To Whom It May Concern: KAMAL BRAKING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION Brakes are employed to stop or slow-down the speed of a vehicle depending upon the driving needs. When braked, each wheel of the vehicle builds-up a certain braking force. For this reason, greater the number of wheels braked, greater will be the braking effort, and sooner will the vehicle come to halt. Modern vehicles are therefore equipped with brakes on all the wheels.

Braking Requirements: The following requirements are expected of an efficient braking system. It must stop the vehicle with in a smallest possible distance. It must act instantaneously in case of an emergency braking. It must be strong enough to sustain braking force. It must neither slip nor should cause any skid to the vehicle. The brake linings should have longer life by possessing higher anti-fading qualities. It must operate with the least effort by the driver.

PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING The brake is a friction-creating device, which caused speed reduction of the vehicle at a faster rate than the speed reduction obtained by changing the gears (top to 3rd, to 2nd, to 1st) and closing-down the accelerator. However, this rate cannot be high enough to stop the vehicle instantaneously. It is because a vehicle of weight w moving at a speed v possesses kinetic energy whose value is given by

1 W K.E. = --- --- V2 2 g

TYPES OF BRAKES Different types of brakes are used on various categories of vehicle. These can be classified according to following considerations. 1. On The Basic of Actuating Method Mechanical brakes Hydraulic brakes Pneumatic (or air) brakes (a) Compressed air brakes Electric brakes 2. On The Basic of Construction Drum brakes Disc brakes Band brakes 3. On The Basic of Action of Brake Shoes Internal expanding brakes (b) Vacuum brakes

 External contracting brakes 4. On The Basic of Combinations Drum and Disc combination brakes Mechanical and Hydro combination brakes

HYDRAULIC BRAKES The modern cars are mostly equipped with hydraulic brakes on all the four wheels. The braking system of 3-wheelers also use hydraulic brakes but on rear wheels only. Their front wheel is equipped with a mechanical brake. Wide popularity of hydraulic breaking system can be attributed to its several advantages, which it has over the mechanically operated BRAKES. Some of these advantages are Equal braking on all the wheel. Comparatively lesser braking effort required by the driver. Higher multiplication of brake pedal effort. Quieter operation due to the absence of too many links, rods and shafts. Reduced loss of effort between brake pedal and brake shoes on account of fewer frictional parts. The hydraulically operated brakes are suitably used on both the drum and the disc brakes. However, there is a basic difference in these two systems. In hydraulically operated drum brakes, some hydraulic pressure has to be always maintained with in the system whereas in hydraulically operated disc brakes it is not so.

HYDRAULIC DRUM BRAKES The assembly of a brake drum. It consists of the following main components. (a) Brake Drum Brake lining (e) Expander Adjuster The brake drum is mounted on the axle hub and the whole assembly is housed concentrically with in the wheel. A back plate made of pressed steel sheet is mounted on the axle causing. It is meant for supporting the brake shoes, expander and the anchor. It also serves to protect the assembly from dust, dirt and mud. Two brake shoes age hinged or fulcrumed on the back plate by means of anchor pins towards heel end of the shoes. The toe-end of the shoes is connected to the expander. The brake linings made of friction materials are riveted on the brake shoes on their convex faces, which remain near to he brake drum. A retracting spring (may also be two in number) is attached to the two brake shoes for the purpose of pulling-back the shoes, away from the brake drum when the brakes are released. The expander attached to the toe end of the brake shoe, may be a cam, toggle lever, or wedge in mechanical brake, or a wheel cylinder in case of hydraulic and pneumatic brakes. It is operated by foot pedal or hand lever through mechanical, hydraulic, or (f) Anchor (g) Retracting spring (h) (b) Back plate or torque plate (c) Brake shoe (d)

pneumatic linkage. The brake linings do wear in due course of their working and need to be adjusted from time to time. Therefore an adjuster is used for this purpose. Layout and Components: - Simplified layout of a typical hydraulic brake system. In consists of the following mains parts. Master cylinder, operated by foot pedal Wheel cylinder Brake fluid (or brake oil) pipelines

Master Cylinder: - A Master cylinder is the most important component of hydraulic brake system. It remains connected to the brake pedal on one end and to the wheel cylinder through the pipings, houses and their unions on the other end (output side). In effect it is a plunger type pump, which delivers oil at about 350-500-kPa pressures during Braking. The Master cylinder assembly always remains full of brake oil so that instantaneous braking may be done when desired. Construction: - It consists of the following main parts in its assembly. Cylinder body integral with the brake oil reservoir having inlet and by-pass ports. Reservoir cap having air vent. Plunger connected to a push rod, which is attached to the brake foot pedal. Plunger return spring attached with in the pressure chamber. Check valve with a rubber cup and valve seat to prevent back flow of brake oil from wheel cylinder to pressure chamber. Plunger seals: primary and secondary. Rubber boot for protection against the dust and dirt.

 Piston stopper. The washers, circlips and rubber cups and also be prevent leakage. The plunger is of varying having the least area in its middle portion. Working: - When the brakes are applied the effort exerted on the brake pedal forces the plunger outward by the push rod. Consequently, the plunger compresses upon the brake oil stored in the pressure chamber against the pressure of return spring. This initiates pressure stroke, which opens the check valve to allow oil to flow into the brake lines. When the brakes are released the plunger return spring pushes back the plunger towards the boot end. The oil brake pipelines returns back and raises the check valve from its seat. When the oil pressure falls to a required minimum value, the return spring helps the valve to reseat. Types of Master Cylinder: - Several designs of master cylinder are employed on auto vehicles of different makes and models. These are: 1. Single Master cylinder Drum brakes Disc brakes 2. Double Master cylinder 3. Tandem Master cylinder

Wheel Cylinder: - It consists of the following main parts. Two pistons, one each connecting to the left and right brake shoes. Piston return spring. Wheel cylinder body enclosing the pistons and the spring.

A hydraulic pipeline is connected to wheel cylinder. When the fluid is forced into the cylinder, piston move away from the center and force a part shoes. The shoes pivot on pins and press against the internal surface of brake drums secured on the wheels, thus slowing down the rotation of the wheel. When the pressure in the hydraulic system drops, the shoes are drawn to each other by spring and the pistons return to their initial position.

Brake Fluid: - The system is filled with a fluid consisting of Caster Oil and Alcohol (other combinations are also used). This is known as Brake fluid or brake oil. Its functions in hydraulic braking are similar to the function of blood in human body.

DISC BRAKES As compared to the drum brakes, the disc brakes are the development of later year. Basically they are also friction brakes but with practicable differences. They had been used on aircraft in the past, have been successfully used on racing cars and are now used as standard equipment on various vehicles. Advances in disc brakes are seen as a sign of ousting of drum brakes.

Construction: - A Disc Brake resembles a flat clutch fitted on each wheel. The generally adopted type disc brake is referred as spot brake. It consists of the following main parts.

(a) Caliper or cylinder casing : outer and inner

(b) Rotor disc

(c) Piston

(d) Friction pad

(e) Pad supporting plate (f) Bleeder plug

Besides above, the disc brake assembly also enclose piston seal, dust boot, pad wear indicator, anti squeal shim etc. The cylinder casing is made in two halves named outer and inner cylinder and resembles a caliper. That is why the disc brake is named caliper-type. The caliper is attached to the axle housing in a rear-wheel brake and to the steering knuckle in a frontwheel brake. The rotor disc is connected to the road wheels through axle shaft. The assembly houses two friction pads, one on each side of the disc. These pads are held in position by steel pad plates.

Working: - The Disc brakes are operated hydraulically. When the vehicle is to be braked the brake fluid (or oil) pumped by the Master Cylinder-brake pedal system (see topics on hydraulic brakes) enters into the caliper through inlet tube. It then flows through the oil passages provided their in and experts pressure on the pistons. There are four pistons and each of them forces the friction pads against the rotating disc. The pressure of pads stops rotation of the disc and hence the axle shaft (i.e. the wheels mounted on them) stops. When the brakes are to be released, the compression springs force back the piston to release pressure from the friction pads.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DRUM BRAKES AND DISC BRAKES

Although Disc brakes are getting increasing applications on Modern Auto vehicle, yet the Drum brakes are not out of favour. In fact both types have their own merits and demerits and therefore suit well on one or the other vehicles. A comparison between them is made in the chart given below.

S.NO. 1.

DESCRIPTION Life of friction material

DRUM BRAKE

DISC BRAKE (about

Reasonable (about 1500 Reasonable km) 2500 km)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Visibility of wear from outside Heat dissipation Replacement material Weight of Not possible Inferior friction Troublesome taking Bulky Very slow and

Can be seen at a glance Better time Easy and rapid Lighter (by = 25%) Efficient exposure atmosphere due to to

7. 8. 9.

Cooling

Water and dirt collection Breaking effect

Accumulates Generally inconsistent

Self cleaning Consistent

10. 11.

Temperature effect

Drum expands, tends to Unaffected separate out from linings

12.

Self energizing action Brake pedal effort

Exists Higher

Absent Proportional pressure always retardation No hydraulic pressure on the piston Excellent More, since brakes are not self-energizing to

13. 14.

Behavior

of

hydraulic Some exists

system in released stat. Resistance to fading

15. 16.

Force needed to apply brake Fair Comparatively Nature of wear Shape of friction lining Non uniform Curved

Uniform Straight

CLUTCHES
INTRODUCTION
The clutch is an intermediate mechanism, which is placed in between the flywheel and the gearbox for the purpose of allowing or discontinuing the power flow from engine to the transmission system. In normal conditions, the clutch remains in engaged position and allows flow of power from engine to the gearbox. However, when the flow of power is to be interrupted for any reason, it is disengaged and hence the power flow discontinues temporarily. The disengagement of the clutch is required when the gear position is to be changed, or when the vehicle needs to kept in neutral position (i.e. engine running but the vehicle stationary). The control for disengaging the clutch is imparted by a foot-pedal in 4-wheelers and by a hand-lever in 2-wheeler through control linkages.

REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD CLUTCH

While discharging its functions, the following requirements are desirable in a clutch. Gradual Engagement: - A clutch should take on the power drive smoothly without undesired jerks whenever it is re-engaged. This helps in increased driving comfort, less effort on the driver, and prolonged life of the clutch. Effortless Operation: - The operation of clutch disengagement should be easier so that the driver does not feel tired. A hard (uneasy) clutch operation will cause erratic running. Size: - The size of a clutch should be such that it occupies minimum space. Although the size is governed by the designed value of frictional surface area of the clutch facing,

even through this area can be accommodated efficiently by providing two or more clutch plates, such as in multiplate clutch.

SINGLE PALTE FRICTION CLUTCH Such clutches use a single Plate having friction facing on both the sides. Cushioning effect in them is obtained by installing springs of different designs. Depending upon the types off springs they use, the single plate clutches may be classified into following two types: Helical spring type single plate clutch Diaphragm spring type single plate clutch.

To Whom It May Concern: KAMALJEET BRAKING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION Brakes are employed to stop or slow-down the speed of a vehicle depending upon the driving needs. When braked, each wheel of the vehicle builds-up a certain braking force. For this reason, greater the number of wheels braked, greater will be the braking effort, and sooner will the vehicle come to halt. Modern vehicles are therefore equipped with brakes on all the wheels.

Braking Requirements: The following requirements are expected of an efficient braking system. It must stop the vehicle with in a smallest possible distance. It must act instantaneously in case of an emergency braking. It must be strong enough to sustain braking force. It must neither slip nor should cause any skid to the vehicle. The brake linings should have longer life by possessing higher anti-fading qualities. It must operate with the least effort by the driver.

PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING The brake is a friction-creating device, which caused speed reduction of the vehicle at a faster rate than the speed reduction obtained by changing the gears (top to 3rd, to 2nd, to 1st) and closing-down the accelerator. However, this rate cannot be high enough to stop the vehicle instantaneously. It is because a vehicle of weight w moving at a speed v possesses kinetic energy whose value is given by

1 W K.E. = --- --- V2 3 g

TYPES OF BRAKES Different types of brakes are used on various categories of vehicle. These can be classified according to following considerations. 1. On The Basic of Actuating Method Mechanical brakes Hydraulic brakes Pneumatic (or air) brakes (a) Compressed air brakes Electric brakes 2. On The Basic of Construction Drum brakes Disc brakes Band brakes 3. On The Basic of Action of Brake Shoes Internal expanding brakes (b) Vacuum brakes

 External contracting brakes 4. On The Basic of Combinations Drum and Disc combination brakes Mechanical and Hydro combination brakes

HYDRAULIC BRAKES The modern cars are mostly equipped with hydraulic brakes on all the four wheels. The braking system of 3-wheelers also use hydraulic brakes but on rear wheels only. Their front wheel is equipped with a mechanical brake. Wide popularity of hydraulic breaking system can be attributed to its several advantages, which it has over the mechanically operated BRAKES. Some of these advantages are Equal braking on all the wheel. Comparatively lesser braking effort required by the driver. Higher multiplication of brake pedal effort. Quieter operation due to the absence of too many links, rods and shafts. Reduced loss of effort between brake pedal and brake shoes on account of fewer frictional parts. The hydraulically operated brakes are suitably used on both the drum and the disc brakes. However, there is a basic difference in these two systems. In hydraulically operated drum brakes, some hydraulic pressure has to be always maintained with in the system whereas in hydraulically operated disc brakes it is not so.

HYDRAULIC DRUM BRAKES The assembly of a brake drum. It consists of the following main components. (a) Brake Drum Brake lining (e) Expander Adjuster The brake drum is mounted on the axle hub and the whole assembly is housed concentrically with in the wheel. A back plate made of pressed steel sheet is mounted on the axle causing. It is meant for supporting the brake shoes, expander and the anchor. It also serves to protect the assembly from dust, dirt and mud. Two brake shoes age hinged or fulcrumed on the back plate by means of anchor pins towards heel end of the shoes. The toe-end of the shoes is connected to the expander. The brake linings made of friction materials are riveted on the brake shoes on their convex faces, which remain near to he brake drum. A retracting spring (may also be two in number) is attached to the two brake shoes for the purpose of pulling-back the shoes, away from the brake drum when the brakes are released. The expander attached to the toe end of the brake shoe, may be a cam, toggle lever, or wedge in mechanical brake, or a wheel cylinder in case of hydraulic and pneumatic brakes. It is operated by foot pedal or hand lever through mechanical, hydraulic, or (f) Anchor (g) Retracting spring (h) (b) Back plate or torque plate (c) Brake shoe (d)

pneumatic linkage. The brake linings do wear in due course of their working and need to be adjusted from time to time. Therefore an adjuster is used for this purpose. Layout and Components: - Simplified layout of a typical hydraulic brake system. In consists of the following mains parts. Master cylinder, operated by foot pedal Wheel cylinder Brake fluid (or brake oil) pipelines

Master Cylinder: - A Master cylinder is the most important component of hydraulic brake system. It remains connected to the brake pedal on one end and to the wheel cylinder through the pipings, houses and their unions on the other end (output side). In effect it is a plunger type pump, which delivers oil at about 350-500-kPa pressures during Braking. The Master cylinder assembly always remains full of brake oil so that instantaneous braking may be done when desired. Construction: - It consists of the following main parts in its assembly. Cylinder body integral with the brake oil reservoir having inlet and by-pass ports. Reservoir cap having air vent. Plunger connected to a push rod, which is attached to the brake foot pedal. Plunger return spring attached with in the pressure chamber. Check valve with a rubber cup and valve seat to prevent back flow of brake oil from wheel cylinder to pressure chamber. Plunger seals: primary and secondary. Rubber boot for protection against the dust and dirt.

 Piston stopper. The washers, circlips and rubber cups and also be prevent leakage. The plunger is of varying having the least area in its middle portion. Working: - When the brakes are applied the effort exerted on the brake pedal forces the plunger outward by the push rod. Consequently, the plunger compresses upon the brake oil stored in the pressure chamber against the pressure of return spring. This initiates pressure stroke, which opens the check valve to allow oil to flow into the brake lines. When the brakes are released the plunger return spring pushes back the plunger towards the boot end. The oil brake pipelines returns back and raises the check valve from its seat. When the oil pressure falls to a required minimum value, the return spring helps the valve to reseat. Types of Master Cylinder: - Several designs of master cylinder are employed on auto vehicles of different makes and models. These are: 1. Single Master cylinder Drum brakes Disc brakes 2. Double Master cylinder 3. Tandem Master cylinder

Wheel Cylinder: - It consists of the following main parts. Two pistons, one each connecting to the left and right brake shoes. Piston return spring. Wheel cylinder body enclosing the pistons and the spring.

A hydraulic pipeline is connected to wheel cylinder. When the fluid is forced into the cylinder, piston move away from the center and force a part shoes. The shoes pivot on pins and press against the internal surface of brake drums secured on the wheels, thus slowing down the rotation of the wheel. When the pressure in the hydraulic system drops, the shoes are drawn to each other by spring and the pistons return to their initial position.

Brake Fluid: - The system is filled with a fluid consisting of Caster Oil and Alcohol (other combinations are also used). This is known as Brake fluid or brake oil. Its functions in hydraulic braking are similar to the function of blood in human body.

DISC BRAKES As compared to the drum brakes, the disc brakes are the development of later year. Basically they are also friction brakes but with practicable differences. They had been used on aircraft in the past, have been successfully used on racing cars and are now used as standard equipment on various vehicles. Advances in disc brakes are seen as a sign of ousting of drum brakes.

Construction: - A Disc Brake resembles a flat clutch fitted on each wheel. The generally adopted type disc brake is referred as spot brake. It consists of the following main parts.

(a) Caliper or cylinder casing : outer and inner

(b) Rotor disc

(c) Piston

(d) Friction pad

(e) Pad supporting plate (f) Bleeder plug

Besides above, the disc brake assembly also enclose piston seal, dust boot, pad wear indicator, anti squeal shim etc. The cylinder casing is made in two halves named outer and inner cylinder and resembles a caliper. That is why the disc brake is named caliper-type. The caliper is attached to the axle housing in a rear-wheel brake and to the steering knuckle in a frontwheel brake. The rotor disc is connected to the road wheels through axle shaft. The assembly houses two friction pads, one on each side of the disc. These pads are held in position by steel pad plates.

Working: - The Disc brakes are operated hydraulically. When the vehicle is to be braked the brake fluid (or oil) pumped by the Master Cylinder-brake pedal system (see topics on hydraulic brakes) enters into the caliper through inlet tube. It then flows through the oil passages provided their in and experts pressure on the pistons. There are four pistons and each of them forces the friction pads against the rotating disc. The pressure of pads stops rotation of the disc and hence the axle shaft (i.e. the wheels mounted on them) stops. When the brakes are to be released, the compression springs force back the piston to release pressure from the friction pads.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DRUM BRAKES AND DISC BRAKES

Although Disc brakes are getting increasing applications on Modern Auto vehicle, yet the Drum brakes are not out of favour. In fact both types have their own merits and demerits and therefore suit well on one or the other vehicles. A comparison between them is made in the chart given below.

S.NO. 1.

DESCRIPTION Life of friction material

DRUM BRAKE

DISC BRAKE (about

Reasonable (about 1500 Reasonable km) 2500 km)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Visibility of wear from outside Heat dissipation Replacement material Weight of Not possible Inferior friction Troublesome taking Bulky Very slow and

Can be seen at a glance Better time Easy and rapid Lighter (by = 25%) Efficient exposure atmosphere due to to

7. 8. 9.

Cooling

Water and dirt collection Breaking effect

Accumulates Generally inconsistent

Self cleaning Consistent

10. 11.

Temperature effect

Drum expands, tends to Unaffected separate out from linings

12.

Self energizing action Brake pedal effort

Exists Higher

Absent Proportional pressure always retardation No hydraulic pressure on the piston Excellent More, since brakes are not self-energizing to

13. 14.

Behavior

of

hydraulic Some exists

system in released stat. Resistance to fading

15. 16.

Force needed to apply brake Fair Comparatively Nature of wear Shape of friction lining Non uniform Curved

Uniform Straight

CLUTCHES
INTRODUCTION
The clutch is an intermediate mechanism, which is placed in between the flywheel and the gearbox for the purpose of allowing or discontinuing the power flow from engine to the transmission system. In normal conditions, the clutch remains in engaged position and allows flow of power from engine to the gearbox. However, when the flow of power is to be interrupted for any reason, it is disengaged and hence the power flow discontinues temporarily. The disengagement of the clutch is required when the gear position is to be changed, or when the vehicle needs to kept in neutral position (i.e. engine running but the vehicle stationary). The control for disengaging the clutch is imparted by a foot-pedal in 4-wheelers and by a hand-lever in 2-wheeler through control linkages.

REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD CLUTCH

While discharging its functions, the following requirements are desirable in a clutch. Gradual Engagement: - A clutch should take on the power drive smoothly without undesired jerks whenever it is re-engaged. This helps in increased driving comfort, less effort on the driver, and prolonged life of the clutch. Effortless Operation: - The operation of clutch disengagement should be easier so that the driver does not feel tired. A hard (uneasy) clutch operation will cause erratic running. Size: - The size of a clutch should be such that it occupies minimum space. Although the size is governed by the designed value of frictional surface area of the clutch facing,

even through this area can be accommodated efficiently by providing two or more clutch plates, such as in multiplate clutch.

SINGLE PALTE FRICTION CLUTCH Such clutches use a single Plate having friction facing on both the sides. Cushioning effect in them is obtained by installing springs of different designs. Depending upon the types off springs they use, the single plate clutches may be classified into following two types: Helical spring type single plate clutch Diaphragm spring type single plate clutch.

To Whom It May Concern: KHURSHID BRAKING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION Brakes are employed to stop or slow-down the speed of a vehicle depending upon the driving needs. When braked, each wheel of the vehicle builds-up a certain braking force. For this reason, greater the number of wheels braked, greater will be the braking effort, and sooner will the vehicle come to halt. Modern vehicles are therefore equipped with brakes on all the wheels.

Braking Requirements: The following requirements are expected of an efficient braking system. It must stop the vehicle with in a smallest possible distance. It must act instantaneously in case of an emergency braking. It must be strong enough to sustain braking force. It must neither slip nor should cause any skid to the vehicle. The brake linings should have longer life by possessing higher anti-fading qualities. It must operate with the least effort by the driver.

PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING The brake is a friction-creating device, which caused speed reduction of the vehicle at a faster rate than the speed reduction obtained by changing the gears (top to 3rd, to 2nd, to 1st) and closing-down the accelerator. However, this rate cannot be high enough to stop the vehicle instantaneously. It is because a vehicle of weight w moving at a speed v possesses kinetic energy whose value is given by

1 W K.E. = --- --- V2 4 g

TYPES OF BRAKES Different types of brakes are used on various categories of vehicle. These can be classified according to following considerations. 1. On The Basic of Actuating Method Mechanical brakes Hydraulic brakes Pneumatic (or air) brakes (a) Compressed air brakes Electric brakes 2. On The Basic of Construction Drum brakes Disc brakes Band brakes 3. On The Basic of Action of Brake Shoes Internal expanding brakes (b) Vacuum brakes

 External contracting brakes 4. On The Basic of Combinations Drum and Disc combination brakes Mechanical and Hydro combination brakes

HYDRAULIC BRAKES The modern cars are mostly equipped with hydraulic brakes on all the four wheels. The braking system of 3-wheelers also use hydraulic brakes but on rear wheels only. Their front wheel is equipped with a mechanical brake. Wide popularity of hydraulic breaking system can be attributed to its several advantages, which it has over the mechanically operated BRAKES. Some of these advantages are Equal braking on all the wheel. Comparatively lesser braking effort required by the driver. Higher multiplication of brake pedal effort. Quieter operation due to the absence of too many links, rods and shafts. Reduced loss of effort between brake pedal and brake shoes on account of fewer frictional parts. The hydraulically operated brakes are suitably used on both the drum and the disc brakes. However, there is a basic difference in these two systems. In hydraulically operated drum brakes, some hydraulic pressure has to be always maintained with in the system whereas in hydraulically operated disc brakes it is not so.

HYDRAULIC DRUM BRAKES The assembly of a brake drum. It consists of the following main components. (a) Brake Drum Brake lining (e) Expander Adjuster The brake drum is mounted on the axle hub and the whole assembly is housed concentrically with in the wheel. A back plate made of pressed steel sheet is mounted on the axle causing. It is meant for supporting the brake shoes, expander and the anchor. It also serves to protect the assembly from dust, dirt and mud. Two brake shoes age hinged or fulcrumed on the back plate by means of anchor pins towards heel end of the shoes. The toe-end of the shoes is connected to the expander. The brake linings made of friction materials are riveted on the brake shoes on their convex faces, which remain near to he brake drum. A retracting spring (may also be two in number) is attached to the two brake shoes for the purpose of pulling-back the shoes, away from the brake drum when the brakes are released. The expander attached to the toe end of the brake shoe, may be a cam, toggle lever, or wedge in mechanical brake, or a wheel cylinder in case of hydraulic and pneumatic brakes. It is operated by foot pedal or hand lever through mechanical, hydraulic, or (f) Anchor (g) Retracting spring (h) (b) Back plate or torque plate (c) Brake shoe (d)

pneumatic linkage. The brake linings do wear in due course of their working and need to be adjusted from time to time. Therefore an adjuster is used for this purpose. Layout and Components: - Simplified layout of a typical hydraulic brake system. In consists of the following mains parts. Master cylinder, operated by foot pedal Wheel cylinder Brake fluid (or brake oil) pipelines

Master Cylinder: - A Master cylinder is the most important component of hydraulic brake system. It remains connected to the brake pedal on one end and to the wheel cylinder through the pipings, houses and their unions on the other end (output side). In effect it is a plunger type pump, which delivers oil at about 350-500-kPa pressures during Braking. The Master cylinder assembly always remains full of brake oil so that instantaneous braking may be done when desired. Construction: - It consists of the following main parts in its assembly. Cylinder body integral with the brake oil reservoir having inlet and by-pass ports. Reservoir cap having air vent. Plunger connected to a push rod, which is attached to the brake foot pedal. Plunger return spring attached with in the pressure chamber. Check valve with a rubber cup and valve seat to prevent back flow of brake oil from wheel cylinder to pressure chamber. Plunger seals: primary and secondary. Rubber boot for protection against the dust and dirt.

 Piston stopper. The washers, circlips and rubber cups and also be prevent leakage. The plunger is of varying having the least area in its middle portion. Working: - When the brakes are applied the effort exerted on the brake pedal forces the plunger outward by the push rod. Consequently, the plunger compresses upon the brake oil stored in the pressure chamber against the pressure of return spring. This initiates pressure stroke, which opens the check valve to allow oil to flow into the brake lines. When the brakes are released the plunger return spring pushes back the plunger towards the boot end. The oil brake pipelines returns back and raises the check valve from its seat. When the oil pressure falls to a required minimum value, the return spring helps the valve to reseat. Types of Master Cylinder: - Several designs of master cylinder are employed on auto vehicles of different makes and models. These are: 1. Single Master cylinder Drum brakes Disc brakes 2. Double Master cylinder 3. Tandem Master cylinder

Wheel Cylinder: - It consists of the following main parts. Two pistons, one each connecting to the left and right brake shoes. Piston return spring. Wheel cylinder body enclosing the pistons and the spring.

A hydraulic pipeline is connected to wheel cylinder. When the fluid is forced into the cylinder, piston move away from the center and force a part shoes. The shoes pivot on pins and press against the internal surface of brake drums secured on the wheels, thus slowing down the rotation of the wheel. When the pressure in the hydraulic system drops, the shoes are drawn to each other by spring and the pistons return to their initial position.

Brake Fluid: - The system is filled with a fluid consisting of Caster Oil and Alcohol (other combinations are also used). This is known as Brake fluid or brake oil. Its functions in hydraulic braking are similar to the function of blood in human body.

DISC BRAKES As compared to the drum brakes, the disc brakes are the development of later year. Basically they are also friction brakes but with practicable differences. They had been used on aircraft in the past, have been successfully used on racing cars and are now used as standard equipment on various vehicles. Advances in disc brakes are seen as a sign of ousting of drum brakes.

Construction: - A Disc Brake resembles a flat clutch fitted on each wheel. The generally adopted type disc brake is referred as spot brake. It consists of the following main parts.

(a) Caliper or cylinder casing : outer and inner

(b) Rotor disc

(c) Piston

(d) Friction pad

(e) Pad supporting plate (f) Bleeder plug

Besides above, the disc brake assembly also enclose piston seal, dust boot, pad wear indicator, anti squeal shim etc. The cylinder casing is made in two halves named outer and inner cylinder and resembles a caliper. That is why the disc brake is named caliper-type. The caliper is attached to the axle housing in a rear-wheel brake and to the steering knuckle in a frontwheel brake. The rotor disc is connected to the road wheels through axle shaft. The assembly houses two friction pads, one on each side of the disc. These pads are held in position by steel pad plates.

Working: - The Disc brakes are operated hydraulically. When the vehicle is to be braked the brake fluid (or oil) pumped by the Master Cylinder-brake pedal system (see topics on hydraulic brakes) enters into the caliper through inlet tube. It then flows through the oil passages provided their in and experts pressure on the pistons. There are four pistons and each of them forces the friction pads against the rotating disc. The pressure of pads stops rotation of the disc and hence the axle shaft (i.e. the wheels mounted on them) stops. When the brakes are to be released, the compression springs force back the piston to release pressure from the friction pads.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DRUM BRAKES AND DISC BRAKES

Although Disc brakes are getting increasing applications on Modern Auto vehicle, yet the Drum brakes are not out of favour. In fact both types have their own merits and demerits and therefore suit well on one or the other vehicles. A comparison between them is made in the chart given below.

S.NO. 1.

DESCRIPTION Life of friction material

DRUM BRAKE

DISC BRAKE (about

Reasonable (about 1500 Reasonable km) 2500 km)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Visibility of wear from outside Heat dissipation Replacement material Weight of Not possible Inferior friction Troublesome taking Bulky Very slow and

Can be seen at a glance Better time Easy and rapid Lighter (by = 25%) Efficient exposure atmosphere due to to

7. 8. 9.

Cooling

Water and dirt collection Breaking effect

Accumulates Generally inconsistent

Self cleaning Consistent

10. 11.

Temperature effect

Drum expands, tends to Unaffected separate out from linings

12.

Self energizing action Brake pedal effort

Exists Higher

Absent Proportional pressure always retardation No hydraulic pressure on the piston Excellent More, since brakes are not self-energizing to

13. 14.

Behavior

of

hydraulic Some exists

system in released stat. Resistance to fading

15. 16.

Force needed to apply brake Fair Comparatively Nature of wear Shape of friction lining Non uniform Curved

Uniform Straight

CLUTCHES
INTRODUCTION
The clutch is an intermediate mechanism, which is placed in between the flywheel and the gearbox for the purpose of allowing or discontinuing the power flow from engine to the transmission system. In normal conditions, the clutch remains in engaged position and allows flow of power from engine to the gearbox. However, when the flow of power is to be interrupted for any reason, it is disengaged and hence the power flow discontinues temporarily. The disengagement of the clutch is required when the gear position is to be changed, or when the vehicle needs to kept in neutral position (i.e. engine running but the vehicle stationary). The control for disengaging the clutch is imparted by a foot-pedal in 4-wheelers and by a hand-lever in 2-wheeler through control linkages.

REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD CLUTCH

While discharging its functions, the following requirements are desirable in a clutch. Gradual Engagement: - A clutch should take on the power drive smoothly without undesired jerks whenever it is re-engaged. This helps in increased driving comfort, less effort on the driver, and prolonged life of the clutch. Effortless Operation: - The operation of clutch disengagement should be easier so that the driver does not feel tired. A hard (uneasy) clutch operation will cause erratic running. Size: - The size of a clutch should be such that it occupies minimum space. Although the size is governed by the designed value of frictional surface area of the clutch facing,

even through this area can be accommodated efficiently by providing two or more clutch plates, such as in multiplate clutch.

SINGLE PALTE FRICTION CLUTCH Such clutches use a single Plate having friction facing on both the sides. Cushioning effect in them is obtained by installing springs of different designs. Depending upon the types off springs they use, the single plate clutches may be classified into following two types: Helical spring type single plate clutch Diaphragm spring type single plate clutch.

To Whom It May Concern: MANJIT BRAKING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION Brakes are employed to stop or slow-down the speed of a vehicle depending upon the driving needs. When braked, each wheel of the vehicle builds-up a certain braking force. For this reason, greater the number of wheels braked, greater will be the braking effort, and sooner will the vehicle come to halt. Modern vehicles are therefore equipped with brakes on all the wheels.

Braking Requirements: The following requirements are expected of an efficient braking system. It must stop the vehicle with in a smallest possible distance. It must act instantaneously in case of an emergency braking. It must be strong enough to sustain braking force. It must neither slip nor should cause any skid to the vehicle. The brake linings should have longer life by possessing higher anti-fading qualities. It must operate with the least effort by the driver.

PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING The brake is a friction-creating device, which caused speed reduction of the vehicle at a faster rate than the speed reduction obtained by changing the gears (top to 3rd, to 2nd, to 1st) and closing-down the accelerator. However, this rate cannot be high enough to stop the vehicle instantaneously. It is because a vehicle of weight w moving at a speed v possesses kinetic energy whose value is given by

1 W K.E. = --- --- V2 5 g

TYPES OF BRAKES Different types of brakes are used on various categories of vehicle. These can be classified according to following considerations. 1. On The Basic of Actuating Method Mechanical brakes Hydraulic brakes Pneumatic (or air) brakes (a) Compressed air brakes Electric brakes 2. On The Basic of Construction Drum brakes Disc brakes Band brakes 3. On The Basic of Action of Brake Shoes Internal expanding brakes (b) Vacuum brakes

 External contracting brakes 4. On The Basic of Combinations Drum and Disc combination brakes Mechanical and Hydro combination brakes

HYDRAULIC BRAKES The modern cars are mostly equipped with hydraulic brakes on all the four wheels. The braking system of 3-wheelers also use hydraulic brakes but on rear wheels only. Their front wheel is equipped with a mechanical brake. Wide popularity of hydraulic breaking system can be attributed to its several advantages, which it has over the mechanically operated BRAKES. Some of these advantages are Equal braking on all the wheel. Comparatively lesser braking effort required by the driver. Higher multiplication of brake pedal effort. Quieter operation due to the absence of too many links, rods and shafts. Reduced loss of effort between brake pedal and brake shoes on account of fewer frictional parts. The hydraulically operated brakes are suitably used on both the drum and the disc brakes. However, there is a basic difference in these two systems. In hydraulically operated drum brakes, some hydraulic pressure has to be always maintained with in the system whereas in hydraulically operated disc brakes it is not so.

HYDRAULIC DRUM BRAKES The assembly of a brake drum. It consists of the following main components. (a) Brake Drum Brake lining (e) Expander Adjuster The brake drum is mounted on the axle hub and the whole assembly is housed concentrically with in the wheel. A back plate made of pressed steel sheet is mounted on the axle causing. It is meant for supporting the brake shoes, expander and the anchor. It also serves to protect the assembly from dust, dirt and mud. Two brake shoes age hinged or fulcrumed on the back plate by means of anchor pins towards heel end of the shoes. The toe-end of the shoes is connected to the expander. The brake linings made of friction materials are riveted on the brake shoes on their convex faces, which remain near to he brake drum. A retracting spring (may also be two in number) is attached to the two brake shoes for the purpose of pulling-back the shoes, away from the brake drum when the brakes are released. The expander attached to the toe end of the brake shoe, may be a cam, toggle lever, or wedge in mechanical brake, or a wheel cylinder in case of hydraulic and pneumatic brakes. It is operated by foot pedal or hand lever through mechanical, hydraulic, or (f) Anchor (g) Retracting spring (h) (b) Back plate or torque plate (c) Brake shoe (d)

pneumatic linkage. The brake linings do wear in due course of their working and need to be adjusted from time to time. Therefore an adjuster is used for this purpose. Layout and Components: - Simplified layout of a typical hydraulic brake system. In consists of the following mains parts. Master cylinder, operated by foot pedal Wheel cylinder Brake fluid (or brake oil) pipelines

Master Cylinder: - A Master cylinder is the most important component of hydraulic brake system. It remains connected to the brake pedal on one end and to the wheel cylinder through the pipings, houses and their unions on the other end (output side). In effect it is a plunger type pump, which delivers oil at about 350-500-kPa pressures during Braking. The Master cylinder assembly always remains full of brake oil so that instantaneous braking may be done when desired. Construction: - It consists of the following main parts in its assembly. Cylinder body integral with the brake oil reservoir having inlet and by-pass ports. Reservoir cap having air vent. Plunger connected to a push rod, which is attached to the brake foot pedal. Plunger return spring attached with in the pressure chamber. Check valve with a rubber cup and valve seat to prevent back flow of brake oil from wheel cylinder to pressure chamber. Plunger seals: primary and secondary. Rubber boot for protection against the dust and dirt.

 Piston stopper. The washers, circlips and rubber cups and also be prevent leakage. The plunger is of varying having the least area in its middle portion. Working: - When the brakes are applied the effort exerted on the brake pedal forces the plunger outward by the push rod. Consequently, the plunger compresses upon the brake oil stored in the pressure chamber against the pressure of return spring. This initiates pressure stroke, which opens the check valve to allow oil to flow into the brake lines. When the brakes are released the plunger return spring pushes back the plunger towards the boot end. The oil brake pipelines returns back and raises the check valve from its seat. When the oil pressure falls to a required minimum value, the return spring helps the valve to reseat. Types of Master Cylinder: - Several designs of master cylinder are employed on auto vehicles of different makes and models. These are: 1. Single Master cylinder Drum brakes Disc brakes 2. Double Master cylinder 3. Tandem Master cylinder

Wheel Cylinder: - It consists of the following main parts. Two pistons, one each connecting to the left and right brake shoes. Piston return spring. Wheel cylinder body enclosing the pistons and the spring.

A hydraulic pipeline is connected to wheel cylinder. When the fluid is forced into the cylinder, piston move away from the center and force a part shoes. The shoes pivot on pins and press against the internal surface of brake drums secured on the wheels, thus slowing down the rotation of the wheel. When the pressure in the hydraulic system drops, the shoes are drawn to each other by spring and the pistons return to their initial position.

Brake Fluid: - The system is filled with a fluid consisting of Caster Oil and Alcohol (other combinations are also used). This is known as Brake fluid or brake oil. Its functions in hydraulic braking are similar to the function of blood in human body.

DISC BRAKES As compared to the drum brakes, the disc brakes are the development of later year. Basically they are also friction brakes but with practicable differences. They had been used on aircraft in the past, have been successfully used on racing cars and are now used as standard equipment on various vehicles. Advances in disc brakes are seen as a sign of ousting of drum brakes.

Construction: - A Disc Brake resembles a flat clutch fitted on each wheel. The generally adopted type disc brake is referred as spot brake. It consists of the following main parts.

(a) Caliper or cylinder casing : outer and inner

(b) Rotor disc

(c) Piston

(d) Friction pad

(e) Pad supporting plate (f) Bleeder plug

Besides above, the disc brake assembly also enclose piston seal, dust boot, pad wear indicator, anti squeal shim etc. The cylinder casing is made in two halves named outer and inner cylinder and resembles a caliper. That is why the disc brake is named caliper-type. The caliper is attached to the axle housing in a rear-wheel brake and to the steering knuckle in a frontwheel brake. The rotor disc is connected to the road wheels through axle shaft. The assembly houses two friction pads, one on each side of the disc. These pads are held in position by steel pad plates.

Working: - The Disc brakes are operated hydraulically. When the vehicle is to be braked the brake fluid (or oil) pumped by the Master Cylinder-brake pedal system (see topics on hydraulic brakes) enters into the caliper through inlet tube. It then flows through the oil passages provided their in and experts pressure on the pistons. There are four pistons and each of them forces the friction pads against the rotating disc. The pressure of pads stops rotation of the disc and hence the axle shaft (i.e. the wheels mounted on them) stops. When the brakes are to be released, the compression springs force back the piston to release pressure from the friction pads.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DRUM BRAKES AND DISC BRAKES

Although Disc brakes are getting increasing applications on Modern Auto vehicle, yet the Drum brakes are not out of favour. In fact both types have their own merits and demerits and therefore suit well on one or the other vehicles. A comparison between them is made in the chart given below.

S.NO. 1.

DESCRIPTION Life of friction material

DRUM BRAKE

DISC BRAKE (about

Reasonable (about 1500 Reasonable km) 2500 km)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Visibility of wear from outside Heat dissipation Replacement material Weight of Not possible Inferior friction Troublesome taking Bulky Very slow and

Can be seen at a glance Better time Easy and rapid Lighter (by = 25%) Efficient exposure atmosphere due to to

7. 8. 9.

Cooling

Water and dirt collection Breaking effect

Accumulates Generally inconsistent

Self cleaning Consistent

10. 11.

Temperature effect

Drum expands, tends to Unaffected separate out from linings

12.

Self energizing action Brake pedal effort

Exists Higher

Absent Proportional pressure always retardation No hydraulic pressure on the piston Excellent More, since brakes are not self-energizing to

13. 14.

Behavior

of

hydraulic Some exists

system in released stat. Resistance to fading

15. 16.

Force needed to apply brake Fair Comparatively Nature of wear Shape of friction lining Non uniform Curved

Uniform Straight

CLUTCHES
INTRODUCTION
The clutch is an intermediate mechanism, which is placed in between the flywheel and the gearbox for the purpose of allowing or discontinuing the power flow from engine to the transmission system. In normal conditions, the clutch remains in engaged position and allows flow of power from engine to the gearbox. However, when the flow of power is to be interrupted for any reason, it is disengaged and hence the power flow discontinues temporarily. The disengagement of the clutch is required when the gear position is to be changed, or when the vehicle needs to kept in neutral position (i.e. engine running but the vehicle stationary). The control for disengaging the clutch is imparted by a foot-pedal in 4-wheelers and by a hand-lever in 2-wheeler through control linkages.

REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD CLUTCH

While discharging its functions, the following requirements are desirable in a clutch. Gradual Engagement: - A clutch should take on the power drive smoothly without undesired jerks whenever it is re-engaged. This helps in increased driving comfort, less effort on the driver, and prolonged life of the clutch. Effortless Operation: - The operation of clutch disengagement should be easier so that the driver does not feel tired. A hard (uneasy) clutch operation will cause erratic running. Size: - The size of a clutch should be such that it occupies minimum space. Although the size is governed by the designed value of frictional surface area of the clutch facing,

even through this area can be accommodated efficiently by providing two or more clutch plates, such as in multiplate clutch.

SINGLE PALTE FRICTION CLUTCH Such clutches use a single Plate having friction facing on both the sides. Cushioning effect in them is obtained by installing springs of different designs. Depending upon the types off springs they use, the single plate clutches may be classified into following two types: Helical spring type single plate clutch Diaphragm spring type single plate clutch.

To Whom It May Concern: MANJIT BRAKING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION Brakes are employed to stop or slow-down the speed of a vehicle depending upon the driving needs. When braked, each wheel of the vehicle builds-up a certain braking force. For this reason, greater the number of wheels braked, greater will be the braking effort, and sooner will the vehicle come to halt. Modern vehicles are therefore equipped with brakes on all the wheels.

Braking Requirements: The following requirements are expected of an efficient braking system. It must stop the vehicle with in a smallest possible distance. It must act instantaneously in case of an emergency braking. It must be strong enough to sustain braking force. It must neither slip nor should cause any skid to the vehicle. The brake linings should have longer life by possessing higher anti-fading qualities. It must operate with the least effort by the driver.

PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING The brake is a friction-creating device, which caused speed reduction of the vehicle at a faster rate than the speed reduction obtained by changing the gears (top to 3rd, to 2nd, to 1st) and closing-down the accelerator. However, this rate cannot be high enough to stop the vehicle instantaneously. It is because a vehicle of weight w moving at a speed v possesses kinetic energy whose value is given by

1 W K.E. = --- --- V2 6 g

TYPES OF BRAKES Different types of brakes are used on various categories of vehicle. These can be classified according to following considerations. 1. On The Basic of Actuating Method Mechanical brakes Hydraulic brakes Pneumatic (or air) brakes (a) Compressed air brakes Electric brakes 2. On The Basic of Construction Drum brakes Disc brakes Band brakes 3. On The Basic of Action of Brake Shoes Internal expanding brakes (b) Vacuum brakes

 External contracting brakes 4. On The Basic of Combinations Drum and Disc combination brakes Mechanical and Hydro combination brakes

HYDRAULIC BRAKES The modern cars are mostly equipped with hydraulic brakes on all the four wheels. The braking system of 3-wheelers also use hydraulic brakes but on rear wheels only. Their front wheel is equipped with a mechanical brake. Wide popularity of hydraulic breaking system can be attributed to its several advantages, which it has over the mechanically operated BRAKES. Some of these advantages are Equal braking on all the wheel. Comparatively lesser braking effort required by the driver. Higher multiplication of brake pedal effort. Quieter operation due to the absence of too many links, rods and shafts. Reduced loss of effort between brake pedal and brake shoes on account of fewer frictional parts. The hydraulically operated brakes are suitably used on both the drum and the disc brakes. However, there is a basic difference in these two systems. In hydraulically operated drum brakes, some hydraulic pressure has to be always maintained with in the system whereas in hydraulically operated disc brakes it is not so.

HYDRAULIC DRUM BRAKES The assembly of a brake drum. It consists of the following main components. (a) Brake Drum Brake lining (e) Expander Adjuster The brake drum is mounted on the axle hub and the whole assembly is housed concentrically with in the wheel. A back plate made of pressed steel sheet is mounted on the axle causing. It is meant for supporting the brake shoes, expander and the anchor. It also serves to protect the assembly from dust, dirt and mud. Two brake shoes age hinged or fulcrumed on the back plate by means of anchor pins towards heel end of the shoes. The toe-end of the shoes is connected to the expander. The brake linings made of friction materials are riveted on the brake shoes on their convex faces, which remain near to he brake drum. A retracting spring (may also be two in number) is attached to the two brake shoes for the purpose of pulling-back the shoes, away from the brake drum when the brakes are released. The expander attached to the toe end of the brake shoe, may be a cam, toggle lever, or wedge in mechanical brake, or a wheel cylinder in case of hydraulic and pneumatic brakes. It is operated by foot pedal or hand lever through mechanical, hydraulic, or (f) Anchor (g) Retracting spring (h) (b) Back plate or torque plate (c) Brake shoe (d)

pneumatic linkage. The brake linings do wear in due course of their working and need to be adjusted from time to time. Therefore an adjuster is used for this purpose. Layout and Components: - Simplified layout of a typical hydraulic brake system. In consists of the following mains parts. Master cylinder, operated by foot pedal Wheel cylinder Brake fluid (or brake oil) pipelines

Master Cylinder: - A Master cylinder is the most important component of hydraulic brake system. It remains connected to the brake pedal on one end and to the wheel cylinder through the pipings, houses and their unions on the other end (output side). In effect it is a plunger type pump, which delivers oil at about 350-500-kPa pressures during Braking. The Master cylinder assembly always remains full of brake oil so that instantaneous braking may be done when desired. Construction: - It consists of the following main parts in its assembly. Cylinder body integral with the brake oil reservoir having inlet and by-pass ports. Reservoir cap having air vent. Plunger connected to a push rod, which is attached to the brake foot pedal. Plunger return spring attached with in the pressure chamber. Check valve with a rubber cup and valve seat to prevent back flow of brake oil from wheel cylinder to pressure chamber. Plunger seals: primary and secondary. Rubber boot for protection against the dust and dirt.

 Piston stopper. The washers, circlips and rubber cups and also be prevent leakage. The plunger is of varying having the least area in its middle portion. Working: - When the brakes are applied the effort exerted on the brake pedal forces the plunger outward by the push rod. Consequently, the plunger compresses upon the brake oil stored in the pressure chamber against the pressure of return spring. This initiates pressure stroke, which opens the check valve to allow oil to flow into the brake lines. When the brakes are released the plunger return spring pushes back the plunger towards the boot end. The oil brake pipelines returns back and raises the check valve from its seat. When the oil pressure falls to a required minimum value, the return spring helps the valve to reseat. Types of Master Cylinder: - Several designs of master cylinder are employed on auto vehicles of different makes and models. These are: 1. Single Master cylinder Drum brakes Disc brakes 2. Double Master cylinder 3. Tandem Master cylinder

Wheel Cylinder: - It consists of the following main parts. Two pistons, one each connecting to the left and right brake shoes. Piston return spring. Wheel cylinder body enclosing the pistons and the spring.

A hydraulic pipeline is connected to wheel cylinder. When the fluid is forced into the cylinder, piston move away from the center and force a part shoes. The shoes pivot on pins and press against the internal surface of brake drums secured on the wheels, thus slowing down the rotation of the wheel. When the pressure in the hydraulic system drops, the shoes are drawn to each other by spring and the pistons return to their initial position.

Brake Fluid: - The system is filled with a fluid consisting of Caster Oil and Alcohol (other combinations are also used). This is known as Brake fluid or brake oil. Its functions in hydraulic braking are similar to the function of blood in human body.

DISC BRAKES As compared to the drum brakes, the disc brakes are the development of later year. Basically they are also friction brakes but with practicable differences. They had been used on aircraft in the past, have been successfully used on racing cars and are now used as standard equipment on various vehicles. Advances in disc brakes are seen as a sign of ousting of drum brakes.

Construction: - A Disc Brake resembles a flat clutch fitted on each wheel. The generally adopted type disc brake is referred as spot brake. It consists of the following main parts.

(a) Caliper or cylinder casing : outer and inner

(b) Rotor disc

(c) Piston

(d) Friction pad

(e) Pad supporting plate (f) Bleeder plug

Besides above, the disc brake assembly also enclose piston seal, dust boot, pad wear indicator, anti squeal shim etc. The cylinder casing is made in two halves named outer and inner cylinder and resembles a caliper. That is why the disc brake is named caliper-type. The caliper is attached to the axle housing in a rear-wheel brake and to the steering knuckle in a frontwheel brake. The rotor disc is connected to the road wheels through axle shaft. The assembly houses two friction pads, one on each side of the disc. These pads are held in position by steel pad plates.

Working: - The Disc brakes are operated hydraulically. When the vehicle is to be braked the brake fluid (or oil) pumped by the Master Cylinder-brake pedal system (see topics on hydraulic brakes) enters into the caliper through inlet tube. It then flows through the oil passages provided their in and experts pressure on the pistons. There are four pistons and each of them forces the friction pads against the rotating disc. The pressure of pads stops rotation of the disc and hence the axle shaft (i.e. the wheels mounted on them) stops. When the brakes are to be released, the compression springs force back the piston to release pressure from the friction pads.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DRUM BRAKES AND DISC BRAKES

Although Disc brakes are getting increasing applications on Modern Auto vehicle, yet the Drum brakes are not out of favour. In fact both types have their own merits and demerits and therefore suit well on one or the other vehicles. A comparison between them is made in the chart given below.

S.NO. 1.

DESCRIPTION Life of friction material

DRUM BRAKE

DISC BRAKE (about

Reasonable (about 1500 Reasonable km) 2500 km)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Visibility of wear from outside Heat dissipation Replacement material Weight of Not possible Inferior friction Troublesome taking Bulky Very slow and

Can be seen at a glance Better time Easy and rapid Lighter (by = 25%) Efficient exposure atmosphere due to to

7. 8. 9.

Cooling

Water and dirt collection Breaking effect

Accumulates Generally inconsistent

Self cleaning Consistent

10. 11.

Temperature effect

Drum expands, tends to Unaffected separate out from linings

12.

Self energizing action Brake pedal effort

Exists Higher

Absent Proportional pressure always retardation No hydraulic pressure on the piston Excellent More, since brakes are not self-energizing to

13. 14.

Behavior

of

hydraulic Some exists

system in released stat. Resistance to fading

15. 16.

Force needed to apply brake Fair Comparatively Nature of wear Shape of friction lining Non uniform Curved

Uniform Straight

CLUTCHES
INTRODUCTION
The clutch is an intermediate mechanism, which is placed in between the flywheel and the gearbox for the purpose of allowing or discontinuing the power flow from engine to the transmission system. In normal conditions, the clutch remains in engaged position and allows flow of power from engine to the gearbox. However, when the flow of power is to be interrupted for any reason, it is disengaged and hence the power flow discontinues temporarily. The disengagement of the clutch is required when the gear position is to be changed, or when the vehicle needs to kept in neutral position (i.e. engine running but the vehicle stationary). The control for disengaging the clutch is imparted by a foot-pedal in 4-wheelers and by a hand-lever in 2-wheeler through control linkages.

REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD CLUTCH

While discharging its functions, the following requirements are desirable in a clutch. Gradual Engagement: - A clutch should take on the power drive smoothly without undesired jerks whenever it is re-engaged. This helps in increased driving comfort, less effort on the driver, and prolonged life of the clutch. Effortless Operation: - The operation of clutch disengagement should be easier so that the driver does not feel tired. A hard (uneasy) clutch operation will cause erratic running. Size: - The size of a clutch should be such that it occupies minimum space. Although the size is governed by the designed value of frictional surface area of the clutch facing,

even through this area can be accommodated efficiently by providing two or more clutch plates, such as in multiplate clutch.

SINGLE PALTE FRICTION CLUTCH Such clutches use a single Plate having friction facing on both the sides. Cushioning effect in them is obtained by installing springs of different designs. Depending upon the types off springs they use, the single plate clutches may be classified into following two types: Helical spring type single plate clutch Diaphragm spring type single plate clutch.

To Whom It May Concern: MANPREET BRAKING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION Brakes are employed to stop or slow-down the speed of a vehicle depending upon the driving needs. When braked, each wheel of the vehicle builds-up a certain braking force. For this reason, greater the number of wheels braked, greater will be the braking effort, and sooner will the vehicle come to halt. Modern vehicles are therefore equipped with brakes on all the wheels.

Braking Requirements: The following requirements are expected of an efficient braking system. It must stop the vehicle with in a smallest possible distance. It must act instantaneously in case of an emergency braking. It must be strong enough to sustain braking force. It must neither slip nor should cause any skid to the vehicle. The brake linings should have longer life by possessing higher anti-fading qualities. It must operate with the least effort by the driver.

PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING The brake is a friction-creating device, which caused speed reduction of the vehicle at a faster rate than the speed reduction obtained by changing the gears (top to 3rd, to 2nd, to 1st) and closing-down the accelerator. However, this rate cannot be high enough to stop the vehicle instantaneously. It is because a vehicle of weight w moving at a speed v possesses kinetic energy whose value is given by

1 W K.E. = --- --- V2 7 g

TYPES OF BRAKES Different types of brakes are used on various categories of vehicle. These can be classified according to following considerations. 1. On The Basic of Actuating Method Mechanical brakes Hydraulic brakes Pneumatic (or air) brakes (a) Compressed air brakes Electric brakes 2. On The Basic of Construction Drum brakes Disc brakes Band brakes 3. On The Basic of Action of Brake Shoes Internal expanding brakes (b) Vacuum brakes

 External contracting brakes 4. On The Basic of Combinations Drum and Disc combination brakes Mechanical and Hydro combination brakes

HYDRAULIC BRAKES The modern cars are mostly equipped with hydraulic brakes on all the four wheels. The braking system of 3-wheelers also use hydraulic brakes but on rear wheels only. Their front wheel is equipped with a mechanical brake. Wide popularity of hydraulic breaking system can be attributed to its several advantages, which it has over the mechanically operated BRAKES. Some of these advantages are Equal braking on all the wheel. Comparatively lesser braking effort required by the driver. Higher multiplication of brake pedal effort. Quieter operation due to the absence of too many links, rods and shafts. Reduced loss of effort between brake pedal and brake shoes on account of fewer frictional parts. The hydraulically operated brakes are suitably used on both the drum and the disc brakes. However, there is a basic difference in these two systems. In hydraulically operated drum brakes, some hydraulic pressure has to be always maintained with in the system whereas in hydraulically operated disc brakes it is not so.

HYDRAULIC DRUM BRAKES The assembly of a brake drum. It consists of the following main components. (a) Brake Drum Brake lining (e) Expander Adjuster The brake drum is mounted on the axle hub and the whole assembly is housed concentrically with in the wheel. A back plate made of pressed steel sheet is mounted on the axle causing. It is meant for supporting the brake shoes, expander and the anchor. It also serves to protect the assembly from dust, dirt and mud. Two brake shoes age hinged or fulcrumed on the back plate by means of anchor pins towards heel end of the shoes. The toe-end of the shoes is connected to the expander. The brake linings made of friction materials are riveted on the brake shoes on their convex faces, which remain near to he brake drum. A retracting spring (may also be two in number) is attached to the two brake shoes for the purpose of pulling-back the shoes, away from the brake drum when the brakes are released. The expander attached to the toe end of the brake shoe, may be a cam, toggle lever, or wedge in mechanical brake, or a wheel cylinder in case of hydraulic and pneumatic brakes. It is operated by foot pedal or hand lever through mechanical, hydraulic, or (f) Anchor (g) Retracting spring (h) (b) Back plate or torque plate (c) Brake shoe (d)

pneumatic linkage. The brake linings do wear in due course of their working and need to be adjusted from time to time. Therefore an adjuster is used for this purpose. Layout and Components: - Simplified layout of a typical hydraulic brake system. In consists of the following mains parts. Master cylinder, operated by foot pedal Wheel cylinder Brake fluid (or brake oil) pipelines

Master Cylinder: - A Master cylinder is the most important component of hydraulic brake system. It remains connected to the brake pedal on one end and to the wheel cylinder through the pipings, houses and their unions on the other end (output side). In effect it is a plunger type pump, which delivers oil at about 350-500-kPa pressures during Braking. The Master cylinder assembly always remains full of brake oil so that instantaneous braking may be done when desired. Construction: - It consists of the following main parts in its assembly. Cylinder body integral with the brake oil reservoir having inlet and by-pass ports. Reservoir cap having air vent. Plunger connected to a push rod, which is attached to the brake foot pedal. Plunger return spring attached with in the pressure chamber. Check valve with a rubber cup and valve seat to prevent back flow of brake oil from wheel cylinder to pressure chamber. Plunger seals: primary and secondary. Rubber boot for protection against the dust and dirt.

 Piston stopper. The washers, circlips and rubber cups and also be prevent leakage. The plunger is of varying having the least area in its middle portion. Working: - When the brakes are applied the effort exerted on the brake pedal forces the plunger outward by the push rod. Consequently, the plunger compresses upon the brake oil stored in the pressure chamber against the pressure of return spring. This initiates pressure stroke, which opens the check valve to allow oil to flow into the brake lines. When the brakes are released the plunger return spring pushes back the plunger towards the boot end. The oil brake pipelines returns back and raises the check valve from its seat. When the oil pressure falls to a required minimum value, the return spring helps the valve to reseat. Types of Master Cylinder: - Several designs of master cylinder are employed on auto vehicles of different makes and models. These are: 1. Single Master cylinder Drum brakes Disc brakes 2. Double Master cylinder 3. Tandem Master cylinder

Wheel Cylinder: - It consists of the following main parts. Two pistons, one each connecting to the left and right brake shoes. Piston return spring. Wheel cylinder body enclosing the pistons and the spring.

A hydraulic pipeline is connected to wheel cylinder. When the fluid is forced into the cylinder, piston move away from the center and force a part shoes. The shoes pivot on pins and press against the internal surface of brake drums secured on the wheels, thus slowing down the rotation of the wheel. When the pressure in the hydraulic system drops, the shoes are drawn to each other by spring and the pistons return to their initial position.

Brake Fluid: - The system is filled with a fluid consisting of Caster Oil and Alcohol (other combinations are also used). This is known as Brake fluid or brake oil. Its functions in hydraulic braking are similar to the function of blood in human body.

DISC BRAKES As compared to the drum brakes, the disc brakes are the development of later year. Basically they are also friction brakes but with practicable differences. They had been used on aircraft in the past, have been successfully used on racing cars and are now used as standard equipment on various vehicles. Advances in disc brakes are seen as a sign of ousting of drum brakes.

Construction: - A Disc Brake resembles a flat clutch fitted on each wheel. The generally adopted type disc brake is referred as spot brake. It consists of the following main parts.

(a) Caliper or cylinder casing : outer and inner

(b) Rotor disc

(c) Piston

(d) Friction pad

(e) Pad supporting plate (f) Bleeder plug

Besides above, the disc brake assembly also enclose piston seal, dust boot, pad wear indicator, anti squeal shim etc. The cylinder casing is made in two halves named outer and inner cylinder and resembles a caliper. That is why the disc brake is named caliper-type. The caliper is attached to the axle housing in a rear-wheel brake and to the steering knuckle in a frontwheel brake. The rotor disc is connected to the road wheels through axle shaft. The assembly houses two friction pads, one on each side of the disc. These pads are held in position by steel pad plates.

Working: - The Disc brakes are operated hydraulically. When the vehicle is to be braked the brake fluid (or oil) pumped by the Master Cylinder-brake pedal system (see topics on hydraulic brakes) enters into the caliper through inlet tube. It then flows through the oil passages provided their in and experts pressure on the pistons. There are four pistons and each of them forces the friction pads against the rotating disc. The pressure of pads stops rotation of the disc and hence the axle shaft (i.e. the wheels mounted on them) stops. When the brakes are to be released, the compression springs force back the piston to release pressure from the friction pads.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DRUM BRAKES AND DISC BRAKES

Although Disc brakes are getting increasing applications on Modern Auto vehicle, yet the Drum brakes are not out of favour. In fact both types have their own merits and demerits and therefore suit well on one or the other vehicles. A comparison between them is made in the chart given below.

S.NO. 1.

DESCRIPTION Life of friction material

DRUM BRAKE

DISC BRAKE (about

Reasonable (about 1500 Reasonable km) 2500 km)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Visibility of wear from outside Heat dissipation Replacement material Weight of Not possible Inferior friction Troublesome taking Bulky Very slow and

Can be seen at a glance Better time Easy and rapid Lighter (by = 25%) Efficient exposure atmosphere due to to

7. 8. 9.

Cooling

Water and dirt collection Breaking effect

Accumulates Generally inconsistent

Self cleaning Consistent

10. 11.

Temperature effect

Drum expands, tends to Unaffected separate out from linings

12.

Self energizing action Brake pedal effort

Exists Higher

Absent Proportional pressure always retardation No hydraulic pressure on the piston Excellent More, since brakes are not self-energizing to

13. 14.

Behavior

of

hydraulic Some exists

system in released stat. Resistance to fading

15. 16.

Force needed to apply brake Fair Comparatively Nature of wear Shape of friction lining Non uniform Curved

Uniform Straight

CLUTCHES
INTRODUCTION
The clutch is an intermediate mechanism, which is placed in between the flywheel and the gearbox for the purpose of allowing or discontinuing the power flow from engine to the transmission system. In normal conditions, the clutch remains in engaged position and allows flow of power from engine to the gearbox. However, when the flow of power is to be interrupted for any reason, it is disengaged and hence the power flow discontinues temporarily. The disengagement of the clutch is required when the gear position is to be changed, or when the vehicle needs to kept in neutral position (i.e. engine running but the vehicle stationary). The control for disengaging the clutch is imparted by a foot-pedal in 4-wheelers and by a hand-lever in 2-wheeler through control linkages.

REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD CLUTCH

While discharging its functions, the following requirements are desirable in a clutch. Gradual Engagement: - A clutch should take on the power drive smoothly without undesired jerks whenever it is re-engaged. This helps in increased driving comfort, less effort on the driver, and prolonged life of the clutch. Effortless Operation: - The operation of clutch disengagement should be easier so that the driver does not feel tired. A hard (uneasy) clutch operation will cause erratic running. Size: - The size of a clutch should be such that it occupies minimum space. Although the size is governed by the designed value of frictional surface area of the clutch facing,

even through this area can be accommodated efficiently by providing two or more clutch plates, such as in multiplate clutch.

SINGLE PALTE FRICTION CLUTCH Such clutches use a single Plate having friction facing on both the sides. Cushioning effect in them is obtained by installing springs of different designs. Depending upon the types off springs they use, the single plate clutches may be classified into following two types: Helical spring type single plate clutch Diaphragm spring type single plate clutch.