. cutting energy k
s
in N/mm
2
.
c) Estimate the necessary machining time if the diameter of the machined bar is
D = 50 mm and its length = 250 mm.

Problem 5

Calculate the main cutting force component P
s
for the following turning
operation:
Material: mild steel

spec. cutting energy k
s
= 3500 N/mm
2

initial diam. of work = 80 mm

final diam. of work = 74 mm )
feed rate f = 0.4 mm/rev,

Calculate then the machining power if the spindle speed n = 710 r.p.m.

Problem 6
In a test to determine the main cutting force through power measurement during turning
operation, the following data are obtained.

Input power at full load W
1
= 2100 Watt
Input power at no load W
2
= 500 Watt
Calculate:
1- The spec. cutting energy k
s
of the machined material if V
c
= 30 m/min,
chip cross-section = 0.25x1.5 mm
2
.
2- The lathe efficiency under the given machining conditions.


CHAPTER FOUR: Tool Wear and Tool Life

CHAPTER FOUR: TOOL WEAR AND TOOL LIFE

4.1 Tool wear
During the cutting operation, the cutting edge is stressed mechanically and thermally
until it becomes completely blunt and unable to cut, 100 % wear occurs both on face and
flank, but depending on the machining conditions, one of the types of wear predominate.

Figure 4.1: Sketch of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and types of wear
that occur during oblique cutting


In case of crater wear:
M
T
K
K
q =
q should not exceed a certain value ( 0.4 0.6), otherwise weakening of the tool and
catastrophic fracture of cutting edge occur.
The measurement of the amount of crater wear is not as simple as that of the flank wear.
The dependence of the flank wear on the time of the tool operation is shown below.

Figure 4.2: Tool wear as a function of cutting time, flank wear is used here as the
measure of tool wear.

within interval I:
The flank wear increases rapidly till point a. Rapid increase of the wear is due to the
unevenness of the newly sharpened edge is being quickly smoothed.

within interval II:
It increases at normal rate and termed as normal wear, and the slope of the wearing curve
is dependent upon the cutting conditions such as speed, geometry, work piece material
and coolant type.
I
II III


within interval III:
The flank wear increases rapidly till the cutting edge is completely damaged and any
control is hardly possible. The reason is the appearance of the flank wear associated with
the formation of thermal cracks and plastic deformation.
Once the tool enters in the destructive wear interval III, it is uneconomical to sharpen the
tool, the machining accuracy is lost.
The moment when the tool becomes completely blunt is recognized by appearance of
bright strip on the machined surface (H.S.S. tools), and by intensive sparking in the place
of cut, in case of widia tool.

4.2 Tool life (cutting edge durability)
The tool life or cutting edge durability is the total time at which the tool is able to take off
the chip. It is the sum of actual cutting times in which the tool is operating from
sharpening to economical blunting. In other words, the tool life is the cutting time elapsed
between two consecutive sharpening. The tool life can be expressed in different ways:

1- Actual cutting time to failure.
2- Length of work cut to failure.
3- Volume of material removed to failure.
4- Number of components produced to failure.
5- Cutting speed for a given time of failure.

Factors affecting tool life:
1- Material of machined workpiece.
2- Required surface quality of the workpiece.
3- Tool material.
4- Tool geometry and sharpening condition.
5- Fixation of tool and workpiece.



6- Machining variables such as, speed, feed, and depth of cut.
7- Type of coolant used.
8- Condition of cutting tool with respect to vibrations.

The most important factor affecting the tool life is the cutting speed. Therefore, its effect
will be discussed in detail.

Figure 4.3: Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear for three cutting speeds.
Hypothetical values of speed and tool life are shown for a tool life criterion of 0.020 inch
flank wear.

4.3 Taylor tool life equation:
If the tool life values for the three wear curves are plotted on a natural log log graph,
cutting speed versus tool life. The resulting relationship is a straight line as shown in
figure 4.4.



Figure 4.4: Natural log log plot of cutting speed versus tool life.

The discovery of this relation around 1900 is credited to F.W. Taylor. It can be expressed
in equation form and it is called Taylor tool life equation.

C VT
n
=

where:
V = cutting speed (m/min)
T = Tool life (min)
C = a constant representing the cutting speed that results in 1 min tool life

n can be found as following:

n n
T V T V
2 2 1 1
=
n
T
T
V
V
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
1
2

2 1
1 2
log log
log log
T T
V V
n
=


4.4 Tool life criterion in production:
The criterion of Taylor equation is not practical in a factory environment, the following
are some alternates that are more convenient to use in production:
a- Changes in the sound emitting from operation.
b- Degradation of the surface finish on work.
c- Complete failure of cutting edge.
d- Workpiece count.
e- Chips become ribbon form or string

4.5 Machining economic:
Besides technical considerations, the economic of metal removal process is very
important. In machining a certain part, we want to determine the parameters that will give
us either the minimum cost per part or the maximum production rate.

Figure 4.5: Cost per unit for a machining process versus cutting speed.


Figure 4.6: Production time versus cutting speed

The time needed to produce a part is:

p
c
m l p
N
T
T T T + + =

Where:
T
l
= time involved in loading and unloading the part, changing speed and
feed rates.
T
m
= machining time per part.
T
c
= time required to grind the tool.
N
p
= number of parts machined per tool ground.



fV
LD
fN
L
T
m
t
= =

From tool life equation, we have:

C VT
n
=
n
V
C
T
1
|
.
|
\
|
=
Where T, is time, in minutes, required to reach a flank wear of certain dimension, after
which the tool has to be reground or changed. The number of pieces per tool grind is thus
can be obtained as following:

m
p
T
T
N =
or

1 ) / 1 (
/ 1
=
n
n
p
LDV
fC
N
t

In order to find the optimum cutting speed and also the optimum tool life for maximum
production, we have to differentiate Tp with respect to V and set it to zero.

V
T
p
c
c

we find that the optimum cutting speed V
opt
now becomes,



( ) | | { }
n
c
opt
T n
C
V
1 / 1
=

and the optimum tool life is,
( ) | |
c opt
T n T 1 / 1 =

4.6 Cutting fluids
Cutting fluids also known as lubricants or coolants, are used extensively in machining
operations to:

1- Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and surface finish.
2- Reduce forces and energy consumption.
3- Cool the cutting zone, thus reducing workpiece temperature and distortion.
4- Wash away the chips.
5- Protect the newly machined surfaces from environmental corrosion.



Table 4.1 Relative severity of machining operations
Cutting operations
Operation
severity
Cutting speed
Cutting fluid
activity
Broaching (internal) High

High
High
Tapping
Broaching (external)
Form and threading
Grinding
Gear shaping
Thread rolling
Reaming
Deep drilling
Hobbing
Milling
Turning
Band and hack
sawing

Severity:
It is defined as the magnitude of temperatures and forces encountered, the tendency for
built up edge formation, the ease with which chips are disposed of from the cutting zone.

4.7 Effect of cutting fluids on machining:
A machining operation is being carried out with an effective cutting fluid, explain the
changes in the mechanics of the cutting operation and total energy consumption if the
fluid is shut off.


When the fluid is shut off, the following chain of events take place:
1- Friction at the tool chip interface increases.
2- The shear angle decreases.
3- The chip is thicker.
4- A built-up edge is likely to form.
As a consequence:
a- The shear energy in the primary zone increases.
b- The friction energy in the secondary zone increases.
c- The total energy increases.
d- Surface finish is likely to deteriorate.
e- The temperature in the cutting zone increases, hence the tool wear increases.
f- Tolerances may be difficult to maintain because of the increased temperature
and expansion of the workpiece during machining.

4.8 Selection of cutting fluid:
The selection of a cutting fluid should include the following consideration.
a- Effect on workpiece material. (Washing machined parts to remove any cutting
fluid residual).
b- Effect on machine tool (Compatibility with the machine member materials).
c- Biological effects (human and environment).

4.9 Continuous chips with built-up-edge:
On closely observing the cutting edge of the tool, a small lump of material known as
built-up-edge (BUE) is found to be welded on it.
Increased temperature of metal being machined in conjunction with high pressure exerted
by the tool, will change the metal into plastic state.
The hardness of the BUE may be two or three times that of the metal being machined,
that is the reason why the cutting edge remains active even when it is covered with BUE.
The BUE, changes the tool geometry, for instance, the cutting angle is less then the actual
cutting angle


The BUE effects:
1- Tool wear
2- Cutting forces
3- Surface roughness

BUE is formed periodically on the tools, when it reaches a comparatively large size, it
breaks off and carried away by both, the chip and workpiece. It affects dimensional
accuracy and surface finish.

The tool rake angle and the cutting speed V, have a combined influence on the formation
of the BUE, as shown in the figure below.

As it is clear from the figure, the machining condition should be selected to avoid the
formation of BUE.

Carbide and ceramic tipped tools are less inclined to have BUE then metal tool.



Problems
Problem 1

The durability of a turning tool at V = 50 m/min was found to be 30 min. If Taylor
exponent n = 0.25, calculate:

(a) Cutting edge durability at v=30 m/min
(b) Cutting speed corresponding to T = 120 min.

Problem 2

The durability of a cutting tool is 40 min at a cutting speed of 120 m/min, and 100 min at
a cutting speed of 60 m/min, calculate:

(a) Taylor exp. n, and Taylor const. C, if VT
n
= C
(b) T
V = 70
, and V
T=120

Problem 3

For a given metal cutting operation, it has been found that the economical durability is 64
min. Determine the economical cutting speed V
opt
, if, VT
1/3
= 100
Calculate then T
opt
and V
opt
if tool exchange time TC = 13.5 min.

Problem 4

A tool used for metal cutting operation shows a tool life-speed relationship of

V T
0.125
= 44.5
Originally, 15 minutes were required to replace a dull tool, but a new tool holder has
made it possible to reduce the time to 5 minutes. What increase in cutting speed does this
permit to obtain the max. rate of production from the operation?

Problem 5

The outside diameter of a cylinder made of titanium alloy is to be turned. The starting
diameter = 500 mm and the length = 1000 mm. Cutting conditions are f = 0.4 mm/rev
and d = 3.0mm. The cut will be made with a cemented carbide cutting tool whose Taylor
tool life parameters are n=0.23 and C=400 (m/min). Compute the cutting speed that will
make the tool life equal to the machining time.

CHAPTER FIVE: Drilling Operation

CHAPTER FIVE: DRILLING OPERATION
5.1 Drilling operation
Drilling is an extensively used process, by which through or blind holes are originated or
enlarged in the workpiece.
The process involves feeding a rotating cutting tool into a stationery workpiece.
Drilling should be considered as a roughing operation and therefore the accuracy and
surface roughness in drilling are not of much concern.

Figure 5.1 : Drill operation

If high accuracy and high quality finish are required, drilling must be followed by some
other operations such as reaming, boring or internal grinding.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 5.2: Sequence of operations required to obtained an accurate size hole: (a)
centering and countersinking, (b) drilling, (c) boring, and (d) reaming
Mt

V


5.2 Twist drill nomenclature
The most widely employed drilling tool is the twist drill which is available in diameters
ranging 0.25 to 80 mm. The twist drill consists of a shank, neck, body and point as shown
in figure.

Figure 5.3: Nomenclature and geometry of conventional twist drills

5.2.1 The body
It is a portion of the drill extending from the neck to the outer corners of the cutting lip. It
is provided with two helical flutes for the admission of coolant and ejection of the chips.

5.2.2 The shank
It is a part of the drill through which it is held and driven. It may be straight and held by
three jaws drilling chuck, or taper and held through friction by a special sleeve.



Figure 5.4: Taper shank

5.2.3 The neck
It is the section of reduced diameter between the body and the shank.

5.3 Drilling angles
5.3.1 Point angle: The point angle on a conventional drill is 118
o
for drilling medium
carbon steel and cast iron, where it should be 125
o
for drilling hardened steel, and 130
o
to
140
o
for drilling brass and bronzes.

Figure 5.5: Point angle

5.3.2 The lip clearance angle
The lip clearance angle vary according to the drilled material, for hard material the range
is 6 9
o
and for soft materials up to 15
o
.

Figure5.6: Lip angle


5.3.3 The chisel edge angle
The chisel edge angle is also vary according to the drilled materials, for hard material it
should be 120
o
and for soft materials 135
o
.

Figure 5.7: Chisel angle

5.4 Drill materials
Twist drills are manufactured by High speed steel, and also carbide tipped design.

5.5 Torque, power and cutting force components in drilling
The cutting force component in drilling operation is shown in figure. These components
are assumed to be acting at the mid point of both main cutting edges (lips, at a distance of
D/4).
On each lip three components mutually perpendicular to each other are acting namely P
s
,
P
f
and P
r
. as shown in figure 5.8.



The magnitude of these components depends on the following:
1. Properties of the material to be drilled.
2. Tool geometry of the twist drill.
3. Chip cross-section area.
4. Cutting conditions, such as feed, cutting speed, coolant

Figure5.8: Cutting force components in drilling.

5.5.1 The main cutting force P
s
It is a horizontal force, acting on each lip in the direction of the cutting speed V, and can
be calculated by the formula:
A K P
s s
=
Where
Ks = specific cutting resistance of the material to be drilled.
A = chip cross-section area = S/2 * D/2 or (D*S)/4 or b*h


The detail is shown in figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9: Chip cross section in drilling

5.5.2 The feed force P
f
The feed force P
f
acts on each lip vertically upwards in the direction of the feed. It
produces the penetration of the drill into the work.

5.5.3 The radial force P
r
The radial force acting on both lips towards the center are considered in the majority of
cases to counterbalance each other. In case if the drill is not properly sharpened, radial
forces on both lips are not equal. It causes holes not to be accurate and stressing of the
machine spindle bearings.

5.5.4 Drilling torque
The required torque for drilling operation M, can be calculated if the main cutting force
P
s
and the drill diameter are known.



2 / D P M
s
=
2 /
4
D
S D
Ks

8
2
S D
Ks M

=
5.5.5 The total drilling power
The total drilling power N is equal to the main drilling power N
s
plus the feed power N
f

which is negligible if compared with N
s
.

f s
N N N + =

n S P V P
f s
+ = 2 2 / 2

V P
s
=

mech
s
motor
V P
N
q

=

the machining time is:
N f
D L
t
m
+
=
) 4 / (

And material removal rate is
4 1000
S D DN
Q

=
t

1000 4
2

=
N S D
Q
t



5.6 Reaming
Reaming removes a small amount of material from the surface of holes. It is done for two
purposes.
1. To bring holes to a more exact size.
2. To improve the finish of an existing hole.
No special machines are built for reaming operation. The same machine tool that was
employed for drilling the hole can be utilized for reaming operation by changing the
cutting tool.
To obtain proper results, only a minimum amount of material (as little as 0.125mm)
should be left for removal by reaming. A properly reamed hole will be within 0.025mm
of the correct size and have a fine finish.

Figure 5.10: Typical reamer
5.6.1 Type of reamers
Following types of reamers are commonly used:
1. Hand reamers
2. Machine or chucking reamers
3. Expansion reamers (to compensate for wear)
4. Taper reamers are used for finishing holes to an exact taper

5.6.2 To meet quality requirements
Including both finish and accuracy (tolerances on diameter, roundness, straightness)
reamers must have adequate support for the cutting edges, and reamer deflection must be
minimal.


Reaming speed is usually two third the speed for drilling the same materials. However,
for close tolerances and fine finish, speed should be slower.
Reamers tend to chatter when not held securely, when the work or work holder is loose or
when the reamers are not properly ground.

5.7 Boring and boring machines
Boring is similar to turning. It uses a straight point tool against a rotating workpiece. The
difference is that boring is performed on the inside of an existing hole rather than the
outside diameter of an existing cylinder.
Machine tools used to perform boring operations are called boring machines. Boring
machines can be horizontal or vertical. The designation refers to the orientation of the
axis of rotation of the machine spindle or workpiece.
In a horizontal boring operation, the setup can be arranged in either of two ways.

First setup
In this setup the work is fixed to a rotating spindle, and the tool is attached to a boring bar
that feeds the tool into the work, as shown in figure 5.11. The boring bar in this setup
must be very stiff to avoid deflection and vibration during operation. (the boring bar is
made of cemented carbide).

Figure 5.11: First setup of boring; boring bar is fed into a rotating workpiece.


Second setup
In this setup the tool is mounted to a boring bar and the boring bar is supported and
rotated between centers as shown in figure 5.12. The work is fastened to a feeding
mechanism that feeds it past the tool. This setup can be used to perform boring operation
on conventional engine lathe.

Figure 5.12: Second setup of boring; work is fed past a rotating boring bar.

5.8 Vertical boring machine
A vertical boring machine is shown in figure 5.13. This machine is used for heavy
workparts.
Workparts up to 40 feet diameter can be machined on vertical boring machines.

Figure 5.13: A vertical boring mill.


PROBLEMS

Problem 1

In a drilling operation:
Hole diameter =30 mm
Hole depth = 100mm
Cutting speed = 300 r.p.m
Feed =0.25 mm/rev
Specific cutting resistance = 2000
N/mm
2

Calculate:
a- The chip area.
b- The main cutting force.
c- Machining time.
d- Material removal rate.

Problem 2

In a drilling operation using a twist drill, the lip angle is 120 degree (standard), the
spindle speed is 300 rpm, the feed is 0.2 mm/rev and the drill diameter is 10 mm.
Calculate:

a - the machining time to drill a through hole 30 mm long.
b - the drill torque in [N-m] assuming that specific cutting resistance for the work.
material is 200 Kg/mm
2
.
c - the amount of material removed at the first 10 sec after full engagement of drill.
d - the cutting power if cutting force is 2000 N.

Problem 3
A gun drilling operation is used to drill a 7/16 in.- diameter hole to a certain depth. It
takes 4.5 min to perform the drilling operation using high-pressure fluid delivery of
coolant to the drill point. The cutting conditions are N = 300 rev/min at a feed = 0.001
in./rev. To improve the surface finish in the hole, it has been decided to increase the
speed by 20% and decrease the feed by 25%. How long will it take to perform the
operation at the new cutting conditions?


CHAPTER SIX: Milling Operation
CHAPTER SIX: MILLING OPERTAION

6.1 Milling operation
Milling is a machining operation in which a workpiece is feed past a rotating cylindrical
tool with multiple cutting edges. This cutting tool in milling is known as milling cutter
and the machine tool that traditionally performs the operation is called milling machine.
Milling is an interrupted cutting operation, the teeth of milling cutter enter and exit the
work during each revolution. This interrupted cutting operation subjects the teeth to a
cycle of impact force and thermal shock on every rotation as shown in figure 6.1. A chip
of variable thickness is produced.

Figure 6.1: Conventional face milling with cutting force diagram for Fc, showing the
interrupted nature of process.

6.2 Types of milling operations
There are two basic types of milling operations.

6.2.1 Peripheral or slab milling: In this milling operation the axis of tool is parallel to
the surface being machined. In this operation there are two opposite directions of rotation
that the cutter can have with respect to the work. These cutter directions distinguished
two forms of milling operations, up milling and down milling.



Figure 6.2: Peripheral milling operation.

Figure 6.3: Peripheral milling operations: (a) slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling,
and (d) straddle milling.

6.2.1.1 Up milling: In up milling the direction of motion of the cutter teeth is opposite to
the feed direction. In this type of milling operation, the chip formed by each cutter tooth
starts out very thin and increases in thickness during the sweep of the cutter. The chip
length is longer than in down milling.
The cutter tends to push the work along and lift it upward from the table, therefore
greater clamping force must be employed. In up milling, chips can be carried into the
newly machined surface, causing the surface finish to be poorer.

6.2.1.2Down milling: In down milling, the direction of motion of the cutter teeth is same
as the feed direction. In this operation each chip starts out thick and reduces in thickness
throughout the cut. The length of the chip in down milling is less than in up milling. This
tends to increase tool life. The cutter force direction is downwards, tending to hold the
work against the work table.

Figure 6.4: Two forms of milling with a 20-tooth cutter: (a) up milling and (b) down
milling.
6.3 Face milling
In face milling the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled, as
shown in the figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5: Face milling.


Figure 6.6: Face milling operations: (a) conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling,
(c) end milling, (d) profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface contouring.

6.4 Cutting conditions in milling
The cutting speed is determined at the outside diameter of a milling cutter. This can be
converted to spindle rotation speed.

D
V
N
t
=
Where
N = spindle speed in rpm
V = cutting speed
D = diameter of milling cutter



6.5 Chip thickness in milling

Figure 6.7: Chip thickness detail in milling operation.

The milling operation is characterized by the changing of chip thickness as the cutting
proceeds. Therefore the maximum and mean values of chip thickness are to be calculated
Since the chip thickness is an important factor for calculating the cutter forces and power,
therefore the maximum and mean values of chip thickness will be calculated. From figure
6.7

e e z e
z n
U
S h sin * sin
= =

e m
h h 2 / 1 =
Where
Sz = feed of workpiece/tooth = U/(n-z)
e
= angle of rotation of milling cutter during which each tooth remains
engaged in workpiece material


U = feed of workpiece/min.
n = rotational speed of cutter in rpm
z = number of teeth on cutter
since
e
is small such that sin
e
=
e

2
2 2
/
2 /
) 2 / ( ) 2 / (
sin D e
D
e D D
e
=

=

where
e = depth of cut
D = outside diameter of milling cutter

Substituting the values of sin
e
, we get

since hm = he therefore

6.6 Cutting forces and power in milling
In figure 6.9, the resultant force R acting on a single tooth in peripheral milling operation
can be resolved into tangential and radial components (P
s
, P
r
) or horizontal and vertical
components (P
h
, P
v
).
Therefore
2 2
r s
P P R + =
d e
z n
U
he /
2
=
d e
z n
U
he /
=


2 2
V h
P P R + =

In case of helical milling cutter, there will be an axial component P
a
acts along the cutter
axis and its magnitude depends on the helix angle of the cutter. In this case the resultant
cutting forces on each tooth is given by:

Figure 6.8: Cutting force components in milling operation.

2 2 2
a r s
P P P R + + =

6.7 The main cutting force P
s
in peripheral milling

h b K P
s s
=

h = momentary chip thickness changing from zero to h
e
in up milling
or from h
e
to zero in down milling



e s s
h b K P =
max

D e
z n
zu
b Kz P
s
/
*
max
=

D e
z n
u
b Ks P
mean s
/
*
=

The total mean tangential force is:

D e
z n
u
b K Z P
s e total mean s
/
*
) (
=
Where
Z
e
= numbet of cutting teeth in the same moment

t
u
2
e
e
Z Z =

In peripheral milling:

2
/ sin D e
e e
= = u u
Therefore

D e
Z
Ze /
t
=

D e
z n
U
b K D e
Z
P
s total s
/
*
/
) (
=
t



s mean total s
K
D n
b e U
P

=
t
) (

6.8 The cutting power in peripheral milling
The main chipping power N
s
can be calculated as follows:

V P N
mean total s s
=
) (

102 60
1
1000

=
n D
K
D n
b e U
N
s s
t
t
(kW)

s s
K
b e U
N

=
1000 102 60
(kW)

The feed power N
f
is given by:

1000 102 60

=
U P
N
f
f
(kW)

The total power is:

s f s e
N N N N = + = (approximately)

mech
s
mot
K b e U
N
q
1
1000 102 60

= (kW)



6.9 Machining time in peripheral milling

From figure, it can be noted,
l C e D e L + + = 2 ) ( 2

U
L
t =
Where
U = feed of the workpiece per minuite

6.10 Material removal rate
Material removal rate can be calculated as following:

t
e W L
MRR

=
Where
L = length of the cut
W= width of the cut
e = depth of the cut
t = machining time


PROBLEMS

Problem 1
A slab milling operation is performed to finish the top surface of a steel rectangular
workpiece 250 mm long by 75 mm wide. The helical milling cutter, which is 65 mm in
diameter and has eight teeth, is set up to overhang the width of the part on both sides.
Cutting conditions are v=35 m/min, f = 0.225 mm/tooth, and d = 0.250 in.
Determine:
(a) the time to make one pass across the surface
(b) the metal removal rate during the cut.

Problem 2

A peripheral milling operation is performed on the top surface of a rectangular workpart
that is 300 mm long by 100 mm wide. The milling cutter, which is 75 mm in diameter
and has four teeth, overhanges the width of the part on both sides. Cutting conditions are
V = 80 m/min, f = 0.2 mm/tooth, and d = 7.0 mm.

Determine:
(a) the time to make one pass across the surface
(b) the material removal rate during the cut.

Problem 3
In horizontal milling, the following conditions exist:
Work (mild steel with specific cutting energy 3200 N/mm
2
); Cutter (No. of teeth 12, tool
diameter 120 mm, tool width 30 mm); Machining parameters (cutting velocity 45 m/min,
feed velocity 360 mm/min, depth of cut 2.5 mm).

Calculate:
(a) Maximum chip thickness.
(b) Maximum tangential force/tooth.
(c) Machining time for one travel, if work length is 450 mm.
(d) Machining power


CHAPTER SEVEN: Grinding Operation

CHAPTER SEVEN: GRINDING OPERATION

7.1 Grinding operation
Grinding is a material removal process in which abrasive particles bonded as grinding
wheel that operates at very high surface speeds. The grinding wheel is precisely balanced
for high rotational speeds.
Grinding may be linked to the milling process. Cutting occurs on either the periphery or
the face of the grinding wheel, similar to peripheral milling and face milling. Figure 7.1

7.2 Significant differences between grinding and milling
1. The abrasive grains in the wheel are much smaller than the teeth on the milling
cutter.
2. Cutting speeds in grinding are much higher than in milling.
3. A grinding wheel is self sharpening (as the wheel wears, the abrasive particles
become dull and either fracture to create fresh cutting edges or are pulled out of
the surface of the wheel to expose new grains).

Figure 7.1: (a) The geometry of surface grinding, showing cutting conditions; (b)
assumed longitudinal shape and (c) cross-section of a single chip.


7.3 The grinding wheel
The grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding materials. The bonding
material holds particles in place and establishes the structure and shape of the wheel.

7.4 Abrasive material
General properties of an abrasive material used in grinding wheels include high hardness,
wear resistance, and toughness.
The abrasive materials of greatest commercial importance are:
1. Aluminum oxide (Al
2
O
3
)
2. Silicon carbide (SiCa)
3. Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
4. Diamond (natural and synthetic)

7.5 Grain size
There are two main grain sizes available, small grain size, suitable for hard materials
grinding with better surface finish. Large grain size is suitable for soft materials with high
material removal rate.

7.6 Bonding materials
The bonding material must be able to withstand the centrifugal forces and high
temperatures. Following are some common bonding materials:
1. Vitrified bond (clay and ceramic materials)
2. Silicate bond (sodium silicate)
3. Rubber bond
4. Metallic bond (usual bond)
Marking system for conventional grinding wheels
The grinding wheels come with the following marking system.
A 46 H 6 V xx
(Abrasive type) (Grain size) (Grade) (structure) (Bond type) (Manufacturers
record)


Abrasive type: A = Aluminum oxide
C = Silicon
Grain size: Coarse = 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 24
Medium = 30, 36, 46, 54, 60
Fine = 70, 80, - - - - - - 180
Very fine = 220, 240, - - - - -600
Grade (A H) A = Soft, M = Medium, Z = Hard
Structure 1 Very dense
15 Very open
Bond type B = Resinoid
E = Shellac
R = Rubber
S = Silicate
V = Vitrified

7.7 Standard grinding wheel shapes
Grinding wheels are available in different shapes, in figure some standard grinding wheel
shapes are shown.

Figure 7.2: Some standard grinding wheel shapes: (a) straight, (b) recessed two sides, (c)
metal wheel frame with abrasive bonded to outside circumference, (d) abrasive cutoff
wheel, (e) cylinder wheel, (f) straight cup wheel, and (g) flaring cup wheel


7.8 Dressing of grinding wheel
As the wheel is used, there is a tendency for the wheel to become loaded with metallic
chips and the grains become dull or glaze. To improve the condition of wheel a process
termed as wheel dressing is used as shown in figure 7.3.

Figure7.3: Schematic arrangement of stick dressing.

7.9Truing of grinding wheel
Grinding wheels loose their geometry during use. Truing operation restores the original
shape. A single point diamond tool is used to true the wheel as shown in figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: Diamond nibs may be used for truing wheels in batch operations

Dressing stick
Pushed into the wheel at
constant force or constant
infeed rate
Grinding wheel


7.10 Grinding operations and grinding machines

7.10.1 Cylindrical grinding:
Cylindrical grinding as its name suggests, is used for rotational parts. These grinding
operations are divided into two basic types.
(a) External cylindrical grinding which is similar to external turning. The grinding
machine used for these operations closely resemble a lathe in which the tool post has
been replaced by a high speed motor to rotate the grinding wheel. The cylindrical
workpiec is rotated between centers. Two types of feed motion are possible, traverse
feed and plunge cut, as shown in figure 7.5 (a). In traverse feed, the grinding wheel is
fed in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece. In plunge cut, the
grinding wheel is fed radially into the work.

(b) Internal cylindrical grinding operates somewhat like a boring operation. The
workpiece is usually held in a chuck and rotated to provide surface speed. The wheel
is fed in either of two ways: (1) traverse feed or (2) plunge feed as shown in figure
7.6. The wheel diameter in internal cylindrical grinding must be smaller than the
original bore hole. Internal grinding is used to finish the hardened inside surfaces of
bearing races and bushing surfaces as shown in figure 7.5 (b).



Figure 7.5: Two types of cylindrical grinding: (a) external and (b) internal

Figure 7.6: Two types of feed motion in external cylindrical: (a) traverse feed and (b)
plunge-cut.

7.10.2 Surface grinding
Surface grinding is normally used to grind plain flat surfaces. It is performed using either
the periphery of the grinding wheel or the flat face of the wheel. Since the work is held
in a horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about
a horizontal axis, and face grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about a vertical
axis.


Four types of surface grinding machines are used in surface grinding operation. (a)
horizontal spindle with reciprocating worktable, (b) horizontal spindle with rotating
worktable, (c) vertical spindle with reciprocating worktable, and (d) verticall spindle with
rotating worktable.

Figure 7.7: Four types of surface grinding: (a) horizontal spindle with reciprocating
worktable, (b) horizontal spindle with rotating worktable, (c) vertical spindle with
reciprocating worktable, and (d) vertical spindle with rotating worktable.

7.10.3 Centerless grinding
Centerless grinding has a number of advantages over cylindrical grinding. It is a self
centering, the stock removal rate is higher, and the work is firmly held by the support
plate and control or regulating wheel, which results in better dimensional accuracy, as
mentioned in figure 7.8 and 7.9.



Figure 7.8: External centerless grinding.

Figure 7.9: Internal centerless grinding.

7.11 Forces and power in grinding
There are three force components involved in the grinding operation, as shown in figure
7.10.
Pr = Radial force, Pa = Axial force, Ps = Main cutting force (Tangential force).


Figure 7.10: Force components in grinding.

The power can be calculated from the following formula.

60 102
=
V P
N
s
s
(kW)

7.12 Related abrasive processes
7.12.1 Honing
Honing is an abrasive process performed by a set of bonded abrasive sticks.
A common application is to finish the bores of internal combustion engines, other
applications
In addition, honing produces a characteristic cross hatched surface that tends to retain
lubrication during operation of the component, as shown in figure 7.11.



Figure 7.11: The honing process: (a) the honing tool used for internal bore surfaces
(b) cross hatched surface pattern created by the action of the honing tool.

The honing tool consists of a set of bonded abrasive sticks. Two to four sticks would be
used for small holes, and a dozen or more would be used for larger diameter holes.
The motion of the honing tool is the combination of rotation and linear reciprocation.
Honing speed range is between 50 to 500 ft/min. During the process, the sticks are
pressed outward against the hole surface to produce the desired abrasive cutting action.
A cutting fluid must be used in honing to cool and lubricate the tool and to help remove
chips.

7.12.2 Lapping
Lapping is an abrasive process used to produce surface finish of extreme accuracy and
smoothness. It is used in the production of optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces and
gauges as shown in figure 7.12.
Metal parts that are subjected to fatigue loading or surfaces that must be used to establish a
seal with mating part are often lapped. Instead of a bonded abrasive tool, lapping uses a
fluid suspension of very small abrasive particles between the workpiece and lapping tool.


Figure 7.12: The lapping process in lens making.
7.12.3 Super finishing
Super finishing is an abrasive process similar to honing. Super finishing differ from
honing in the following respect.
1- The strokes are shorter.
2- High frequencies are used.
3- Lower pressures are applied between the tool and surface.
4- The grit size are smaller.
5- Workpiece speed are slower.

The result of these conditions is mirror like finishes. This process can be used to finish
flat and external cylindrical surfaces, as shown in figure 7.13.

Figure 7.13: Super finishing on an external cylindrical surface.

CHAPTER EIGHT: Broaching Operation
CHAPTER EIGHT: BROACHING OPERATION

8.1 Broaching operation
Broaching is a machining operation using a multi toothed cutter, to produce through holes
of any cross sectional shapes, external shaped surfaces and gears. Some common
shapes that can be produced by broaching operation are shown in figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1.: Work shapes that can be cut by external and internal broaching operation.

Broaching is a process combining roughing and finishing in one operation. This process
is differs from all other conventional operations in that there is only one cutting motion
(main motion) performed by the tool. The feed is not obtained by moving the workpiece
or the tool, but by an arrangement in series of suitable stepped cutting edges, as shown in
figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2: The broaching operation



The broaching machine is driven hydraulically to avoid shock loading and to prevent
overloading.
Since the teeth are generally increasing in size from the front to the rear end of the
broach, each successive tooth removes a layer of material and the size of the hole or slot
is increased. Broach can be pull type or push type, as shown in figure. The main cutting
force is applied to the front of the body of the broach, this force may be the pulling force
or the pushing force, as per type of the broach. A push broach should be shorter than a
pull broach to avoid buckling.

Figure 8.3: A typical broach used for internal broaching

8.2 Advantages of broaching
1- High productivity.
2- High machining accuracy.
3- High surface quality.
4- Useful production process to produce internal shapes.
5- Since the broaches are expensive tool, broaching is only justified for mass
production.



8.3 Broach shapes and tooth geometry
A nomenclature of typical broach is shown in figure 8.3. The functions of some part of a
broach are noted as follow:
Pull end: to engage the broach with the broaching machine.
Front pilot: to guide the broach in the previously machined hole.
Roughing or cutting teeth: to remove the main part of broaching allowance.
Semi finish and finish teeth: to finish the size of the hole.

8.4 Broach materials
The broaches are made from high grades of high speed steels, like chromium and
vanadium grades. Cemented carbide broaches are also in use, these broaches have longer
tool life, high cutting speeds and better surface finish.

Figure 8.4: Broach tool geometry

8.5 Broach design
In broaching, the most working parameters are determined in connection with the
construction of the broach. Such as tool geometry, superelevation (feed), pitch, width of
cut. As shown in figure 8.4. These parameters are not selective.
The most important design elements of the broach are:

8.5.1 Cutting length L of the broach
The length of the broach can be formulated as following:



m
t Z L * =

Where
Z = total number of teeth
T
m
= mean pitch

When the cutting length L is greater than machine maximum stroke, then it can be
divided between two broaches.

8.5.2 Total number of teeth
Total number of teeth can be calculated with the following formula.
ZM
S
T
Z =
Where
T = total depth to be broached
S
ZM
= mean super elevation

8.5.3 Pitch
The pitch t should be determined considering the following points of view:

8.5.4 Sufficient chip space
As shown in figure 8.5, chip space to be provided depends on the workpiece material and
type of chip form
C
CS
F
F
X =



where
X = chip space number, it is a function of material type and nature of
operation, roughing or finishing, its value may be in the range of (3-10)
F
CS
= chip cross sectional area
F
C
= longitudinal section of the chip

Figure 8.5 Chip space arrangement in broach tool

t X t X h t X X l S F
Z CS
4 . 0 * * * *
6 . 3
1
* * *
6 . 3
1
* * = = =

Where
l = length of workpiece
t = pitch
h = height of tooth
X l S t
Z
* * 9
2
=

X l S t
Z
* * 3 =
8.5.5 Maximum allowable stress of broach material
The acting stress at the minimum broach cross section (A
o
) due to the acting total
broaching force Ps, should not exceed the allowable tensile strength of the broach

material (
allow
).

allow O S Z S
A Ze K S b P o q * * * * * s =
Therefore
allow O S Z
A
t
l
K S b o q * * * * * s

allow O
S Z
A
l K S b
t
o
q
*
* * * *
min
=

Where
b = width of cut
= blunting factor
Z
e
= number of teeth cutting at the same time
A
o
= minimum broach cross-section
l = length of workpiece
t = pitch
t
m
should be smaller then the value of t obtained from the previous section.

8.5.6 Maximum force exerted by broaching machine
The maximum force exerted by broaching machine shall have the following relation.

s m
P P >

e S Z m
Z k S b P * * * * q >

t
l
k S b P
S Z m
* * * * q >


max
min
* * * *
P
l k S b
t
S Z
q
=

8.5.7 Length of workpiece
The pitch t as previously obtained should not be greater than l/2, where l is the length to
be broached, in order to be sure that minimum 2 or 3 teeth in contact at one time. In this
way a better guide of the tool and more smooth action take place.

8.5.8 Chattering
To prevent possible chattering, and to obtain better surface finish, the pitch t should
made non uniform, as shown in figure 8.6.

Figure 8.6: Variable pitch arrangement in broaching tool to avoid chattering

8.5.9 Cutting speed by broaching
Recommended economical speeds are relatively smaller, for steel 2 8 m/min and for
light metals 3 -15 m/min.

8.5.10Power in broaching
The power in broaching is given by:

V
t x
l K S b
N
S Z
S
*
* 10 60
* * * *
2
q
=

REFERENCES

1- L eo Alting Manufacturing engineering processesMarcel Dekker, Inc, New York, 1994.
2- E. P. Degarmo, J.T. Black, R. A. Kohser, Materials and processes in manufacturing
Printice Hall, New Jersey, 1997
3- J. A. Schey, Introduction to manufacturing processes McGraw-Hill, 2000.
4- M.P. Groover, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing Printice Hall, New Jersey,
1997.
5- S. Kalpakjian, Manufacturing engineering and technology, Addison Wesley, 1995.
6- H.A.A. Youssef, Theory of metal cutting, Dar Al-Maaref, 1977, Alexandria.

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The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process; By Dr. Saied. M.

90 ' ' ' = + + | o

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