Digital Transmission: TE313: Introduction To Switching and Transmission

Telecoms Engineering
TE 313
TE313: Introduction to Switching and Transmission
Digital Transmission
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Synchronization
Essential characteristic of signals such that their corresponding significant instants occur at precisely the same average rate. Synchronous signals are locked to a common clock in order to assure this property. => The average bit rates of two synchronous digital signals are exactly the same if the signals are compared bit by bit during the same period of time.
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Asynchronous
The antonym of synchronous Two asynchronous signals have no relationship whatsoever between bit rates and other significant frequencies of the signals.
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Plesiochronous
Applies to comparison of two signals Signals are asynchronous with the frequency difference between the signals being small. Plesiochronous signals are locked independent high-precision clocks.
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Why Synchronization?
All digital networks need stable clocks synchronized to a common ultra-stable clock. Signals from many sources are multiplexed and switched in common devices. A signal from any source may appear any where in the network: a connectivity requirement for networks.
Why Synchronization?
Two different rate signals multiplexed into the same stream will lead to an accumulation of bits from the fast channel that will never be sent. The only way to avoid this is by having synchronous signals and inserting buffers in the network to pick up short term variations.
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Synchronization set up..
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Multiplexing: Overview
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Objective To utilize the transmission medium(cable, radio relay, fiber or satellite) efficiently by combining several communication channels into a single channel.
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Multiplexing
Multiplexing: sharing of network resources by several information flows. Multiplexing: combining data(voice) channels for transmission on a common medium. Multiple devices sharing one phiysical link Demultiplexing: recovering the original separate channels from multiplexed signal
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Static and Statistical Multiplexing

Static Multiplexing The same communication channel always appears at the same place in the multiplexed information stream(frequency or timeslot) Statistical multiplexing Statistically multiplexed signals are not organized in this regular pattern.
Static Multiplexing
Two types: TDM and FDM WDM is a special form of FDM. Used in optical cables.
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Multiplex Structures
Multiplexed signals may further be multiplexed into larger systems in several ways. FDM signals may further be frequency multiplexed to form an FDM hierarchy. TDM signals may further be time multiplexed to form a digital hierarchy.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM):

Each signal is modulated to a different carrier frequency. Carrier frequencies are separated so signals do not overlap (guard bands). E.g. broadcast radio, television, cable television, etc.
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Individual signals occupy W Hz
A
0
B
Combined signal fits into channel of bandwidth 3W Hz

A B C
0
C
W W
f f
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Example FDM of Three Voiceband signals

Effective spectrum of voice: 300-3400Hz AM a 64-kHz carrier: produces an 8kHz bandwidth (60-68kHz). For efficiency, only transmit lower side-band Three carriers at 64, 68 and 72kHz. Must guard against crosstalk (overlap) and intermodulation noise
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Analog Carrier Systems

AT&T (USA) and ITU-T (international) designated a hierarchy of FDM schemes. Group: 12 voice channels (4kHz each) = 48kHz. Range from 60kHz to 108kHz. Lower sideband and carrier suppressed for each signal.
Super Group
This consists of

60 channels FDM of 5 group signals on carriers between 420 kHz and 612 kHz Each group is treated as a separate signal with 48 kHz bandwidth
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Master Group:
ITU-T: 5 Supergroups for 300 voice channels with a bandwidth of 1.232 MHz AT&T: 10 Supergroups for 600 voice channels with a bandwidth of 2.52 MHz
Analog Hierarchy
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Time division multiplexing (TDM):

Each signal transmits 1 unit every 3T seconds
A1 0T B1 0T C1 0T 3T 3T C2 6T 3T B2 6T A2 6T
Combined signal transmits 1 unit every T seconds

A1
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B1
C1
A2
B2
C2
t
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0T 1T 2T
3T 4T
5T 6T
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Interleaving
Relative organization of bits from different channels to one another. Word interleaving Words from each channel are inserted successively.32 channels make a frame. Bit interleaving All the first bits of all 32 channels make up a frame.
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European TDM hierarchy:
Analogue voice sampling 8 bits @ 8000 samples/second = 64 kb/s. 30 speech channels + 2 signalling/alignment channels form a frame with a gross digit rate of 2048 kb/s = primary multiplex rate. 2nd order multiplex rate = 4 primary rate (8.448 Mb/s). Tertiary rate = 4 secondary rate (34.368 Mb/s). Quaternary rate = 4 tertiary rate (139.264 Mb/s).
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TDM in PSTNs
Trunks are used to transport several telephone channels from one location to another location. Voice signal are digitised using PCM, 64kbps channel is resulted (but also used for data, etc). A TDM trunk carries several digitised voice channels, hence better quality of cable must be used.
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Two major systems:

T1/DS1 (digital signal) system: 24, 64kbps channels are multiplexed into a 1.544 Mbps channel. Developed in the USA (by AT&T) and used there (early 1960s-) and in Japan E1 system: 30, 64kbps channels are multiplexed into a 2.048 Mbps channel. Developed by ITU-T and used in Europe.
T1 Carrier System Hierarchy
The Digital signal (DS) specifications are implemented on T lines (T-1, T-2, T-3 and T-4)
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E series
E series is the European standard for trunk system and is not compatible with the T carrier system.
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Network Elements
Multiplexer/Demultiplexer Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM) Digital Cross-connect Switches (DCS)
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Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM)

The role of an ADM is to extract channels from a multiplexed signal to local customers. In many cases, the extracted channels are used to carry newly generated trafc. Equipment required to perform ADM. Stages of packing and unpacking of frames are needed since end devices are not perfectly synchronised.
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Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

For long distance, high-speed systems, multiplex several T1 or E1 channels into higher-speed channels. Different channels may be coming from different sources (with marginally different clocks), and by different paths, making precise bit-alignment impossible (Jitter).
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PDH.
The solution is to add extra bits to cater for jitter. Each frame is placed in a larger slot, and preceded by a Frame Alignment Word (FAW) to signal its start. This approach is called plesiochronous (almost synchronous) and the hierarchy is called the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH).
PDH..Some Disadvantages
Channels cannot be added or removed at the higher speeds (drop & insert); the higher speed channel must be demultiplexed to the initial synchronous PCM frames rst. Very restricted signaling for conguration and management of the multiplexing system. Effectively each link is a separately manage entity.
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and so..
Plesiochronous hierarchies are problematic due to the need to synchronise clocks across networks. If perfect synchronization can be achieved in multiplexing, a higher efficiency, less complicated management will be resulted. SONET/SDH standard was developed. It denes a synchronized multiplexing technique for transporting trafc in PSTNs.
SDH/SONET
Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) is a scheme by which both synchronous and asynchronous hierarchies can be accommodated by providing frame synchronisation if necessary. The synchronous optical network (SONET) is a north American standard similar to SDH.
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SONET/SDH Developments
The following developments lead to the SONET/SDH standards: The development of optical ber transmission. The large-scale integrated circuits making complicated devices for synchronisation possible.
Purpose of SDH
Provision of standard suitable for optical networks Provision of a system that can combine any standard data rate of the PDH hierarchies Provide an effective interface for ATM systems
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Provide add-drop capability: the capability to insert or remove individual channels of any multiplex level without demultiplexing the entire signal. This requires strict synchronism. Offer improved operation and maintanance procedures.
What is SDH then?

The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous multiplexing - data from multiple tributary sources is byte interleaved. In SDH the multiplexed channels are in fixed locations relative to the framing byte.
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Demultiplexing is achieved by gating out the required bytes from the digital stream. This allows a single channel to be dropped from the data stream without demultiplexing intermediate rates as is required in PDH.
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SDH is simply a hierarchy

SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s The basic unit of SDH is STM-1: STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
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Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is synchronous SDH defines a multiplexing hierarchy that allows all existing PDH rates to be transported synchronously.
The multiplexing paths
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What happens?
SDH is essentially a transport mechanism for carrying a large number of PDH payloads. A mechanism is required to map PDH rates into the STM frame. This function is performed by the container (C).
A PDH channel must be synchronised before it can be mapped into a container. The synchroniser adapts the rate of an incoming PDH signal to SDH rate. At the PDH/SDH boundary Bit stuffing is performed when the PDH signal is mapped into its container.
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Once a container has been created, path overhead byte are added to create a virtual container. Path overheads contain alarm, performance and other management information. A path through an SDH network exists from the point where a PDH signal is put into a container to where the signal is recovered from the container.
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Digital Transmission: TE313: Introduction To Switching and Transmission

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Telecoms Engineering

TE313: Introduction to Switching and Transmission

Synchronization set up..

Static and Statistical Multiplexing

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM):

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM):

Combined signal fits into channel of bandwidth 3W Hz

Example FDM of Three Voiceband signals

Analog Carrier Systems

Time division multiplexing (TDM):

Combined signal transmits 1 unit every T seconds

Time division multiplexing (TDM):

Two major systems:

T1 Carrier System Hierarchy

Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM)

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

What is SDH then?

SDH is simply a hierarchy

The multiplexing paths

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