CM WP1 Combined Deliver Able D1.1 and D1.3 (Final) 1

CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow
Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of Cybernetic Transport Systems

Combined Deliverable for D1.1 - System Operating Scenarios and D1.3 - Barriers to Deployment
Deliverable Type: Report Number: D1.1/ D1.3 Nature: Final Version Contractual Date of Delivery: 15/01/2003 Actual Date of Delivery: 01/02/2003 WP: WP1 - User Needs Task: T1.1 - System Operating Scenarios T1.3 - Barriers to Deployment Name of Responsible: Mike McDonald, Tom Vge Name of the Institute: TRG Address: University of Southampton Highfield Southampton SO17 1BJ United Kingdom M.McDonald@soton.ac.uk T.Voge@soton.ac.uk Abstract: This report investigates the potentials and limitations of cybernetic transport systems (CTS) in view of operating scenarios and barriers to deployment of CTS. An analysis framework was developed to establish the user groups involved and the possible application areas. A first step of the analysis process was a background literature review on CTS-related existing innovative transport systems and their implications for the implementation of CTS. The main analysis activities were experience reports from project partners providing CTS technology or working on the planning process for the CyberMove test-sites and feasibility-studies, focusing on the experiences with securing funding for applications, obtaining the permission for the operation and the general interaction with decision-makers and results of theoretical studies, demonstration, system experimentations and real-size applications. In addition a number of structured interviews were carried out, in order to obtain responses from potential decisionmakers and system operators of possible future CTS applications for who, in contrast to the experience reports, the CTS concept is mainly a theoretical subject. Keyword List: User Needs, Operating Scenarios, Barriers to Deployment, Cybernetic Transport Systems (CTS) Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of Cybernetic Transport Systems D1.1 - System Operating Scenarios and D1.3 - Barriers to Deployment
INFORMATION ON THE COMBINED DELIVERABLE D1.1/ D1.3:
Report Co-ordinator: TRG, UK
Contributions from: CRF, Italy DITS, Italy FROG, the Netherlands GEA, Switzerland INRIA, France IPN, Portugal RUF, Denmark ROBO, France SSA, Switzerland TNO, the Netherlands UB, UK
Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of Cybernetic Transport Systems D1.1 - System Operating Scenarios and D1.3 - Barriers to Deployment
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report investigates the potentials and limitations of cybernetic transport systems (CTS). An analysis framework was developed to establish the potential CTS user groups and application areas. Based on this framework various analysis activities were carried out, including a background literature review, experience reports from partners providing CTS technology or working on the planning process for the CyberMove test-sites and feasibility-studies and structured interviews with operators and decision-makers. The literature review was carried out to cover literature on CTS-related existing transport systems in view of the potentials and limitations of innovative technologies, obtaining details on system operating scenarios and barriers to deployment. The reviewed systems include carsharing, taxi-related systems, demand-responsive transport and automated highway systems. The implications of the experiences with these systems for the implementation of CTS will then consequently be analysed. The experience reports build on the high level of experience partners within the CyberMove project already have, either through studying their own CTS technology in theoretical studies, demonstrations, on test-tracks or in operative applications or through working on the planning process for the CyberMove test-sites and feasibility-studies. This activity will focus on the experiences with securing funding for applications, obtaining permission for the operation and the general interaction with decision-makers. The structured interviews were carried out in addition to the main analysis activity, the experience reports for systems and sites, in order to obtain responses from potential decisionmakers and system operators of future CTS applications. The recruitment of the interviewees was based on the analysis framework for CTS user groups. In contrast to the experience reports, the CTS technology concept was only a theoretical matter for the interviewees, as they have not been involved in any CTS studies.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The main results of the literature review included the need for clearly defining the objectives of a planned system and successfully communicating them to the public; not to try to implement a big number of innovations in a single trial and at an early stage of the development process; to carefully assess the technological and economic feasibility in advance; the requirements for large incentives and very clear benefits to overcome the barrier to deployment, which is posed by the strong private car dependency in our society. The main differences between the reviewed systems are in regard to the infrastructure, dualmode systems, concepts requiring a dedicated infrastructure and systems using the road network. The vehicles differ in size from individual to group transport, but not providing mass transport. Advantages include low infrastructure and implementation costs and increased convenience. Possible application areas are feeder to public transport, transport in historic city centres or on private sites. Various studies have been carried out to prove the potentials of these systems. In most proposed sites the use of fully automated shuttles is planned with the exception of a semi-automated system and a platooning system. The anticipated advantages of the systems include increased network and/ or link capacity, higher convenience for end-user and lower implementation and operating costs. At this early stage of the planning process the funding still remains a problem for all sites due to the (real and perceived by the decision-makers) risk of implementing an innovative technology like CTS. The interviewees envisaged various potentials for different application areas and having the potential to alleviate some of the current transport-related problems. Disadvantages of CTS included end-user familiarity with conventional systems, legal/ certification issues and scepticism about operation in shared environments. Potential barriers to the deployment of CTS were mainly different organisational difficulties. To ensure a successful implementation of CTS, a staged introduction and education of the market is important.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1Introduction..............................................................................................................................1 1.1BACKGROUND...........................................................................................................................................1 1.2 OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................................3 1.3 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................................................4 2 Analysis Framework...............................................................................................................5 2.1 USER GROUPS.........................................................................................................................................5 2.2 SITE CHARACTERISTICS.............................................................................................................................6 2.3 ANALYSIS ACTIVITIES...............................................................................................................................8 3 Literature Review....................................................................................................................9 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................9 3.2 EXPERIENCES WITH CTS-RELATED SYSTEMS..............................................................................................10 3.2.1 Car-Sharing/ Car-Pooling.........................................................................................................10 3.2.2 Taxi and Related Concepts........................................................................................................16 3.2.3 Demand-Responsive Transport..................................................................................................19 3.2.4Automated Highway Systems......................................................................................................25 3.3CONCLUSION OF LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................30 4Experience Reports...............................................................................................................32 4.1INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIENCE REPORTS....................................................................................................32 4.1.1Approach to Experience Report Activities...................................................................................32 4.1.2Planning of Experience Report Activities....................................................................................33 4.1.3 Analysis Procedure for Experience Reports...............................................................................34 4.2RESULTS OF EXPERIENCE REPORTS FOR EXISTING SYSTEMS...........................................................................35 4.2.1General System Description.......................................................................................................35 4.2.2Description of Studies.................................................................................................................37 4.2.3Operating Systems......................................................................................................................39 4.3RESULTS OF EXPERIENCE REPORTS FOR TEST SITES.....................................................................................41 4.3.1Site Description..........................................................................................................................41 4.3.2System Description.....................................................................................................................43 4.3.3Planning Process........................................................................................................................45 4.4CONCLUSION TO EXPERIENCE REPORTS.......................................................................................................47 5Structured Interviews............................................................................................................48 5.1INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS...............................................................................................48 5.1.1Approach to Structured Interview Activities................................................................................48 5.1.2Planning of Structured Interview Activities.................................................................................49 Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of Cybernetic Transport Systems D1.1 - System Operating Scenarios and D1.3 - Barriers to Deployment
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 5.1.3Analysis Procedure and Activities...............................................................................................51 5.2RESULTS OF STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS.......................................................................................................52 5.2.1System Potentials........................................................................................................................52 5.2.2System Limitations......................................................................................................................54 5.2.3Deployment Path........................................................................................................................55 5.3CONCLUSION OF STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS..................................................................................................56 6Conclusion.............................................................................................................................57 General.....................................................................................................................................57 Information...............................................................................................................................57 Annex A: Summary of Literature Review on Innovative Systems.......................................63 Annex B: Summary of Experience Reports for Existing Systems.......................................71 Annex C: Summary of Experience Reports for Test Sites....................................................77 Annex D: Summary of Structured Interview Results by Partner..........................................84 List of Acronyms.....................................................................................................................89 Bibliography and References.................................................................................................90
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1: CTS User Groups Relevant for Analysis......................................................................5 Fig. 2: General Site Characteristics for CTS............................................................................6 Fig. 3: General Operating Conditions for CTS.........................................................................7 Fig. 4: Demand Characteristics of Carsharing......................................................................14 Fig. 5: Carsharing User Characteristics.................................................................................14 Fig. 6: User Satisfaction Criteria for Taxis.............................................................................18 Fig. 7: Structure for Experience Reports for Systems..........................................................34 Fig. 8: Structure for Experience Reports for Sites................................................................34 Fig. 9: Topic Checklist for Structured Interviews..................................................................49 Fig. 10: User Groups to be covered by Structured Interviews.............................................50 Fig. 11: Analysis Framework for Structured Interview Results............................................51 Fig. 12: Structured Interviews by User Group and Country.................................................51 Fig. 13: Summary of Results from the Literature Review.....................................................57 Fig. 14: Summary of Results from the Experience Reports for Systems............................58 Fig. 15: Summary of Results from the Experience Reports for Sites..................................59 Fig. 16: Summary of Results from the Structured Interviews..............................................60 Fig. A1: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing Elettra Park)............64 Fig. A2: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing CarLink)..................65 Fig. A3: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing Witkar).....................66 Fig. A4: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing CityCar)...................67 Fig. A5: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing Praxitele).................68 Fig. A6: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing Liselec)....................69 Fig. A7: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Taxi Concepts Le Touc)..............70 Fig. B1: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (FROG).............................................72 Fig. B2: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (ROBO).............................................73 Fig. B3: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (RUF)................................................74 Fig. B4: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (SERPENTINE).................................75 Fig. B5: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (ULTra).............................................76 Fig. C1: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Coimbra Sites A and B).......................78 Fig. C2: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Antibes).................................................79 Fig. C3: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Lausanne-Crissier)...............................80 Fig. C4: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Nancy)...................................................81 Fig. C5: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Rome City-Centre)................................82 Fig. C6: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Rome Exhibition)..................................83 Fig. D1: Summary of Structured Interviews (CRF, Italy Public Transport Operator).....85 Fig. D2: Summary of Structured Interviews (CRF, Italy Car-Sharing Provider).............86 Fig. D3: Summary of Structured Interviews (ROBO, France Local Authority)...............87 Fig. D4: Summary of Structured Interviews (TRG, UK Local Authority).........................88
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION Background
In the following an introduction to the CyberCars and CyberMove projects, a definition of the cybercars transport system and remarks on the co-ordination process of projects aims/ objectives and activities will be given. The CyberMove and CyberCars Projects: The main objective of both the CyberMove and CyberCars projects is to accelerate the development and implementation of cybernetic transport systems (CTS) for movement of people and goods. These systems aim at improving the mobility, while reducing negative effects of the private car use in cities, by complementing mass transit systems and hence offering a real alternative with better convenience and efficiency than the private car in the cities. The CyberMove project is funded through the EESD-Programme and started in December 2001. The CyberCars project is funded through the IST-Programme and started in August 2001. Both projects are funded for three years. The CyberMove project focuses on bringing together key European actors of this field, in order to test and exchange best practices, share some of the development work and make faster progress in the experiments. Several cities throughout Europe will collaborate with the partners in the Project, studying the potentiality to run such systems, providing their specific constraints and accepting to do some preliminary tests of technologies and demonstrations. Co-operative work with selected cities will lead to conceptual design of systems for specific sites, optimised with regard to mobility, energy, environment, safety and will lead to the evaluation of these designs. The CyberCars project focuses on the testing, analysis and improvement of existing techniques, which are starting to appear on the market. In particular, technical improvements are expected for the vehicles on guidance, collision avoidance, platooning and vehicle control systems. For the infrastructure, technical improvements are also expected on the system management, human-machine interfaces, remote operation and energy management. Existing systems will then be tested on private grounds in order to set technical goals for the improvements expected. The technical improvements will be performed, tested and evaluated on the same premises.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The Cybercars Transport System: There is a distinction between the project CyberCars and the transport system called cybercars, which forms a basis for both, the CyberMove and the CyberCars projects. All partners involved developed the following cybercars system definition.
Cybercars are road vehicles with fully automated driving capabilities. A fleet of such vehicles forms a transportation system, for passengers or goods, on a network of roads with on-demand and door-to-door capability. The fleet of cars is under control of a central management system in order to meet particular demands in a particular environment. At the initial stages, cybercars are designed for short trips at low speed in an urban environment or in private grounds. In the long term, cybercars could also run autonomously at high speed on dedicated tracks. With the development of the cybercars infrastructures, private cars with fully autonomous driving capabilities could also be allowed on these infrastructures while maintaining their manual mode on standard roads. Cybercars are members of the general family of people movers and close to personal rapid transit but they offer the advantage of being able to run on any ground infrastructure, which means they are cheaper and more flexible.
Distinction between the Projects and Co-ordination of Activities: Both projects contain, amongst other activities, a user needs analysis, system certification, system testing and project/ system evaluation. For each of these activities a clear distinction between the work objectives has to be made, according to the different funding bodies of the CyberMove and CyberCars projects. Therefore activities within the CyberMove project focus on using CTS for specific applications in urban environments, whereas activities within the CyberCars project focus on understanding and obtaining general experience with CTS. The CyberMove work package WP1 User Needs consists of three tasks, T1.1 System Operating Scenarios, T1.2 User Needs Analysis and T1.3 Barriers to Deployment. Task T1.2 was carried out based on the quantitative analysis of an interactive Internet questionnaire (D1.2 User Needs Analysis). The tasks T1.1 and T1.3 were carried out together due to the overlap between these tasks and to obtain a wider picture for the next steps in the development and analysis process of CTS, which is crucial at this stage of the two projects. The work for these two tasks has been undertaken by using a number of different sub-activities, which are described later in the methodology section.
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1.2
Objectives
As this report on the potentials and limitations of CTS is part of the activities for work package WP1 User Needs, the objectives of all three tasks (T1.1 System Operating Scenarios, T1.2 User Needs Analysis and T1.3 Barriers to Deployment) of this work package and the use of the results for further work will be described in the following. Task System Operating Scenarios: The work on system operating scenarios for CTS focuses on analysing potential spatial settings for specific CTS applications in urban areas. The objectives are to establish possible application areas for CTS. For each of these application areas the associated problems and operating conditions will be analysed. Task User Needs Analysis: The objectives are to gather information on user requirements for the use of CTS technology for specific concepts in spatial settings. It will allow a quantitative, statistically significant, detailed analysis of user needs linked with the specific concepts and spatial settings. Task Barriers to Deployment: The work on barriers to deployment of CTS focuses on identifying potential barriers to the implementation of CTS. These may, amongst others, include organisational, legal, spatial, technical, socio-cultural and financial barriers. The analysis also relates to defining the deployment path for CTS. The results from all three tasks of the user needs analysis will also feed in as input into further work packages of the CyberMove project, including the conceptual system design for the demo site and the city centre test sites and for the system evaluation, with technical assessment and the user acceptance as the main evaluation categories.
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1.3
Methodology
As mentioned above the methodology and the activities for the tasks System Operating Scenarios and the Barriers to Deployment as described in the objectives section will be combined for the analysis of potentials and limitations of CTS. Because this report is part of the activities for work package WP1 User Needs, the general methodology for obtaining the objectives will be described in the following for the two deliverables Potentials and Limitations of CTS and User Needs Analysis for CTS Applications. Deliverable Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of CTS: The methodology is based on three main activities, a literature review on CTS-related technology and systems, experience reports for existing/ planned systems and for the planning process for test-sites and for feasibility studies, and interviews with potential CTS operators and decision-makers. The work is based on a common analysis framework of user groups and site classifications as developed in context of the CyberCars user needs analysis. Deliverable User Needs Analysis for CTS Applications: The methodology used for the user needs analysis for CTS applications is to relate specific potential user groups to specific concepts in their spatial settings, to learn more about the design of CTS, that people can imagine and to investigate the conditions under which people would use them. This information can differ for short and long-term scenario. The analysis will be carried out using an interactive internet questionnaire in combination with a virtual site. The methodology for each of the two analyses, which were only described briefly in this section, will be explained in more detail in the respective two deliverables, which report on the results of work package WP1 User Needs Analysis. The methodology and activities in context of the analysis of potentials and limitations of CTS (literature review, experience reports and structured interviews) will be further specified in the sections on the analysis framework and on the respective activities in this report.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 2 2.1 ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK User Groups
The analysis framework for the CTS user groups is based on the work, which was carried out in context of the CyberCars user needs analysis. This will ensure the comparability and wider transferability of the analysis results. In the context of implementing, operating and using CTS the following four general user groups were identified, which consecutively consist of further sub-groups. Industry: Decision-maker: Operator: End-user: Provide the technology for CTS Decide over implementation of CTS Operate/ provide services for CTS Use/ affected by operation of CTS
The user group industry was not considered in the analysis framework, as the approach within the CyberCars and CyberMove projects is that the industry will provide CTS according to the established user needs. For this analysis the user group end-user will not be considered, as the end-users are to be covered through task 1.2, which leaves two user groups for the analysis of potentials and limitations of CTS, the decision-maker and the operator. This is the case for all public applications, but in the special case of a private application (e.g. airport, theme park, large business, university campus, etc.), though there is also a decisionmaking body and a system operator, they are part of the same institution. According to this the site classification will distinguish between public and private applications on the highest level, leading to the following user groups and sub-groups.
User Group Decision-maker (Public Application)
Operator (Public Application) Decision-maker& Operator (Private Application)
Characteristics Non-elected National Level Regional Level Local Level Elected National Level Regional Level Local Level Public Transport Operator General Service Provider Airport Theme Park Large Business University Campus, etc.
Fig. 1:
CTS User Groups Relevant for Analysis
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2.2
Site Characteristics
The analysis framework for the site classification is also based on the work carried out for the CyberCars user needs analysis. As mentioned above, the site and application categories relate to the user groups. Therefore, according to the user groups identified, there should be a distinction between the following two applications. Public Application: Private Application: Decision-maker, Operator and End-user Decision-maker/ Operator combined and End-user
Based on this separation of public and private CTS applications, the following site categories were defined for the CyberCars user needs analyses and for all related activities in the CyberCars and CyberMove projects, including this analysis of the potentials and limitations of CTS as part of the CyberMove user needs analysis.
Application Area Public Application
Site Characteristics Citywide
City Centre
Periphery
User Characteristics General User Special User Tourists Business Etc. General User Special User Tourists Business Etc. General User Special User Business Shopping Etc.
Private Application
Airport Theme Park Large Business University Campus, etc.
Fig. 2:
General Site Characteristics for CTS
A first step in the analysis activities for the potentials and limitations of CTS was to establish in addition to this list of site classifications, a list of operating conditions. These two lists can then consecutively be used to describe existing or planned CTS application in detail and as a basis for determining a matrix of site characteristics and operating condition.
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The following figure shows a first list of possible general operating conditions for CTS in relations to the identified site characteristics. This list will be used as a basis for the analysis activities.
Vehicle Characteristics
CTS Operating Conditions Size Mode Track Operation
System Operation
Frequency Route Environment Time
Access Points
Characteristics Location Operation
Operating Costs
Pricing Funding
Personal Group Mass Car Bus Train Road Rail-Ground Rail-Elevated Automated Guided Manual High Frequency Low Frequency Demand-Responsive Line Loop Network Dedicated Track Shared Combination Full-Time Seasonal Special Events Formal Informal On-line Off-line Every Stop On-Demand Ticket Purchase Hidden Cost Free Service Economically viable Government Subsidy Private Funding
Fig. 3:
General Operating Conditions for CTS
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2.3
Analysis Activities
Based on this analysis framework, which was described above, the work on the analysis of potentials and limitations of CTS was separated into the following three main activities, which were carried out to review CTS-related systems, gather experiences with existing CTS applications and the planning process for CTS studies and to obtain responses from the two relevant user groups. Activity Literature Review: The literature review was carried out on existing transport systems, which are related to CTS technology (for various innovative systems and technologies, including e.g. car sharing/ car pooling, demand responsive transport, ITS applications etc.). The review will focus on the system characteristics, spatial settings and system performances and overall findings. Activity Experience Reports: The experience reports build on the level of experience project partners already have, either through studies or operative CTS-related systems or through the planning activities for test-sites/ feasibility studies within the CyberCars and CyberMove projects. The review will focus on system descriptions, technical experiences and experience in the planning process. Activity Structured Interviews: The structured interviews were carried out to obtain responses from representatives of the user groups relevant for this analysis, the decision-maker (public application), operator/ service provider (public application) and decision-maker/ operator combined (private application) in view of potentials and limitations of CTS and the deployment path for CTS introduction. All three activities, the literature review, the experience reports and the structured interviews will be described in more detail in the further sections of this report, including methodology, activities, partner contributions and the results of each respective activity for the analysis of potentials and limitations of CTS and the implications for further work in the CyberCars and CyberMove projects.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 3 3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction to Literature Review
As no cybercars systems are implemented yet, no analyses of potential system operating scenarios or the possible barriers to deployment are available for CTS. But there are various operating innovative transport systems with at least some characteristics relating to CTS. Literature on these systems will therefore be reviewed in this section in terms of their potentials and limitations and the implications for CTS, in order to give a background to further analysis activities in this report. The focus of this literature review will be on the following innovative transport systems: Car-Sharing/ Car-Pooling Taxi and Related Concepts Demand-Responsive Transport Automated Highway Systems
Each of these systems cover some of the main characteristics of CTS, the automated operation is contained in the section on automated highway systems (AHS), the individual transport system aspect in included in the section on taxi and taxi-related concepts, the demandresponsive issue is covered in the section on demand-responsive transport systems (DRTS) and the shared use of vehicles is contained in the section on car sharing and car pooling. The results of the review will be an important background to the experience reports and structured interview activities. For each of the four main headings an introduction to the topic will be given, followed by system characteristics, spatial settings and system performance and finding for all individual systems reviewed. Furthermore some systems found in the literature were omitted because of their similarity to other systems already mentioned and because the respective analysis does not relate to operating scenarios or barriers to deployment. The systems under the four main headings will be described only generally in this section in addition to findings from specific systems, which are summarised in annex A.
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3.2
Experiences with CTS-related Systems
3.2.1 Car-Sharing/ Car-Pooling In the following an introduction to carsharing/ carpooling will be given, followed by sections on system characteristics, spatial settings and system performance and overall findings. In annex A short summaries of examples will be given. Introduction Carsharing is based on the principle of a collective and therefore more efficient use of cars. In contrast to the concept of carpooling people do not use the vehicles at the same time, but individually. Carsharing usually begins as a local cooperative with one or two vehicles in a residential neighbourhood, which then spreads out over bigger parts of the city. Subscribers of the car-sharing programme can then use these vehicles by renting them for a short period of time. The rental period ends consequently, when the user returns the vehicle. The concept of carsharing has been known in Europe since the 1970s. Most of the first initiatives however failed. More successful experiences began in the late 1980s, though until the late 1990s, virtually all start-ups of carsharing were subsidized with public funding. In 1999, ca. 200 car-sharing organisations were active in 450 cities throughout Switzerland, Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, UK, France, and Italy, collectively claiming over 130,000 participants (Sperling and Shaheen, 1999). A special type of carsharing is the station car concept, which consists of cars parked at central locations, such as transit stations, business-parks, high-density residential areas, etc. that can be hired and driven by subscribers for any type of short trip. After a trip, the user can leave the vehicle at any station designed for the station car vehicles in the network, where any other user can pick it up. Station cars are typically small electric vehicles for environmental reasons, although other types of fuel can be used (Shaheen et al., 2000).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow System Characteristics Most of the calculations show that carsharing becomes an economically attractive alternative for people who do not necessarily need a car every day and who normally drive their cars less than a certain number of kilometres in a year (according to most surveys approximately 10.000 kilometres or less). Typically, members of a carsharing cooperative pay a membership fee and a refundable deposit. Cars are reserved by telephone or in some cases on the Internet. Users are charged per hour and per kilometre. Insurance, gas, maintenance and often parking in designated places are included in the fee. Some carsharing organisations are now entering a modernization phase, moving from manual key based operations to a system of smart card technologies for making automatic and advanced reservations, accessing vehicle keys, securing vehicles from theft, and facilitating billing. The shift to smart cards simplifies vehicle access for customers and eases the administration and management of large systems. However, the large investment required for the new communication and reservation technologies puts pressure on these organizations to continue expanding to pay off these investments. The spatial setting Most surveys characterise carsharing as a predominantly inner urban phenomenon. This can be explained by the fact that sharing instead of owning a car becomes economically attractive for people who do not necessarily need a car every day. This is more likely to be the case in the inner urban area. In the periphery people are more often dependent on the car due to less nearby activities and less alternative transport modes. Trips from the periphery will often also cover longer distances. Because costs for longer trips tend to increase quickly, carsharing only seems suitable for short or middle range trips. For trips longer than 40 kilometres car rental seems the more economical option (Orski, 2001). Another point in favour of carsharing in inner urban area is the poor availability of parking for private cars. The projects that do arise in the periphery usually have a more informal and cooperative character and are often used as substitution for the purchase of a second vehicle. Most carsharing trips are short or middle range roundtrips from an urban neighbourhood lot. Next to these public neighbourhood systems, carsharing can also be available in closed systems. These offer services not at the residence of the individuals, but at locations, where a specific group of people have specific mobility needs, like working offices or public transport interchanges.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow System performance and findings Several surveys of users have been conducted in Europe and North America by carsharing organizations. A brief summary of the findings is reported by Sperling and Shaheen (Sperling and Shaheen, 1999). A survey in Switzerland and Germany found that users were between 25 to 40 years of age with above-average education, were more likely to be male, earned a below-average income (in part due to the low average age of participants), and were sensitive to environmental and traffic problems. In a separate German study similar characteristics were reported: 65 percent male; average age of 33; well educated; and modest incomes. A rather small carsharing initiative in North America found that users were predominantly male, had an average age of 44, had an above-average education and earned an above-average income (these characteristics can in part be explained by the fact that the initiative was aimed at employees of the Livermore National Laboratory). Meijkamp and Theunissen also find similar user characteristics in the Netherlands. More males participating than females, an average age of 39 and a high level of education and income. Carsharing members also live in a relative small household and are more likely to work than average (Meijkamp and Theunissen, 1997). While several studies paid attention to person characteristics of carsharing users, much less information is known about the activities for which carsharing is used. The concept of carsharing seems however less attractive for regular work-related trips because the vehicle is not used during the work day and costs mount up quickly when a car is used for a longer period (e.g. an eight-hour workday). A Dutch study has shown that only 3% of carsharing members uses a shared car for work purpose (Meijkamp and Theunissen, 1997). It is assumed shared cars are being used for all activities except commuting. Meijkamp and Theunissen examined the effect of carsharing on the travelling behaviour (Meijkamp and Theunissen, 1997). Their first rather logical conclusion is the reduction of the amount of cars. In practice, the average ratio of shared cars per number of participating households is 1:12. However the actual reduction in the amount of cars depends on actual consumer behaviour, as the reduction in the amount of cars depends on the extent to which people substitute their private car for a shared car. The study showed that carsharing primarily (71%) functions as an addition to available transport services, and that 9% uses it as a second car alternative. So only 21% of the people substitute their private car for a shared car.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The total number of cars does however reduce. The study among carsharing participants also showed a strong decrease of car use. The average car mileage of former carowners went down from 15.899 to 10.080 kilometres a year (-37%). The car mileage of former car-less (hiring or borrowing a car) reduced from 5.360 to 3.820 a year (-29%). The respondents reported an overall reduction in the estimated frequency of car use, down from 3,5 to 2,0 times a week. In contrast to this reduction, there was an increase in the use of bicycles (+14%), trains (+36%) and busses (+34%). This can be explained because travellers gain easier access to public transport and, because fixed costs of vehicle ownership are converted into variable costs, drivers now respond to price signals that more fully reflect the true cost of trip making. According to the Dutch survey under carsharing users, the main motivations to join a carsharing organisation are based on disadvantages of the private car: high costs and poor availability of parking space and of public transportation (e.g. long travel time). Important conditions for participation are reliable availability of vehicles and convenient nearby neighbourhood locations. The average distance to a carsharing location in the Netherlands is 1700 meters. A distance of more than 1900 meters is valued as less attractive by carsharing members (Meijkamp and Theunissen, 1997). Despite the benefits of carsharing, it still does not account for even 1% of travel in any region. In another European study (Sperling & Shaheen, 1999) it was found that the principal reasons for not participating were the unprofessional image of many carsharing organisations, an insufficient variety of products and services, high costs compared to transit, too complicated, impractical and time consuming and poor availability of vehicles near home. Sperling and Shaheen also state that people use and view their cars in many different ways that are poorly understood. They value them not only for utilitarian travel, but also for storage, quiet time away from family and work, and office space. Carsharing will not be successful everywhere at all times. It is more likely to thrive when environmental consciousness is high; when driving disincentives such as high parking costs and traffic congestion are pervasive; when car ownership costs are rather high and when alternative modes of transportation are easily accessible. Another very important, but less well documented, success factor to encourage and maintain customer base is coordination with other mobility and non-mobility services (e.g., food providers) to offer enhanced products and services. Linking with other services will however only be successful if the customer base is large. Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of Cybernetic Transport Systems D1.1 - System Operating Scenarios and D1.3 - Barriers to Deployment
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The following tables show the demand characteristics and the person and activity characteristics of users of the analysed carsharing systems (for a summary description of the reviewed carsharing systems see Annex A). Traffic Volume High High High Low High High High at peak times Spatial Spreading Highly dispersed Highly dispersed Highly dispersed Dispersed Highly dispersed Highly dispersed Bundled Temporal Spreading Highly dispersed Highly dispersed Highly dispersed Peak times work related trips Highly dispersed Highly dispersed Peak times for work related trips Trip Distance Short Very short Very short Very short Very short Short Short
System Carsharing Witkar CityCar Praxitele Liselec Elettra Park CarLink

Fig. 4:
Description All purpose inner urban area All purpose inner urban area All purpose inner urban area Residential area collection and distribution All purpose inner urban area All purpose inner urban area Peripheral linkage and Focal traffic
Demand Characteristics of Carsharing
System Carsharing Witkar CityCar Praxitele Liselec Elettra Park CarLink

Fig. 5:
Income Medium high Unknown Unknown Low medium Unknown Unknown High
Main activity Full-time or part-time Unknown Unknown Full-time or part-time Full-time or part-time Full-time or part-time Full-time
Activity All except work Unknown Unknown Work, shopping Shopping, recreation Shopping Work, shopping
Carsharing User Characteristics
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Users of all reviewed carsharing systems were more likely to be male and had an above average education. People joining a carsharing project also appear to be more sensitive to environmental problems. Carsharing systems that operate in the inner urban area attract mainly young adults, especially students, while systems operating outside the inner urban area (Praxitele and CarLink) were mainly used by people of 30 to 50 years of age. The acceptance of the Elettra Park system by younger people can be attributed to both socio-cultural phenomena (greater attention to respect for the environment, curiosity, etc.) and to more practical reasons such as not having a car of ones own. Because the same user characteristics return for every reviewed carsharing system, there seems to be a certain group of early adapters that is more likely to use a carsharing system as an alternative for the private car. Carsharing or stationcar users typically increase their use of all non-car transport modes. An explanation is that fixed costs of car ownership are converted into variable costs, drivers now respond to price signals that more fully reflect the true cost of trip making. Except for CarLink, subscribers therefore do not use the stationcar or carsharing vehicles on a regular basis, but occasionally when other transport modes are not available or do not meet their demands (time, price, comfort) for a certain trip. Shopping is by far the most common trip purpose of the stationcar users. Apparently the quality demands related to this activity cannot be met by other transport modes than the (shared) car. It is stated that shopping as an activity is connected to high demands on travelling time, due to the relative short duration of the activity, high demands on comfort, due to the need of taking along luggage and average demands on price. It seems that the (shared) car is more able to meet this combination of demands than for example the bicycle or bus.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 3.2.2 Taxi and Related Concepts In the following an introduction to taxi and taxi-related concepts will be given, followed by sections on system characteristics, spatial settings and system performance and overall findings. In annex A a short summary of an example for a taxi related system will be given. Introduction Taxi services have been known for a long time in countries all over the world. This convenient (on-demand, door-to-door, individual transport, etc.) but costly type of transportation is being used by about half of the people in the Netherlands on a usual or occasional basis. In 1999 the Dutch research institute NIPO has started a 5-year survey monitoring the Dutch taxi use (NIPO Consult, 2000). In this section the most interesting findings of the study for the year 2000 are going to be summarised. System Characteristics Two basic taxi concepts can be distinguished. Most taxis (75%) provide a demand responsive individual door-to-door transportation service. About one quarter of the taxis are shared taxis, which provide a collective transportation service. Shared taxis generally have lower prices but longer trip times compared to normal taxis, and they are often targeted towards a specific group of passengers. These groups can be based on the origin or destination of the passengers, for example the traintaxi, which drives people toward and from a train station, or based on characteristics of the passengers, for example the WVG-taxi, which is specialized in transportation of handicapped people. Compared to other transport modes, the price of a taxi service is rather high. Usually the price of a taxi ride consists of a fixed starting fee and a variable fee based on the covered distance or the trip time. The average price of a taxi trip is 18 Euro, but almost half of the trips are under 9 Euro (NIPO, 2001).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The spatial setting Because of the high taxi prices, taxi rides tend to be rather short. Approximately 27% of all trips cover a distance of less than 5 kilometres. Most trips (32%) are between 5 and 10 kilometres. 17% of the taxi rides are between 10 and 20 kilometres, and 20% is longer than 20 kilometres. Almost half of all taxi rides (45%) are made on Friday night or Saturday. 8% is made on Sunday and the rest (44%) of the trips is made on Monday to Friday. The time on which a taxi is used is very dispersed. A peak (38%) can be seen during the night period. The rest of the trips are spread evenly across the morning (22%), daytime (19%) and evening (20%). The peak period during the night and in weekends can be explained by the lack of alternative public transportation during these periods, and because the main motive is visit a bar or movie theatre etc, activities that usually occur at night. System performance and findings Recreation can be considered the main purpose of trips that are made by taxi. In most cases this concerns visiting a restaurant, caf, cinema or theatre (25%). When trips for vacation or a day off (7%) are added, recreation accounts for almost one third of all taxi trips. Other purposes are transportation to or from a railway station (18%), Visiting family or friends (12%) and visiting a dentist, doctor or hospital (12%). Less often taxi trips are made for work (7%), business (6%), shopping (3%) and study (2%). Some differences can be distinguished between the taxi use in the inner urban area and the periphery. Taxi rides with visiting a restaurant, caf, cinema or theatre as a purpose occur more often in the periphery than in the inner urban area, while the opposite counts for rides towards or from a railway station. Travellers in the inner urban area use a taxi service more often in combination with other public transport (39%) than travellers in the periphery (27%). Not much information is known about person characteristics of typical taxi users, but the main motives for using a taxi are ease/comfort (27%), lack of alternative public transportation (25%), party/had a drink (16%), health (13%) and safety (13%). During the year 2000 almost half (49%) of the Dutch population of 16 years and older used the taxi at least once. Most of the users (70%) occasionally use a taxi (less than once a month) 30% uses the taxi service on a regular basis (more than once a month).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow To investigate how taxis are valued, NIPO questioned both users and non-users about their satisfaction of different aspects of a taxi service, next the importance of these aspects for the perception of a taxi service is determined by means of a regression analysis of the regular users rating. The results are shown in the following table.
Satisfaction High
Low importance Comfort Travelling Time Accessibility call centre
High importance Kindness chauffeur Service chauffeur Kindness at call centre Waiting time (response time) Price Handling complaints
Low
Sharing a taxi Simple costs structure
Fig. 6:
User Satisfaction Criteria for Taxis
It can be seen that the kindness at the reservation call centre and the kindness and service provided by the taxi chauffeur are relative important and highly valued aspects. These aspects can be considered big advantages of a taxi service. The high comfort and short travelling time of a taxi and the high telephonic accessibility of the reservation call centre are also valued highly, but these aspects are considered less important. The long waiting time, high price and bad handling of complaints are valued low. Because these aspects are considered relative important, they form the main disadvantage of a taxi service. Sharing a taxi and the unclear costs structure are also valued low, but considered less important. Owning a car is the main reason for not using a taxi service, according to most non-users (60%). This reason is mentioned more often in the periphery (67%) than in the inner urban area (55%). More than half (52%) of the non-users however declare they probably will try a taxi when the prices are lowered. About 30% of these potential taxi users almost certain will try a taxi, especially those living in the inner urban area. The non-users declare when the taxi prices are lowered, they will use the taxi instead of their car or bicycle for visiting e.g. a restaurant, cinema or theatre (70%) or instead of their car or public transportation for trips to the railway station (60%). Other potential taxi trips that are mentioned are transportation to the airport (45%) or to visit family or friends (29%).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 3.2.3 Demand-Responsive Transport In the following an introduction to demand-responsive transport systems (DRTS) will be given, followed by sections on system characteristics, spatial settings and system performance and overall findings. Introduction DRTS is a flexible public transport service, combining the service characteristics of buses and taxis. It can be used in areas of low demand (e.g. rural areas), where conventional public transport service cannot be operated economically viable and to accommodate the needs of special users (e.g. disabled or elderly). DRTS can be characterised as a system, which is operated in response to calls from passengers or their agents to the operator, who then dispatches a vehicle to collect the passengers and transports them to their requested destination. Unlike a conventional bus service DRTS does not operate on a fixed route or to a fixed schedule and unlike a conventional taxi service the vehicle might serve more than one request at a time, as it can be dispatched to pick up and deliver several passenger at different points. System Characteristics DRTS is a public transport system in which the planning and use of the service depends on requests made by customers. For, unlike traditional transit, booking or reservation of the trip is always compulsory. In its most general form, when reserving a seat the user has to specify the leaving point and the destination, and either the time at which he wishes to be picked up or when he desires to arrive. The provider can accept or refuse the request or propose some changes, so that there can be a degree of negotiation between the two parties. Of course, the system will also fix the time at which the customer will be picked up, if the latter had previously specified when he desires to reach the destination, or will tell him when he arrives if the pickup time had been specified. According to an analysis framework developed in context of the SAMPO (System for Advanced Management of Public Transport Operations) different DRTS concepts can be specified by the following main characteristics: the route type, the schedule, the method of collection and the quality of service (SAMPO, 1996).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The operation of DRTS can be described by considering the process in the following steps. Registration of the customers: In most of the systems, people willing to use the service must be registered. This is done for various reasons: e.g., it simplifies many tasks, from the reservation to billing, especially if a smart card is provided. The customer has to give a personal code whenever he wishes to use the service; Reservation of the trips: The customer needs to contact the DRTS operation centre to request a transportation service. This can be traditionally done by phone, or also by email, SMS, WAP, Internet, etc. if the system can support this. In the latter cases, the operator will tend to discourage the use of the phone, as it is obviously more labour-intensive and less efficient. On the other hand, it would be unwise to use a system in which no reservations can be made by phone, as most of the potential customers of a DRTS (e.g. elderly) often cannot use other communication tools; Scheduling of the service: When all the requests have been collated, the centre schedules the service. Most of the actual systems have a daily planning horizon, e.g. until 17:00 or 18:00 hrs they accept reservations for the following day, and then they schedule the service trying to fulfil all the requests with the available vehicle fleet. This was done manually in the past, but now there are several commercial packages that allow the management of the whole process (from reservation to billing) with a computer. The scheduling phase can be viewed as a process whose input is the pool of requests, the characteristics of the road network (length and/ or travel times) and of the fleet (number of vehicles, number of seats), and which will result in the service plan for the following day. At best this is a balancing process, which takes time and in practice the optimum is never completely achieved; Confirmation of the trip reservations: When the service plan is ready, the Travel Dispatch Centre calls the customers back to confirm (or reject) the reservation and to communicate either the pickup or the delivery time; Use of the service: The following day the service is put into action. Each customer has to be at the pickup point before the arrival of the vehicle, as the service cannot wait unduly. When the customer gets in, he will be recognised by the driver or through his personal code and will be charged appropriately. If the scheduling phase has been done well, many requests will have been matched and the same vehicle will be able to serve more than one customer at once, even if these have different origins and/ or destinations.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Spatial Settings Depending on the criterion being used, it is possible to classify the existing DRTS systems in the following ways. The target market: DRTS can be divided into systems for the general public or for specific groups, as mentioned earlier. While the former were most common until the 1980s and were denoted by specific characteristics (fleets of relevant size, high number of requests served daily, service covering a whole metropolitan area with millions of potential users), most current services are oriented to specific market segments. Among these, services for impaired citizens (handicapped and elderly) are numerically prevalent in all the countries and almost always subsidised. There are also examples of DRTS for particular attraction centres such as airports, serving customers with a high willingness to pay for a bespoke service; Flexibility of the route: There can be a varying degree of flexibility in the planning of the routes. Most of the systems do not have predefined itineraries and can be defined as free services, because the routes are designed only on the basis of requests or demands. More recently, corridor services have been proposed, in which the vehicles follow a predefined route but are allowed to make deviations within a certain range. In this way, attempts have been made to make the system more attractive for the majority and some passengers may feel more at ease in conventional public transport services. These systems are not really on-demand, as the vehicles are largely independent of the number of calls, and a reservation of the trip may not be requested if the pickup point is on the predefined route; Travel pattern: Another useful distinction can be made on the basis of the type of travel patterns. This allows dial-a-ride transport to be divided in the following categories. Many-to-many (several origins and destinations): every node coincides with a collection area; the node can be both origin and destination. Many-toone (several origins and only one destination): the destination is one single node of the network; all others can be only origin nodes. Many-to-few (several origins and selected destinations): all nodes can be origins. Of them, only a few can be destination as well. One-to-many and few-to-many can of course be associated with the last two cases, featuring the return trip to previous origin stops. Many-to-many systems have historically been implemented initially in large metropolitan areas; they are the most versatile, but even harder to manage in an efficient way. On the other hand, in many situations in which DRTS are actually used, many-to-one or many-to-few services can be well suite, e.g. in rural areas served by an urban centre, disabled people that must be accompanied from their residences to health centres, etc.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Depending on the level at which the service provided starts, most of the systems formerly conceived for the general public can be defined as stop-to-stop, as they transport passengers between any two predefined stops of a network. These stops may be the same as the service that has been converted (partly or wholly) to DRTS; in other cases, the two systems coexist but are used at different times of the day. Just like using the ordinary public transport service, with a stop-to-stop service the customer has to walk from his origin to the pickup stop and from the delivery stop to his destination. There is a benefit as he can plan his journey considering all the stops of the network, without having to take into account vehicle changes. Nevertheless, to make the system more appealing, especially in rural areas, door-to-door (or curb-to-curb) services have been proposed, which like a taxi can pickup and deliver passengers to their real origins and destinations, avoiding or minimising movements on foot. This can also be appropriate for night services in urban areas with crime problems, especially for women. The drawback is that the operation of such a system, if made by a computerised tool, is hugely complicated as it becomes quite hard to preview the travel times during the planning phase. Of course, all services provided for disabled people are door-to-door. Finally, concerning the planning of the service, there can be offline, static, or advance request systems, in which the three phases of the service (collecting the requests, planning and operation) are performed strictly consecutively, or online (dynamic or real-time) systems, in which almost two of these are overlapping. When a travel request is made to an online system, the service operation may already be running and the request is immediately scheduled, thus modifying the plan, confirming the reservation to the customer (who will not be called back later) and notifying this rearrangement to the vehicle that will serve the call. In an online system the planning horizon is open, as requests concerning any moment in the future can be accepted, but of course the scheduling process is more focused on events in the near future. Dynamic systems are not only more difficult to manage, but require the use of advanced ITS technologies, on the other hand, they are far more appealing for customers, as they can often accept travel bookings just a little in advance of the required service.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow System Performance and Findings DRTS have quite a long history, and early systems date back to the 1970s. After an initial period of enthusiasm, most of these were closed or radically changed, due to financial problems. The main reason often being that planners ignored the fundamental fact that DRTS only works in very specific cases. There is no doubt that the market niche for these systems is quite limited, as on one hand they can be used only in particular situations, on the other hand the economic balance is always critical. Thus a policy underpinning these systems, just as for traditional public transport, is essential if they are to thrive. Nevertheless, the extensive adoption of ITS technologies that are becoming quite common and cheap could greatly benefit DRTS, even more that conventional transit. Devices such as Automatic Vehicle Locating (AVL) or new telecommunication tools permit a continuous monitoring of the fleet, facilitating the implementation of online systems. Allowing customers to reserve trips shortly in advance, like in taxi services, is the real challenge and can increase the potential attraction of DRTS, making them a true alternative of conventional public transport. Real-time systems could hugely increase the situations in which a DRTS becomes competitive, well beyond the cases described. The first field trials of these new systems have been set up and there are some encouraging results. In the following some of the most recent research topics will be described. Conceiving more flexible systems: One of the weaknesses of current systems is their rigidity, i.e. the difficulty they have in operating in contexts different from those planned, breakdowns either of the vehicles and of the informatics equipment, anomalies on the network due to special events (streets closed, traffic jams), user behaviours or requests that had not been forecasted. These situations can generate losses both on an economical and on a qualitative point of view, making the operation of the system more difficult. The only way to face this is to take account of all the possible cases and to set up an extensive simulation to study the behaviour of the system under a wide range of circumstances. Nevertheless, it is obvious that it is almost impossible to exhaustively foresee all the real events, but a DRTS with some degree of flexibility would be an improvement; Imitating human behaviour and assimilating its experience: Another active research field is the development of efficient algorithms for scheduling the requests and routing the vehicles. In the last decade some theoretical advances and the increasing performances of computers allowed the implementation of artificial intelligence techniques to improve the quality of the solutions (i.e. satisfying all the requests with the minimum number of vehicles or with minimum ride time).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow In some advanced applications researchers are trying to design algorithms whose logic imitates in various situations the behaviour of expert human schedulers observed in different contexts, in order to increase the capability of the computerised system to react to an event that was not foreseen in the planning phase; Integrating DRTS and other transit systems: From the point of view of policy makers, establishing a public transport service that suits travel demand in all cases (different social groups, different periods of the day, etc.) is ideal but also very challenging, as there can be no standard solution. In some metropolitan areas, attempts have been made to define common command and control architecture for the operation of both transit and DRTS, in order to maximize the synergies and the benefits and to offer an integrated service. The ideal is for the travel dispatch centre to monitor buses and also schedule DRTS, optimising the connections between the two and driving the users towards the best choice. The modelling of such a system is extremely complicated and this complexity increases as the number and the type of variables to be taken account of expands.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 3.2.4 Automated Highway Systems
In the following an introduction to automated highway systems (AHS) will be given, followed by sections on system characteristics, spatial settings and system performance and the overall findings. Introduction Research in the area of automated highway systems has been lead by the PATH consortium in California, which has undertaken some of the most high profile work in vehicle to vehicle communications. Work at PATH fulfilled a major role in the National Automated Highway System Consortium program (NAHSC), a cooperative agreement between industry and the FHWA (Federal Highway Administration) funded in the USA in the late 1990s. The program, dedicated to the construction and test of a range of Cooperative prototypes effectively culminated in a major demo of differing vehicle platforms and communication technologies (DEMO97). Despite overwhelming technical and public relations success of the demonstration, the NAHSC project was discontinued, with research now focussing on particular niche applications such as snow plough control and automated busses in dedicated lanes. Since that time several high profile demonstrations have been undertaken, including events showcasing developments in Japanese research programs, however advances in the EU have been mostly restricted to investigating the potential for truck platooning as part of the Daimler-Chrysler led CHAUFFEUR projects. System Characteristics AHS, at its most extreme limit assumes a system where vehicles are electronically linked, allowing the formation of closely packed groups of vehicles or platoons. The speed, acceleration, and inter-vehicle separation of each vehicle is measured on-board, and then transmitted to neighbouring vehicles and/or a roadside processor. With the increased accuracy and reliability of data obtained, it is possible to automate vehicle throttle and brakes to achieve much closer following distances hence forming so-called road trains where vehicles in theory may have spacing down to the meter level (Chang et. Al., 1994). While a number of vehicles may form a platoon, individual platoons are separated from each other by a larger spacing of the order of 50-100m. In order for such a system to function at full efficiency however, control must be performed flawlessly, with the driver therefore entirely removed from the vehicle control loop. Similarly, in order to allow for full predictability of vehicle movements, vehicles must operate in a dedicated right of way, ideally in their own lanes, barrier separated from non-equipped vehicles. Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of Cybernetic Transport Systems D1.1 - System Operating Scenarios and D1.3 - Barriers to Deployment
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Spatial Setting As mentioned above, a full AHS requires the vehicles to operate in dedicated lanes, with dedicated entry and exit facilities in order to ensure that equipped and non-equipped vehicles may be separated and subsequently re-mixed with minimum risk and disruption to flow. Although the AHS technology is applicable to both trucks and cars current implementation strategy assumes platoons of a single vehicle type. An additional safety restriction imposed is that ideally all vehicles would pass some manner of certification/health check before entering the system to ensure the vehicle is able to respond accurately and quickly to external vehicle dynamics commands. System Performance and Findings The assessment of the promise and problems associated with each of these systems has been the subject of much work with a great deal of study undertaken. Results of these studies include for example: Cooperative/AHS systems have always been associated with the provision of significantly higher capacity increases (typically estimated as being >300%). Most investigation for these systems have been undertaken by PATH using the SmartAHS simulation tool, designed to be able to incorporate a wide range of sensor, communication, control policy and human driver models into an integrated simulation environment. Recent work however (Michael et al, 1998), has shown how this 300% figure may vary according to operational constraints. Some conditions, such as the use of an AHS system allowing HGVs, can reduce maximum throughput from 7000vph/lane to 1500vph/lane or less, while the characteristics of each platoon can be managed to increase capacity further (more vehicles per platoon and smaller intra platoon gaps). Still further increase may in-turn be possible by the barring of vehicles with low maximum braking capacities, with the elimination of the worst 4% of the vehicle population potentially increasing throughput by 14%. Additionally, through microscopic modelling, it is possible to consider the effect that such convoy systems may have on emissions, and with the elimination of stop-go driving, it is clear that savings and decreases in fuel consumption will become apparent. For equipped vehicles it is estimated that this may be of the order of 10%, with reductions in Hydrocarbon and NOX emissions of 48% and 37% respectively, having been calculated.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Other investigations have identified concerns that may reduce the maximum achievable capacity substantially (Rao and Varaiya, 1994). For example the expected increases may be tempered by a range of other problems that would be induced in the adjacent non-equipped traffic, particularly as part of the merge/de-merge processes. In such situations, it is quite possible for the demand for merging places to outstrip the supply provided by passing platoons, restricting capacity to a practical maximum of 2700 per lane, little higher than that currently attainable. One potential solution may be to increase the speed of merging vehicles, or alternatively introducing a degree of pre-platooning, releasing vehicles in synchronisation with arriving platoons, or slowing of the mainline platoon may reduce capacity losses to the order of 25%. For cooperative systems, safety has been a major concern, voiced by both public and manufacturer alike, (though from the public point of view, this may be a misplaced concern associated with abdicating control at what would normally be viewed as a high risk headway). The potential for injury should the system fail is likely to be low however, as the reaction between vehicle actuators is so rapid and the spacing so small, that the relative speed between vehicles in any platoon is unlikely to reach more than 1 m/s. Thus, even if an accident was to occur within a platoon, a spacing of ~100m between platoons would allow sufficient safety distance for a following platoon to decelerate to a total stop. This has been illustrated by Carbaugh et al. (1998), who have shown that platooning can reduce the probability of a collision occurring from 0.87 with manual driving to 0.028 within a platoon, and assuming a lead vehicle deceleration of 7 m/s2. Relative speed on impact would also fall from around 8.3 to 7.5 m/s. The characteristics of a platoon can obviously be effected to change these parameters and, for example, the total collision probability in a platoon can be reduced from 0.76 at a 1m inter-vehicle spacing, down to 0.36 at 10m, although the collision speed rises from 1.7 m/s to 5.5 m/s. Thus, minimising collisions in an AHS then, may be considered to be little more than a complex control problem, requiring adequate controller design, without having to consider the effects of an unpredictable human component.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Few research findings are publicly available in the area of component reliability, sensor validation and fail safe software design required for the successful implementation of any cooperative system although work has undoubtedly been performed by car manufacturers. One of the principal problems is that in order to understand failure rates, the systems under test must have been examined in sufficient quantity to allow test to failure routines to be performed, and with the rarity and cost of AHS prototypes (both components and full systems) this has not been possible. It is however highly likely that double or even triple backups would be required, as, for example if one assumes that 6 subsystems of an AHS are critical, and each has the standard reliability of 0.9999, then the overall reliability of the system is approx. 0.9995. This corresponds to one failure every 13.7 vehicle years driven on an AHS, equating, for a fully operational AHS lane, to one vehicle failure every 3.33 hours (Rillings, 1998). Although such redundancy would indicate an increase in engineering requirements for electronic components, this need not necessitate an increase in cost, viz. the rapid decline of PC component prices when supplied in volume. Drivers opinions regarding AHS have also been investigated. Simulator studies have established that drivers have no major objection to having the speed of their vehicle controlled (FHWA, 1995), generally feeling that the system was quite safe, comfortable (rating 0.54 on scale from 1 to +1), and preferable to manual driving. However, drivers wanted a larger headway between the vehicles than the 1.0 sec. Under test, with most concern expressed over the manner in which new vehicles merged at the front of the platoon, with relative times to collision of less than 8-12 sec., being found to reduce the average comfort to 0.52. European work has revealed much the same, with subjects found to have little concern over speed, but over headway, with the following distances only being subjectively deemed as acceptable at 0.3 sec. Headway or more, and being judged as comparable to congested driving at 0.86 sec. There is scope to extend such studies to the use of prototypes, however with these in short supply, only one such study has thus far been possible based on DEMO97, where 74% of the public who experienced a convoying system stated that they felt comfortable with a platooning spacing of 20ft at 60mph (a 0.4 sec. Headway), while only 7.5% were uncomfortable. In terms of user acceptance, an internet survey conducted for the NAHSC (Horowitz, 1996) again demonstrated a public preference for warning over control, with a low desired purchase cost of around $0.05/Km of installation used. The use of a video briefing session however revealed that 50% of the sample would choose to use AHS, paying $3-5000, while exposure to prototypes, during DEMO97 (Yim and Koo, 1998), increased the response to 95% use and $0.11/Km price.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Integrated deployment planning has been performed for AHS, and may be a more tenable option than overly detailed cost benefit analysis. In integrated Deployment Planning emphasis is placed on assembling a series of cohesive and constructive arguments, that may be pursued in order to establish which technologies, areas etc are required to be available and completed in order for other dependant areas to become feasible. This allows an evolutionary or incremental deployment structure to be formed. There are several approaches to this goal, for example, Koopman and Bayouth (1998) have examined how a basic set of three technologies (lane keeping, obstacle avoiding and ACC) could evolve into AHS through 24 differing paths with 16 end state possibilities. As part of this, it has been possible to define four key entities on which decisions can be made independently:size (free agent vs. platoon), number of automated lanes, obstacle exclusion or avoidance, and system vigilance. Although simple, the methodology and number of entities can easily be expanded. An emphasis has been placed on the functional ability of many differing pieces of technology, thus allowing the examination of the interdependency and functional requirements of many of the AHS systems under development. These requirements have included the capability to perform both longitudinal and lateral guidance and control, obstacle handling and infrastructure support. They have been used to assess the benefits that the availability of each piece of technology would give to baseline autonomous vehicle control, establishing that there is a critical need for vehicle motion predictive model that will enable vehicle intent to be established through observations of its behaviour. Surprisingly, it has also been revealed that it is possible to attain many of the benefits of AHS without all of the enabling technologies traditionally associated with it. Subsequently, Tsao (1998) has expanded on this basic approach, to recommend a first stage AVCSS deployment, adding the option of dedicated lane vs. mixed operation and assuming a differing baseline, ie. that of current traffic. This deployment would be a free agent, segregated, dedicated single lane system. Vehicles may be equipped with ACC and vision based lane keeping, but can only invoke one of the technologies prior to the dedication of a lane. (This allows lane keeping in light traffic and ACC in heavy traffic, and prevents the driver from being taken out of the control loop entirely).
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3.3 Conclusion of Literature Review As a background to the main analysis activities for the potentials and limitations of CTS a literature review on related innovative systems was carried out. The reviewed systems included car sharing, taxi/ related concepts, DRTS and AHS. In the case of car sharing concepts, subscribers of all projects were highly satisfied with the service. The self-service concept, which made the vehicles available by smartcard was a success in all cases. Most feedback of subscribers concerned the limited opening hours and the small number of stations. However only a few project are still in operation. The customers were satisfied, but the as the systems were not economic viable, the financing stopped. The high costs are mainly due to the still rather expensive technology needed for monitoring the vehicles, and the labour intensive redistribution of vehicles Taxi and related concepts provide the advantage of having the highest level of convenience of all modes of public transport (e.g. personal transport, on-demand, door-to-door, easy to transport large or bulky items, convenient for special user such as elderly or disabled, etc.), but also the disadvantage of being the most expensive form of public transport in urban areas. It is mainly used for short trips and at nights, when the service frequency of other public transport services (e.g. buses, trams, underground) is very low. The level of service provided and the costs are very important for customer satisfaction. DRTS as a concept is still in its infancy, and it is difficult to foresee to what extent these systems could be a true alternative to the private car. Specific services (for elderly and disabled) are nowadays quite common in many countries. Services for the general public will be feasible if the service provided is of high quality. Therefore they could attract some of the car users that are not using conventional public transport because of its poor performance. However that is not yet a well-researched subject. Experience shows that there are many critical issues that must be anticipated, e.g. economic issues, service, technology. Research on automated highway systems has been carried out mainly by PATH in the late 1990s, but despite technical and public relations success the project has been discontinued and research has been targeted towards smaller niche applications since. It has been shown that capacity and safety can be highly increased, technology reliability has been proven and driver opinion has been found to be in favour of the technology. Further fields of research in context of AHS applications were integrated deployment planning and the functional requirements for various individual AHS system components. Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of Cybernetic Transport Systems D1.1 - System Operating Scenarios and D1.3 - Barriers to Deployment
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow For innovative transport systems in general formulating and following objectives is important for the success of a project, since communication of goals to users and other target groups is crucial to projects and how they are perceived. Successful communication is also a key to success in a project. It is therefore crucial for project managers to effectively communicate the goals and means of a project, and to stand by them when needed but also to revise them when needed. Too many objectives in a single experiment or pilot can cause problems (e.g. new mobility concepts together with prototype vehicles). There should be a distinction between social and technical objectives. Therefore do not try and introduce too many concepts and technologies at a time. Another important feature is whether the experiment is seen as the last step towards implementation or commercialisation or whether it is a step in a longer process of exploration. In the first case, all social and technical elements should have been proven independently before and there should be a considerable emphasis on the economic feasibility. In the latter case, more elements are considered uncertain and there is little sense to look at economic viability of technologies and concepts that still need to be defined. All experiments are carried out by a heterogeneous network of stakeholders. This is an important condition for success as it creates commitment and a broad base of resources. Support from politicians as well as from the involved industry is also an important issue. Niches are protected application areas in which certain factors in the selection-environment have a decreased effect. There have been many proposals for new traffic and transport concepts that, at least in theory, would be far more efficient and social-inclusive and environment-friendly, than the current conventional systems. The single largest barrier to the implementation of these technologies is the strong position of the private car. Massive incentives are needed to gain popularity and public support. One such incentive that is being discussed is the restriction of conventional combustion engine cars in the city centre. An innovative transport concept should demonstrate its potential in an identified and targeted specific niche area. The study area for Praxitle for example was chosen more because the consortium members were situated there and not because the traffic situation demanded new solutions. The experiment did not demonstrate an added value. It was therefore not a very good niche. Systematic problems with vehicles or the concept can be very costly. Therefore do not mix technology testing with large-scale introduction. Innovations form part of a larger system. For example, the car makes use of a larger system, made up of the road network, petrol distribution, laws etc. New alternatives have little chance of success if they do not have a logical place in the existing larger system, or if they do not generate a new demand that can sustain the implemented technology innovation.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 4 4.1 4.1.1 EXPERIENCE REPORTS Introduction to Experience Reports Approach to Experience Report Activities
The experience report activities will investigate the knowledge and experience project partners already have with CTS technology through theoretical studies, system testing and experiments, planning of real applications and operation of existing systems. This activity will distinguish between two different types of experience reports, experience reports for (existing) CTS concepts and experience report for (planned) CTS sites/ applications; the planned CTS sites refer to the official test sites and the feasibility studies in context with both the CyberCars and CyberMove projects. Experience Reports for Systems: The experience reports for CTS concepts will focus on the experience of partners providing CTS technology, in view of their proposed systems/ solutions (general idea, infrastructure technology, vehicle technology, etc.), various studies carried out (application areas, stakeholder involvement, securing funding, etc.) and system testing either through existing applications using their technology (user acceptance, feasibility, technology results, etc.) or through tests and experimentations (technology results, reliability, safety, etc.). Experience Reports for Sites: The experience reports for CTS sites will focus on the experience of partners proposing test sites/ feasibility studies (application area, demand characteristics, proposed route/ facilities, etc.) and working on the detailed system design (infrastructure technology, vehicle technology, land-use planning) and the interaction with authorities, potential system operators and the general public in the planning process (to secure funding and political support, to identify the commercial risk in innovative technologies and to assess the potential user acceptance, etc.).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 4.1.2 Planning of Experience Report Activities
All partners representing CTS technology provider/ system operator and/ or working on the design of one or more of the proposed official test sites and feasibility studies for the CyberCars and CyberMove projects were asked to provide a report on their experiences in view of the potentials on limitations of CTS. A summary of all experience reports can be found in annex B for the systems and annex C for the sites. Experience Reports for Systems: The experience reports for CTS concepts include information on the knowledge partners have in case of their on-going research and development work (either through operative systems, tests and experimentations or theoretical studies and simulations) for the following systems: - FROG (Free Ranging On Grid) - ROBO - RUF (Rapid Urban Flexible) - SERPENTINE - ULTra (Urban Light Transport) Experience Reports for Sites: The experience reports for CTS sites include information on the knowledge partners have through work on their proposals for test sites and feasibility studies (in view of the analysis of the respective sites, detailed system design and the planning process) for the following sites: - Coimbra (Portugal), 2 Sites - Antibes (France) - Lausanne-Crissier (Switzerland) - Nancy (France) - Rome (Italy), 2 Sites
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 4.1.3 Analysis Procedure for Experience Reports A common structure for the experience reports was developed to ensure comparable results and to enable a consistent similar analysis of these results. There are separate frameworks for the experience reports for the systems and for the sites. All partners have reported their respective results using this structure. The following figure shows the framework used to structure the reports and to draw together all results for the experience report for systems.
Structure for Experience Reports for Systems General Topics General System Description Specific Details Infrastructure Technology Vehicle Technology Advantages of System Possible Application Areas No. of Studies and Overview Application Areas Detailed System Description Experiences with Planning Process No. of Systems and Overview Application Areas Detailed System Description Experience with Planning/ Operation
Description of Studies
Description of Operating Systems
Fig. 7:
Structure for Experience Reports for Systems
The following figure shows the framework used to structure the reports and to draw together all results for the experience report for sites.
Structure for Experience Reports for Sites General Topics Site Description Specific Details Application Area Existing Transport System Demand Characteristics Planning Details Infrastructure Technology Vehicle Technology Proposed Route/ Facilities Advantage of System Availability of Funding Stakeholder Involvement Land-Use Planning Local Authority Interest
System Description
Planning Process
Fig. 8:
Structure for Experience Reports for Sites
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4.2
Results of Experience Reports for Existing Systems
In the following the results of the experience reports for systems, provided by all project partners representing CTS technology provider/ system operator will be described. This includes a general description of their respective systems, information on studies carried out and on operative systems. A summary of these experience reports can be found in annex B. 4.2.1 General System Description Infrastructure Technology: The five reviewed systems differ in terms of their infrastructure technology. The RUF system is dual-mode, thus being able to use the road network in manual mode, but requiring (mono-) rail infrastructure for automated operation. The ULTra system also requires a segregated guideway network. The three other systems are able to make use of the existing road network. The vehicles from FROG are operated through a supervisory control system, which handles traffic control, transportation request dispatching and manages status information from the vehicle; mixing with pedestrians and manually operated vehicles is possible on certain parts of the track, as the vehicles are equipped with an obstacle detection system, which detects other traffic and consequently slows down or stops the vehicle to avoid a collision. The SERPENTINE system uses their MagnetoGlisseur technology for energy transmission, lateral and longitudinal control and exchange of information, The ROBO system is based on wireguidance and transponder technology and a wireless communication system. Vehicle Technology: The vehicles for the dual-mode system from RUF can be in various different sizes, including a 2-seater, a midi version for 6 passengers and a maxi vehicle for 10 passengers; in all cases the vehicles need a slot in the middle to enable them to use the mono-rail infrastructure for the automated operation. The SERPENTINE vehicle uses a platform for 4 standing passengers. ULTra vehicles use conventional rubber tyres, though requiring a separate infrastructure, the vehicles has space for two permanent and two flip-down seats. The FROG vehicles are available as 10/ 20-seater (ParkShuttle) or 4-seater (CyberCab). The ROBO vehicle looks like a trailer with 2 front steering wheels and 2 rear passive wheels and there is space for 22 seated passengers.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Advantages of the System: The advantages of the FROG system include low operating costs and investment for implementation compared to conventional systems, convenient transport system with short passenger waiting times, environmentally friendly and safe. The ROBO system promises very accurate positioning even at high speeds, efficient fleet management and allowing manual operation. Advantage of the RUF system are connected to the dualmode concept, allowing manual on-road operation and safe and environmentally friendly automated operation on a mono-rail infrastructure, leading potentially to a city-wide doorto-door transport systems, without the need for interchanges. The SERPENTINE can also provide within an application area (not city-wide) a network-wide origin-todestination transport on a marked track, with the additional benefit of low energy consumption. ULTra can provide on-demand (only very short waiting times), non-stop, point-to-point network-based transport. All systems use battery powered electric vehicles, providing the environmental benefits of no noise and pollution at the point of use, which is very important for urban applications. Possible Application Areas: Possible application areas include feeder to public transport or the sole public transport mode, e.g. in residential areas, and transport on various private sites (FROG); themeparks, museums, leisure areas, business parks and automated buses in urban areas, where conventional vehicles are restricted (ROBO); potential to substitute buses, trains and private cars in urban areas, when implemented on a city-wide scale or targeted applications, e.g. park&ride, when implemented on a smaller scale (RUF).; access to the existing public transport systems, e.g. as a feeder application, internal transport system in e.g. shopping centres or airports, micro-cars in city-centres, especially in historic citycentres, where conventional systems cannot be used or are restricted for environmental reasons (SERPENTINE); although original design was targeted at an urban application, the flexibility of the system permits consideration for various applications, including airports, business parks, large business, university campus, new commercial or residential developments or private vehicles, inter-city transport or freight transport applications (ULTra).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 4.2.2 Description of Studies Overview of Studies: For the FROG system various studies were carried out to assess if the technology is suitable for sites where it is under consideration, over the last two years 35 studies have been carried out to promote the system, these were done mainly for transportation systems between car parks and public transport interchanges or other points of interest, including e.g. business parks or theme parks. A total of seven studies have been carried out for the RUF system, including Copenhagen, Paris, Los Angeles, Seattle and San Antonio, where in most cases the use of the system as an extensions to the existing public transport system was analysed, but in two cases a city-wide system was considered. SERPENTINE carried out five studies, including applications for the Ouchy quays in Lausanne, the campus of the EPFL University in Lausanne, Werfenweng, Antibes and Nancy. The initial proposed application for ULTra is in Cardiff as a connection between a re-development area and the city-centre. Application Areas: Application areas considered through the work on system studies using the FROG technology include transport from a car park to a recreational site, e.g. theme park or zoo (5 studies), park&ride to the city centre (2 studies), public transport station to business park (3 studies), station to city-centre (3 studies), station to shopping centre (1 study), station to stadium (1 study) and on private grounds/ exhibition centre/ resort (3 studies). Application areas for RUF studies were public transport feeder systems or city-wide systems. Application areas using the SERPENTINE system included, urban transport for targeted users (tourists), university campus, tourist resort, connection to park&ride and access to new development sites. Only one study has been carried out for the ULTra system so far. This application is planned to be operated between a re-development site, the former industrial area of the docks in Cardiff and the city-centre, as journeys between these two sites currently cause a variety of difficulties. The study has shown that by complementing the existing public transport network, ULTra can provide an effective solution to these problems.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow System Description: The studies using the RUF system were mainly line systems, but in two cases network solutions were examined. The studies for Los Angeles and Seattle were networks covering large areas. In Los Angeles the system used the available right of way in the wide streets, where streetcars had been running in the past. In Seattle the network was created to meet the pre-defined objective of providing a transport system, which offers 60% of the population a drive of less than 10min on the road network to reach an access point to the RUF network. The concept for the SERPENTINE technology is to surround the constructed blocks with a mesh of 200m to 400m with a lane similar to a cycle track, using traffic circles in the main intersections to allow exchange between the meshes, cross walks or traffic areas are protected. The first stage of the propose ULTra application in Cardiff is to connect a public transport interchange and the harbour for transport within in the re-development site of the docks and to work in parallel on the extension, which would connect the bay area with the city-centre. Planning Process: Experience through the work for studies using the FROG technology included the need to describe CTS not as a solution to all transport related problems or as something, which would replace the existing conventional public transport system, but to describe the specific advantages of CTS for specific targeted application areas. Furthermore, due to the innovative character of CTS, there has to be a certain degree of education of the potential market for CTS, to overcome scepticism of the stakeholders. In case of the ROBO system, it was noted, that in case of a targeted private application, once there is consensus by all stake holders, the whole development process including infrastructure, vehicles, hardware and software can be achieved in less than a year. For the studies of the RUF system it was found, that though dual-mode offers various benefits for sustainable mobility in urban areas, there is a lot of reluctance of the involved stakeholders to commit to this technology, due to the innovative character and the lack of experience with real-size applications. In case of the ULTra system, there is strong political support from the relevant authorities, but also various barriers to be overcome, including regulations for safety or disabilities discrimination.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 4.2.3 Operating Systems Overview of System: There are currently three operating systems using the FROG technology, the ParkingHoppper at Shiphol Airport Amsterdam, the Rivium business park ParkShuttle near Rotterdam and the CyberCabs (only operated by FROG, but using YAMAHA technology) at the Floriade flower show in Amsterdam. One operational system based on the ROBO technology is operated at a historical fort in Simserhof. For the RUF/ SERPENTINE/ ULTra system currently only test-tracks exist (RUF in Copenhagen, SERPENTINE in Yverdon and Ouchy, and ULTra in Bristol). Application Areas: In case of the FROG technology applications the Shiphol Airport system operates on a car park, transporting passengers from a pick-up point close to their cars to a central point on the car park, where a manually driven bus brings them to the main terminal building, the Rivium business park systems provide transport between a public transport interchange and the business park and the Floriade system transported visitors on the top of an artificial hill at the flower show. The test tracks of the three other systems are on private sites to carry out experiments with the technology. System Description: The infrastructure for the FROG Shiphol application is a double loop track. Each loop is one kilometer long and has 3 stops. At any given time there are three vehicles in operation. Meanwhile, the additional vehicles are being charged. The vehicles space themselves along the track to ensure minimal waiting times at each stop. The ParkShuttle project in the city of Capelle a/d Ijssel connects the Rivium business park to a PT interchange, a 1300m journey over a single lane track with three passing locations. On demand operation in off-peak hours ensures maximum service for passengers. At the Floriade during operation from April to October, 25 CyberCabs provided transportation to the top of the observation point. The vehicles use a track constructed to spiral up the hill. The electric CyberCabs drove at a max speed of 11 km/hr and a max capacity of 600 passengers/hr/direction. The ROBO system uses 5 vehicles and wire guidance for automatically visiting the gallery inside the fort. The visit lasts 30min, the track is 800m long and the show indoors is synchronized with the motions of the vehicle. Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of Cybernetic Transport Systems D1.1 - System Operating Scenarios and D1.3 - Barriers to Deployment
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Planning/ Operation: Surveys prove that the FROG Shiphol system is well used and greatly appreciated. The Floriade demonstrated that in order to operate a system, an operator will need to have a degree of certainty. The Floriade organisation had extensive research to establish the number of visitors they could expect. All operations were advised to be based on 2.7 million visitors. Due to unknown circumstances, only 2.1 million visitors visited the Floriade. All operations had to adjust to the new circumstances. In order to establish projects and to attract an operator, it is thus important to consider how operational income is going to be generated. And it is important to create certainty for the operator regarding the minimal income that can be generated. The experience in case of the ROBO application is that this type of system is restricted to private and very contained areas, due to certification issues and speed limits. Even though the RUF test track is very basic, it attracted a lot of media attention and furthermore the tests have proven the basic functionality of the system. The test of the SERPENTINE system showed the interest of the users, the difficulty in obtaining authorisation in mixed sites and the long period, which is necessary for measurements in real sites in view of e.g. specific obstacles, user behaviour or sensitivity to the specific climate. The initial results of the ULTra test have been positive as vehicle and track have been successfully integrated and multiple circuits of the complex guideway have been completed under fully automatic control.
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4.3
Results of Experience Reports for Test Sites
In the following the results of the experience reports for sites, provided by all project partners involved in the planning of test sites and feasibility studies will be described. This includes a general description of the respective sites and the proposed systems and information on the planning process. A summary of these experience reports can be found in annex C. 4.3.1 Site Description Application Area: Amongst the eight proposed test-sites and feasibility-studies various different CTS application areas are covered. The two sites in Coimbra (Portugal) are in the city centre as a connection to a market supply and in a large re-development area. In Antibes the proposed system will connect a car park and the marina close to the city centre. The application area of the Lausanne-Crissier system is a public transport system in a city peripheral area. In the Nancy site CTS will complement public transport in a large new urban development. The two sites proposed for Rome are a public transport system in the city centre and connection between a public transport station and a newly build exhibition centre in the periphery of the city. Existing Transport System: In all cases the CTS applications will not necessarily substitute any existing transport systems, but only try to make public transport as a whole more convenient by complementing it. At all sites a variety of conventional public transport systems (including e.g. buses, light rail, heavy rail, underground, tram, etc.) exist, but the use of private vehicles is favoured, therefore different application of CTS are going to offer a more convenient and flexible mode of public transport for targeted application to tackle the problems of private car use in urban areas (for a detailed description of the existing transport systems at all test-sites and feasibility-study sites see the summaries of the experience reports for sites, as provided by all partners involved in this analysis activity in annex C).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Demand Characteristics: According to the different CTS application areas covered by the proposed test-sites and feasibility studies, there is also a variety of different demand characteristics, the proposed systems have to respond to. In the case of the two sites in Coimbra, the demand characteristics are supply for the businesses in the city centre and access for staff and customers, and targeted users in the re-development site, including e.g. tourists, children, disabled and elderly. At the Antibes site the demand consists mainly of tourists visiting the historical city centre and visitors coming to various cultural events. In Crissier the forecasted demand is composed of local user travelling short distances, as well as commuters to and from Lausanne. At the Nancy site the demand will consist mainly of short trips between a tram station and a cinema. In the Rome city centre site the demand characteristics are very broad, as it is planned as a public transport systems targeting all user groups, whereas at the Rome exhibition centre site the system will only be used by visitors of the exhibition for the way from either the nearest public transport station or the car park to the main entrance of the exhibition centre. Planning Details: As the planning of the test-sites and feasibility-studies are at different stages, the amount of information available on the detailed planning details also varies. At the two sites in Coimbra only a basic concept exists to use a freight delivery system in the city centre, which could be expanded to transport staff and customers as well and to use individual automated vehicles to complement conventional public transport systems in the redevelopment area. At the Antibes site the strategy is to restrict vehicle access to the historic city centre and to reclaim public spaces used for parking before, therefore the proposed CTS application will provide transport from the car park to and within the restricted area. In Lausanne-Crissier individual semi-automated vehicles are to be operated within the area of Crissier to relieve congestion and to provide a more convenient mode of public transport. At the Nancy site a number of alternatives for the use of CTS on the development site are examined. At the Rome city-centre site fully automated shuttles are to be operated on protected lanes and at the exhibition centre a CTS network would be created on the main car park and a line from car park and public transport station to the exhibition centre.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 4.3.2 System Description Infrastructure Technology: Although all applications proposed for the test-sites and feasibility-studies are based on the technologies provided by the project partners, as reviewed in the first section of the experience report activities, the limited scale and the nature of all sites does not allow dual-mode systems or the use of additional elevated (mono-) rail infrastructure. All proposed systems therefore make use of an existing road network. At the Coimbra sites transponder technology is to be used for vehicle guidance and wireless communication for fleet management. For the Antibes site the alternatives of transponder or wire guidance are still being considered and for high system flexibility the track for the CTS vehicles is shared with bicycles and will be used by a manually driven shuttle bus, when the automated system is not in operation. The system proposed for Lausanne-Crissier will use manually operated vehicles initially, so no special infrastructure will be required in this case. The planning of the Nancy site is at an early stage, therefore different concepts (lines or network) are considered, based on automated vehicles using the existing road network, based on vehicle guidance and obstacle detection technologies. In Rome the CTS vehicles will also use the existing road network, shared with trams and on most parts with cyclists and pedestrians. The Rome exhibition centre site will use an automated system, which is operated on the car park shared with manually driven cars and pedestrians, but which uses a dedicated lane for the connection to the main entrance to the exhibition centre. Vehicle Technology: The vehicle technology to be used for the two Coimbra sites is zero-emissions-vehicles, GPS technology and provision for fully automated operation and semi-autonomous operation, where human intervention is only needed in special situations. In Antibes four electric vehicles for 20 passengers each, with a maximum speed of 20 km/hr are used. In Lausanne-Crissier electric vehicles for up to 8 passengers are used, a number of them can form a platoon, of which only the first vehicle is driven manually and the other follow the leading vehicle automated (semi-automated operation). For the Nancy site no vehicle details are chosen yet. In Rome electric vehicles for 15 passengers with an average speed of 10 km/hr are to be used.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Proposed Route/ Facilities: For the Coimbra city centre site no route details are specified yet, for the re-development area the only detail specified is that the infrastructure is to be shared with an already planned cable electric tram. The principal design characteristics for the Antibes system are: Distance: 1.400m with an added 350m option for the Opera events; on demand service, 24 hours a day, ca. 5min maximum waiting time; reorganise the traffic and reserve one way road for CTS. This way integrating CTS should minimise the demonstration costs; method to call CTS is needed but it is also an occasion to experiment on demand calls by mobile phone; On board vocal and display information in order to deliver explanations on the automated operation. Possibility of multimedia messages to test city oriented advertisement. A direct vocal link with the supervisor should be accessible; specific parking policies along the harbour and combined tickets for specials exhibitions. As the Lausanne-Crissier system is not operated automated the existing road network can be used without any alterations. The route length is 2.5km, the number of convoys is 2 and the commercial speed is ca. 20 km/hr. For the Nancy system no details about the proposed route are agreed yet. The Rome city centre system is supposed to run on the same route as an existing bus line, length 3.25km. The Rome exhibition centre site will have a network length of 4.54km, expected average travel time 3min, maximum travel time 6min and expected average waiting time 2min, maximum waiting time 4min. Advantage of the System: The proposed systems are to provide various advantages for the targeted applications they are used for. These advantages include increase in network/ link capacity through fleet management and platooning, more convenient public transport (e.g. on-demand, point-to-point without interchanges, short waiting times, individual transport, etc.), high system flexibility (time of operation, route, type of vehicle, etc.), lower implementation cost (compared to conventional alternatives, e.g. light rail), lower operation costs through automation, high potential when used in new developments (green field or brown field) or in re-development schemes.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 4.3.3 Planning Process Availability of Funding: According to the different stages of planning for the proposed test-sites and feasibilitystudies, the process of securing funding for the respective systems is also at different levels. For the Coimbra city centre site there is some support by the local authority, but a feasibility study has to be carried out to prove that an economically viable operation is possible, for the re-development area a private investor has to be found to implement and operate the system. For the Antibes and Lausanne-Crissier sites the availability of funding is not known yet, financial partnership with local and regional authorities is applied for and an additional partnership with industry sponsor and operators will be considered. In case of the Nancy site the political situation is not clear yet. No funding is yet available for both sites in Rome, for the exhibition centre site a feasibility study has to be carried out as a basis for a decision by a private investor. Stakeholder Involvement: The involvement of any stakeholders in the planning and design process varies between the different sites. In case of the Antibes site the mobility department is leading the project in collaboration with other departments (environment, economy, culture, etc.). In Lausanne-Crissier the local operators and the industry have followed earlier similar projects since 1998, therefore there is a high level interest for this project especially by a city car operator, transport of Lausanne and public transport of Geneva. For the Rome city centre site a user needs analysis has been carried, revealing a certain level of scepticism towards an automated system operating in the city centre. Potential system operators were positive about the proposed system in view of operating cost savings through the automated operation. For the Rome exhibition centre site no user needs analysis has been carried out, the only stakeholder involved is the company responsible for the development of the exhibition centre. They would be interested in the project if a feasibility study can prove that CTS would be the best investment for them to secure a fast, convenient and safe connection to the exhibition centre from the car park and the public transport station.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Land-Use Planning: The scale and specific characteristics of all proposed sites require different level of considerations about the land-use transport interaction. In case of the Coimbra application, no alterations of the current land-use planning have to be carried out and no effects on it are foreseen. The Antibes and Lausanne-Crissier projects are in tune with regional and national guidelines on urban mobility plans and various environmental issues. In case of the Nancy system, the new development has the potential not to design CTS into an existing structure, but to plan land-use and transport system together in a coordinated way. Local Authority Interest: In addition to the essential issue of securing funding for the test-sites and feasibilitystudies, the interest and level of participation of the local authority in the initial planning process is also very important for a successful implementation. For the Antibes site great interest is shown for the trial period and the planning has been accepted by the authority. In the case of the Lausanne-Crissier system the local authorities have been strongly involved and supportive for recent similar systems, but have not been able to provide the necessary funding. The municipal authority of Rome is the main promoter of the site in view of a study or a small scale trial, but although they are concerned about the full automation, they would support and fund such a system, if certification is given and it is proven to be economically viable.
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4.4
Conclusion to Experience Reports
Partners involved in planning, studying, operating and testing CTS technology have provided reports on their experiences with their respective applications. The experience report activity was carried out for existing systems and for test-sites/ feasibility-studies. The reviewed systems included FROG, ROBO, RUF, SERPENTINE and ULTra. The main differences of the system are, that RUF is a dual-mode system, that RUF and ULTra require a dedicated infrastructure and that the other systems can use the existing road network, based on route guidance and obstacle detection technology. The vehicles used also differ in size from individual to group transport, but not exceeding a maximum of 20 seats, therefore not providing mass transport. Advantages of the concepts include low infrastructure and implementation costs and increased convenience, compared to conventional systems. Possible application areas are feeder to public transport, transport in historic city centres, where conventional vehicles are restricted or transport on private sites. Various studies have been carried out to prove the potentials of these systems. The planning process for these studies showed the need to explain the advantages of CTS for specific applications and to educate the market. The reviewed systems are in different stages of the development process, as FROG and ROBO applications are already operational, whereas for the other systems only test tracks exist. Application areas include an airport car park, access to a business park and transport on a theme park. The systems have proven technology reliability and user satisfaction. The reviewed CTS sites included Coimbra, Antibes, Lausanne-Crissier, Nancy and Rome, covering various application areas, e.g. city centre, re-development area, connection to an exhibition-centre and park&ride. On most sites various conventional public transport systems exist, but in most cases CTS will not substitute these but only complement them to increase the overall convenience of the transport system. The planning of the sites is at different stages of the process of seeking funding, determining the demand characteristics and carrying out the detailed system planning, including the infrastructure, vehicles, route and facilities. In most cases the use of fully automated shuttles is planned with the exception of semi-automated systems in Coimbra (legal reasons) and a platooning system, where the first vehicle is driven manually and the other vehicle follow automated in Lausanne-Crissier. The anticipated advantages of the systems include increased network/ link capacity, higher convenience for end-user and lower implementation/ operating costs. At this early stage of the planning process the funding still remains a problem for all sites due to the (real and perceived by the decisionmakers) risk of implementing an innovative technology like CTS.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 5 5.1 5.1.1 STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS Introduction to Structured Interviews Approach to Structured Interview Activities
After having covered the knowledge project partners already have through providing their own systems and through working on the design of test sites or feasibility studies for the CyberCars and CyberMove projects, with the experience report activities, this section will investigate the views towards the potentials and limitations of CTS from representatives from the user groups relevant to this analysis. According to the analysis framework for CTS user groups as mentioned before three main user groups are to be considered for this analysis, the decision-maker (for a public applications), the system operator (for a public application) and the combined decision maker and operator (in the special case of private application). These three main user groups can subsequently be split into further sub-groups. The user group decision-maker consists of elected or non-elected representatives either on local, regional on national level. The user group operator can be split into conventional public transport operator or general service provider. And the user group decision-maker and operator combined related to the different potential private sites for CTS applications, including airports, theme parks, etc. It was agreed by the project partners involved, that a free conversation with only a basic topic checklist to make sure that all important topic are covered in the talk is preferable to the use of a questionnaire in meeting the objectives of this analysis to obtain responses on the potentials and limitations of CTS from the user groups involved in the process of operating or deciding over the implementation of CTS. Therefore a topic checklist had to be developed, specifying all the important topics to be covered in the structured interviews carried out by all partners involved in this activity. Furthermore common presentation material had to be used for all interviews to introduce the topic of the interview, the CyberMove project and the concept and possible applications of CTS technology to the interviewees.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 5.1.2 Planning of Structured Interview Activities
The preliminary activities in the planning process for the structured interview activities was to develop the topic checklist and the presentation material to be used for all interviews carried out by all partners involved for a maximum level of consistency. Topic Checklist: The following figure shows the topic checklist, which was developed to specify the most important topics identified to be covered in the structured interview activities.
Pe e ta no C b r o eIn -M te ia r s n tio f y e M v fo a r l
P te t lso C S o nia f T - F r w ic a p a na aw u C Sb m s u e l? o h h p lic tio re o ld T e o t s fu - D s rip no a p a na a e c tio f p lic tio re s - R a o sfo c o s gth s e s n r h o in e e - T s lv w ic e is gtra s o la dp b m? o o e h h x tin n p rt-re te ro le s - D s rip no p b m e c tio f ro le s - H wtou eC Stoo e o eth m o s T v rc m e - Wic a v n g so e c n e tio a tra s o s s m? h h d a ta e v r o v n n l n p rt y te s - D s rip no e a p s e c tio f x m le - R a o sfo c o s gth s e s n r h o in e e - Wic o e tin c a c ris sfo w ic a p a n h h p ra g h ra te tic r h h p lic tio ? - D s rip no e a p s e c tio f x m le - R a o sfo c o s gth s e s n r h o in e e
L ita n o C S im tio s f T - Inw ic c s sh v c n e tio a s s m a v n g s h h a e a e o v n n l y te s d a ta e ? - D s rip no s te s e c tio f y m - R a o sfo c o s gth s e s n r h o in e e - Wic b rrie tod p y e t o C Stob c n id re ? h h a rs e lo m n f T e os e d - D s rip no p te tia b rrie e c tio f o n l a rs - Wyc o e a dh wtoo e o e h hsn n o v rc m - Wic fu e d v lo m n n c s a fo u eo C S h h rth r e e p e ts e e s ry r s f T ? - D s rip no n c s a d v lo m n e c tio f e e s ry e e p e ts - H wd c rre t te h o g le e lim C S o o u n c n lo y v ls it T - Wic a p a n a n t u e l fo C So e tio ? h h p lic tio s re o s fu r T p ra n - D s rip no a p a n e c tio f p lic tio s - R a o sfo c o s gth s e s n r h o in e e
D p y e t P thfo C S e lo m n a r T B s do p te tia a dlim tio so C Sa id n d a e n o n ls n ita n f T s e tifie a o e w ic s p h v tob ta e toe s reth w e b v , h h te s a e e kn nu e id r im le e ta no C Sinub ne v n e ts p m n tio f T r a n iro m n ?
Fig. 9:
Topic Checklist for Structured Interviews
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Presentation Material: The material used for the structured interviews to present the CTS concept as a basis for the interview, was the same as used for the CyberCars user needs analysis (consisting of slides with text and illustration and short video clips, showing existing CTS related systems, the short-term scenario and the long-term scenario), for a consistency between procedures, leading to comparable results. The aim of the part Existing CTS related Systems is to show that CTS technology is not something futuristic, that the technology is available and that CTS related systems are already implemented. The material contained descriptions, illustrations and videos for the Schiphol and Rivium systems. The objective of the part The Short-term Scenario is to describe what level of technology is possible in three years time, as a basis for the discussion on user requirements for this scenario. The material contained descriptions and illustrations for the Rivium extension and the Copenhagen test site. The intention of the part The Long-term Scenario is to describe the level of technology envisaged for the long-term, as a basis for the discussion on user requirements for this scenario. The material consisted of written description of the vision (demand-responsive, door-to-door) and a video of the RUF system as an example.
For the interviewee recruitment the framework for CTS user groups as described before was used again. The following table shows the user groups to be covered by the structured interview activities.
User Groups to be covered Decision-maker (public) Non-elected National Level Regional Level Local Level Elected Regional Level Local Level Public Transport Operator General Service Provider Airport Theme Park Large Business University Campus
Interviewee
Operator (public) Decision-maker& Operator (private)
Fig. 10: User Groups to be covered by Structured Interviews
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 5.1.3 Analysis Procedure and Activities Activities for Structured Interviews After developing a common procedure for carrying out the structured interviews, to ensure comparable results, a common structure for organising the results, reporting and analysing them was developed, based on the topic checklist. The following figure shows the analysis framework used to draw together all results.
Analysis Framework for Structured Interview Results General Topics Potentials of CTS Specific Details Most useful for which application area? To solve which existing problems? Advantages over conventional systems? Which operating characteristics to be used? Limitations of CTS In which cases has CTS disadvantages? Which barriers to deployment ? Which further developments are necessary? For which application areas not useful? Deployment path for widespread implementation of CTS in urban areas
Fig. 11: Analysis Framework for Structured Interview Results
Activities for Structured Interviews For this analysis there was an emphasis on the experience reports activities, which was based on the knowledge of working with CTS technology. Therefore only a small number of structured interviews was carried out to give some background understanding. The following figure shows the interviews carried out by user group and country.
CTS User Groups France Decision maker (public) Non-elected National Level Regional Level Local Level Elected Regional Level Local Level Public Transport Operator General Service Provider Airport Theme Park Large Business University Campus
Country Italy UK
Operator (public) Decisionmaker& Operator (private)
Fig. 12: Structured Interviews by User Group and Country
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5.2
Results of Structured Interviews
In the following the results of the structured interviews carried out by all partners involved in this activity will be described. This includes the interviewees views on the potentials and limitations of CTS and the deployment path for a widespread introduction of CTS in urban environments. Due to the limited number of interviews carried out, an analysis of the results for separate user groups is not possible, therefore there will only be a summary of the responses from all interviewees irrespective of the user group they are representing. 5.2.1 System Potentials Application Areas: Potential application areas for CTS, as envisaged by the interviewees, include targeted demand characteristics (e.g. low demand at nights or in rural areas), targeted user groups (e.g. elderly or disabled) and targeted sites. CTS was perceived to be most beneficial for a variety of sites, including park&ride, mobility in areas where conventional vehicles are restricted (e.g. historical city centres), private applications (e.g. theme parks), to complement existing public transport systems, as a feeder system or to cover the first/ last step of a multi-modal journey, which cannot be covered by conventional systems. In general CTS is most useful as a private and individual mode of transport for short distances and when operated on-demand. Transport Related Problems: Existing transport related problems, which can be solved through the use of CTS are the operating cost for transport systems in the case of low demand and the lack of flexibility of conventional public transport systems (rigid timetable and routes), various disadvantages of car sharing (e.g. vehicles not specifically designed for urban environments), the need for heavy, expensive and visually-intrusive elevated rail structures for alternative systems, lack of convenience of conventional public transport (e.g. different modes and the general concept of corridor transport leading to the need for interchanges and to waiting times) and conventional buses not suitable for urban environments (e.g. pollution, safety, noise, etc.).
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow Advantages of CTS: The advantages of CTS, as mentioned by the interviewees, include cost reductions through automated operation, better control over system operation for the operator (revenue) and the relevant transport authority (traffic safety, public transport regulations, social issues, economic issues and funding), providing individual and on-demand operation with short waiting times, high degree of service flexibility, access to areas restricted for conventional vehicles and low infrastructure costs through the possibility of using the existing road network. Operating Characteristics: The operating characteristics, which would ensure the best use of CTS, described by the interviewees were the use of medium-sized vehicles on dedicated lanes (ensure traffic safety through clear separation of CTS and manually driven vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians), advanced methods of payment (e.g. smartcards), provide high level of safety (CCTV), comfort and environmentally-friendly vehicles (zero-emission-vehicles), dual-operation (manual and operated in different parts of the network), personal transport with individual vehicles, off-line stops.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 5.2.2 System Limitations Disadvantages of CTS: In view of the limitations of CTS the disadvantages as mentioned by the interviewees included legal and certification issues at this early stage of the development, the difficulties of interacting with manually driven vehicles, the lower number of passengers, which can be transported, the higher degree of user familiarity with conventional systems and CTS not being useful for long-distance transport. Barriers to Deployment: Potential barriers to deployment of CTS were scepticism of CTS being operated in an environment shared with manually driven vehicles, cyclists or pedestrians, but a separation is not desired (visual impact) and often not possible (lack of space) in urban areas, the lack of regulations at this early stage of the development process and organisational difficulties in integrating CTS with conventional public transport. Further CTS Developments: Further developments of CTS technology to enable a more widespread implementation of CTS includes prove of traffic safety (legal reasons) through real-size demonstrations especially in view of obstacle detection and route guidance systems, design of dedicated protected infrastructures and innovative vehicles and fleet management systems for efficient and user-friendly (e.g. waiting time) operation. Areas for Conventional Systems: Areas where conventional public transport systems are more beneficial, described by the interviewees were systematic or high mobility demand, which can be better satisfied with existing mass transport systems and applications where a separation is not possible, so that the vehicles have to be operated in a shared environment with a strong interaction with manually driven vehicles, cyclists or pedestrians.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 5.2.3 Deployment Path
The deployment path to be followed for a successful and widespread implementation of CTS in urban environments, as described by the interviewees, included implementing the technology in a number of stages, starting with driver assistance system, followed by semi-automatic systems and then full automation (technology related) and starting with test-tracks on private grounds, then small-scale applications for the public as demonstration and later as permanent systems, then in stages increasing the size of the scheme (application related), education of the market, the authorities and the users to tackle the unfamiliarity of this innovative technology and securing funding for this technology through local taxes (e.g. congestion charging schemes or general mobility taxes).
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5.3
Conclusion of Structured Interviews
In addition to the background literature review and the experience reports on CTS concepts and the planning process for test-sites and feasibility-studies, a number of structured interviews were carried out to identify the potentials and limitations of CTS, as envisaged by potentials CTS users/ non-users, who currently do not have any experience with this technology. The recruitment of interviewees was based on the analysis framework of CTS user groups as described earlier. Due to the higher priority of the experience reports for this analysis only a small number of interviews was carried. This small number of interviews resulted in an analysis only based on the responses in a whole and not by the specific CTS user group the respective interviewee represents. The interviewees envisaged various potentials of CTS for different application areas, including low-demand areas, historic city centres and private applications, and having the potential to alleviate some of the current transport-related problems, such as lack of convenience and flexibility of conventional public transport systems or tackling problems connected to private car use, the main advantages of CTS being lower operating and infrastructure costs, better control and higher level of convenience for the end-user, with the most useful operating characteristics being the use of medium-sized vehicles on dedicated lanes, operation of environmentallyfriendly vehicles and a personal/ individual, point-to-point (if not door-to-door) and fully demandresponsive transport. But the interviewees also described various limitations of CTS technology, which were mainly due to the early stage of the development process. Disadvantage of CTS included end-user familiarity with conventional systems, legal and certification issues and scepticism about operation in shared environments. Potential barriers to the deployment of CTS were mainly different organisational difficulties. Therefore some further technology developments were necessary, such as proving safety and reliability through demonstrations and development of innovative infrastructures and vehicles. But there were also areas, where conventional public transport systems were perceived to be more useful, including high demand and areas with strong interaction with other traffic. When trying to define a deployment path for ensuring a successful implementation of CTS, a staged introduction in view of the technology level as well as the size of the application was mentioned. An education of the market and decision-makers was also mentioned as a first step to tackle the unfamiliarity of the technology and to secure funding.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow 6 CONCLUSION
In order to obtain information on the potentials and limitations of CTS, a literature review on CTS-related innovative transport systems has been carried to give a background to the main analysis activities, the experience reports for existing CTS concepts and for the planning process for CTS applications in context of the test-sites and feasibility studies. An additional analysis activity was to carry out a small number of structured interviews with potential system operators and decision-makers, who do not yet have any experience with CTS technology. In the following the results of these three main analysis activities will be summarised. Based on this concluding remarks will be given, summing up the overall results and the implications for further work within the CyberMove and CyberCars projects. The following figure gives a summary of the results of the literature review on CTS-related innovative transport systems. The systems considered for the review include car-sharing/ carpooling, taxi and related concepts, demand-responsive transport and automated highway systems. The main topics described were general information for the respective systems, system characteristics, spatial settings and system performance.
Topic
Innovative Systems reviewed

Car-Sharing Collective use of cars Short-time car rental In Europe since 1970s Special application is the station-car concept Membership fee and refundable deposit Cars are pre-reserved Charged per hr and km Fixed access and car drop-off points Mainly in urban areas Only suitable for short to medium trips Residential or corporate schemes Connection with other modes of transport Specific user groups Main motivation to join is disadvantage of cars High user acceptance Often not economically viable for operator Taxi Concepts Used and operated for a long time world wide Individual transport and demand-responsive Convenient but costly Mainly individual, but shared also possible Fixed starting fee plus fee per km Targeted at special user eg elderly, disabled Mainly for short trips and at nights, due to the high costs involved Used when other public transport not available or not convenient enough Evenly spread over day Politeness and service provided by the driver and call centre staff are very important Use of taxi services for specific trips DRTS Flexible public transport system Combining the service characteristics of buses and taxi Trip reservation always compulsory as no timetabled services Service targeted at the needs of special user, eg elderly, disabled Can be targeted either at the general public or special user groups Varying degree of route flexibility Many-to-one, Many-tofew or one-to-many Many schemes have not been successful Limited use of DRTS, as mainly for specific areas and specific user groups Potential through ITS AHS Research since 1990s Technology and user acceptance successful Discontinued in favour of targeted applications Motorway application to link cars electronically (platooning) Increase capacity and safety Fully automated To be operated using dedicated lanes and entry/ exit facilities Certification of each car before entering system Technology applicable to cars and trucks Significant increase of capacity, but problems with merging Reduces risk of collision through platooning Reliability, acceptance
General Information
System Characteristics
Spatial Setting
System Performance
Fig. 13: Summary of Results from the Literature Review
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The following figure gives a summary of the experience reports for existing CTS concepts.
Topic
General System Description Infrastructure Technology
Summary of Results
RUF is a dual-mode system (the vehicles can use the existing road network in manual operation and through a slot in the middle of the vehicle also an elevated mono-rail in high-speed automated operation), the ULTra also requires a separated infrastructure, all other systems use the existing road network through vehicle guidance. The vehicles for RUF can be in different sizes, a 2-seater, a midi for 6 and a maxi for 10 passengers. The SERPENTINE uses a platform for 4 standing passengers. ULTra vehicles use conventional rubber tyres, the vehicles has space for 4 seats. The FROG vehicles are 10/ 20-seater or 4-seater. The ROBO vehicle has space for 22 passengers. The advantages of all reviewed systems include low operating and implementation costs, convenient transport with short waiting times, environmentally friendly and safe operation, an efficient fleet management, a network-wide origin-to-destination transport and the additional benefit of low energy consumption. Possible application areas include feeder to public transport or the sole public transport mode, e.g. in residential areas, and transport on various private sites with the potential to substitute buses, trains and private cars in urban areas, when implemented on a city-wide scale or targeted applications, when implemented on a smaller scale. For the FROG system 35 studies have been carried out to promote the system, mainly for systems between car parks and public transport interchanges or other points of interest. A total of 7 studies have been carried out for the RUF system, as an extension to the existing public transport system. SERPENTINE carried out 5 studies and ULTra 1. Application areas for FROG were from a car park to a recreational site, P&R, station to business park, station to city-centre, station to shopping centre, station to stadium and on private grounds; for RUF public transport feeder or city-wide; for SERPENTINE urban transport, campus, tourist resort, P&R and access to development sites. The studies for RUF were mainly line systems. The concept for SERPENTINE is to surround the constructed blocks with a mesh of 200m to 400m with a lane similar to a cycle track, using traffic circles in the main intersections to allow exchange. The ULTra application will connect the city centre and a re-development site. Experience with FROG technology included the need to describe the specific advantages of CTS for specific targeted application areas and to educate the market. For RUF it was found, that there is a lot of scepticism due to the innovative character and the lack of experience. For ULTra, there is political support, but there are also various barriers. There are currently three operating systems using the FROG technology, at Shiphol Airport, at Rivium business park near Rotterdam and at the Floriade flower show in Amsterdam (operated by FROG, technology by YAMAHA). One operational system based on the ROBO technology is operated at a historical fort in Simserhof. For the other systems only test-tracks exist In case of FROG, the airport system operates on the long-stay car park, the Rivium business park systems provide transport between an interchange and the business park and the Floriade system transported visitors to the top of an artificial hill at the flower show. The tracks of the three other systems are on private sites for testing. The infrastructure for Shiphol is a double loop track. Each loop is 1km and has 3 stops. The ParkShuttle connects Rivium to a station, 1300m over a single lane with 3 passing locations. At the Floriade 25 CyberCabs provided transport to an observation point. The ROBO system uses 5 vehicles and wire guidance, the track is 800m long. The Shiphol system is well used and appreciated. The ROBO system is restricted to private areas (certification and speed limits). Even though the RUF test track is basic, it attracted media attention and it has proven the basic functionality. The ULTra test has also been positive. The test of SERPENTINE showed difficulty in authorisation
Vehicle Technology
Advantages of System
Possible Application Areas
No. of Studies and Overview
Application Areas
Detailed System Description
Experience with Planning
Operating Systems
No. of Systems and Overview
Application Areas
Experience with Operation
Fig. 14: Summary of Results from the Experience Reports for Systems
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The following figure gives a summary of the experience reports for the planning of CTS sites.
Topic
Site Description Application Area
Summary of Results
The two sites in Coimbra are in the city centre and in a re-development area. In Antibes the system will connect a car park and the marina. The application area of Lausanne-Crissier is a PT system in a peripheral area. In the Nancy site CTS will complement public transport in a new urban development. The two sites in Rome are in the city centre and connection between a station and an exhibition. At all sites a variety of conventional public transport systems (including e.g. buses, light rail, heavy rail, underground, tram, etc.) exist, but the use of private vehicles is favoured, therefore different application of CTS are going to offer a more convenient and flexible mode of public transport for targeted application to tackle the problems of private car use in urban areas. At the sites in Coimbra, the demand characteristics are supply for the businesses and access for staff and customers in the city-centre and targeted users in the redevelopment area. At the Antibes site mainly tourists. In Crissier local user as well as commuters. At the Nancy site mainly short trips between interchange and a cinema. In Rome the city-centre site is targeted at all user-groups and the exhibition application will only be used by visitors. At the sites in Coimbra only a basic concept exists. In Antibes the strategy is to restrict vehicle access to the historic city centre and to reclaim public spaces. In Lausanne individual vehicles are to be operated to relieve congestion. In Nancy various alternatives are examined. In Rome fully automated shuttles are to be operated in a shared environment in the city centre and at the exhibition centre on protected lanes. All systems make use of the existing road network. In Coimbra transponder technology is to be used for. In Antibes the alternatives of transponder or wire guidance are considered. For flexibility the track is shared with bicycles and a manually driven bus. The system for Lausanne will use manually operated vehicles. The Nancy site is at an early stage, different concepts are considered. The vehicle technology to be used for Coimbra sites is ZEVs, GPS technology and fully automated operation/ semi-autonomous operation. In Antibes 4 electric vehicles for 20 passengers are used. In Lausanne electric vehicles for up to 8 passengers are used, a number of them can form a platoon, of which only the first vehicle is driven manually. In Rome electric vehicles for 15 passengers. Antibes: Distance: 1.400m with added 350m option for the Opera events; on demand, 24 hours a day, ca. 5min maximum waiting time; reorganise traffic and reserve one way road for CTS. Lausanne-Crissier: route length 2.5km, number of convoys is 2. Rome city centre: on existing bus line, length 3.25km. The Rome exhibition centre: network length of 4.54km. Increase in network/ link capacity through fleet management and platooning, more convenient public transport, high system flexibility (time of operation, route, type of vehicle, etc.), lower implementation cost (compared to conventional alternatives, e.g. light rail), lower operation costs through automation, high potential when used in new developments. For Coimbra city centre there is some support by the local authority, based on feasibility, for the re-development area a private investor has to be found. For Antibes and Lausanne-Crissier the availability of funding is not known yet, financial partnership with local/ regional authority is applied for and an additional partnership with industry sponsor considered. In Antibes the mobility department is leading the project. Since 1998 the local operators and the industry have followed earlier similar projects in LausanneCrissier, therefore there is a high level interest for this project. For the Rome city centre site a user needs analysis has been carried out. For the Rome exhibition centre site no user needs analysis has been carried out. In case of Coimbra, no alterations of the current land-use planning have to be carried out and no effects on it are foreseen. The Antibes and Lausanne-Crissier projects are in tune with regional and national guidelines on urban mobility plans. In case of Nancy, the new development has the potential to plan land-use and transport system together in a coordinated way. For the Antibes site great interest is shown for the trial period and the planning has been accepted. In the case of Lausanne-Crissier the local authorities have been strongly involved and supportive for recent similar systems, but have not been able to provide the necessary funding. The municipal authority of Rome is the main promoter of the site, but they are concerned about the full automation.
Existing Transport System
Demand Characteristics
Planning Details
System Description
Infrastructure Technology
Vehicle Technology
Proposed Route/ Facility
Advantage of System
Planning Process
Availability of Funding
Stakeholder Involvement
Land-Use Planning
Local Authority Interest
Fig. 15: Summary of Results from the Experience Reports for Sites
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The following figure gives a summary of the results of the structured interviews carried out.
Topic
Potentials of CTS For which Application
Summary of Results
Potential application areas for CTS, as envisaged by the interviewees, include targeted demand characteristics (e.g. low demand at nights or in rural areas), targeted user groups (e.g. elderly or disabled) and targeted sites. CTS was perceived to be most beneficial for a variety of sites, including park&ride, mobility in areas where conventional vehicles are restricted (e.g. historical city centres), private applications (e.g. them parks), to complement existing public transport systems, as a feeder system or to cover the first/ last step of a multi-modal journey, which cannot be covered by conventional systems. In general CTS is most useful as a private and individual mode of transport for short distances and when operated on-demand. Existing transport related problems, which can be solved through the use of CTS are the operating cost for transport systems in the case of low demand and the lack of flexibility of conventional public transport systems (rigid timetable and routes), various disadvantages of car sharing (e.g. vehicles not specifically designed for urban environments), the need for heavy, expensive and visually-intrusive elevated rail structures for alternative systems, lack of convenience of conventional public transport (e.g. different modes and the general concept of corridor transport leading to the need for interchanges and to waiting times) and conventional buses not suitable for urban environments (e.g. pollution, safety, noise, etc.). The advantages of CTS, as mentioned by the interviewees, include cost reductions through automated operation, better control over system operation for the operator (revenue) and the relevant transport authority (traffic safety, public transport regulations, social issues, economic issues and funding), providing individual and on-demand operation with short waiting times, high degree of service flexibility, access to areas restricted for conventional vehicles, low infrastructure costs through the possibility of using the existing road network. The operating characteristics, which would ensure the best use of CTS, described by the interviewees were use of medium-sized vehicles on dedicated lanes (ensure traffic safety through clear separation of CTS and other traffic, e.g. manually driven vehicles, cyclists or pedestrians), advanced methods of payment (e.g. smartcards), provide high level of safety (CCTV), comfort and environmentally-friendly vehicles (zero-emission-vehicles), dual-operation (manual and operated in different parts of the network), personal transport with individual vehicles, off-line stops. In view of the limitations of CTS the disadvantages as mentioned by the interviewees included legal/ certification issues at this early stage of the development, the difficulties of interacting with manually driven vehicles, the lower number of passengers, which can be transported, higher degree of user familiarity with conventional systems and CTS not being useful for longdistance transport. Potential barriers to deployment of CTS were scepticism of CTS being operated in an environment shared with manually driven vehicles, cyclists or pedestrians, but a separation is not desired (visual impact) and often not possible (lack of public space) in urban areas, the lack of regulations at this early stage of the development process and organisational difficulties in integrating CTS with conventional public transport. Further developments of CTS technology to enable a more widespread implementation of CTS includes prove of traffic safety (legal reasons) through real-size demonstrations especially in view of obstacle detection and route guidance systems, design of dedicated protected infrastructures and innovative vehicles and fleet management systems for efficient and userfriendly (e.g. waiting time) operation. Areas where conventional public transport systems are more beneficial, described by the interviewees were systematic or high mobility demand, which can be better satisfied with existing mass transport systems and applications where a separation is not possible, so that the vehicles have to be operated in a shared environment with a strong interaction with manually driven vehicles, cyclists or pedestrians. The deployment path to be followed for a successful and widespread implementation of CTS in urban environments, as described by the interviewees, included implementing the technology in a number of stages, starting with driver assistance system, followed by semi-automatic systems and then full automation (technology related) and starting with test-tracks on private grounds, then small-scale applications for the public as demonstration and later as permanent systems, then in stages increasing the size of the scheme (application related), education of the market, the authorities and the users to tackle the unfamiliarity of this innovative technology and securing funding for this technology through local taxes (e.g. congestion charging schemes or general mobility taxes).
To solve which Problems
Which Advantages
Operating Characteristics
Limitations of CTS
In which Cases Disadvantages
Barriers to be considered
Necessary Developments
Applications not useful
Deployment Path for CTS
Fig. 16: Summary of Results from the Structured Interviews
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The literature review was carried out to obtain information on potentials and limitations of CTSrelated existing innovative transport systems (car-sharing, taxi concepts, DRTS, AHS). The main results of this analysis activity included the need for clearly defining the objectives of a planned system and successfully communicating them to the public; not trying to implement a number of innovations in a single trial and at an early stage of the development process; to carefully assess the technological and economic feasibility in advance; and the requirements for large incentives and very clear benefits to overcome the barrier to deployment, which is posed by the strong private car dependency in our society. The main differences between the reviewed systems are, that RUF is a dual-mode system, that RUF and ULTra require a dedicated infrastructure and that the other systems can use the road network. The vehicles differ in size from individual to group transport, but not providing mass transport. Advantages include low infrastructure and implementation costs and increased convenience. Possible application areas are feeder to public transport, transport in historic city centres or on private sites. Various studies have been carried out to prove the potentials of these systems, but also the need to explain the advantages of CTS and to educate the market. The planning of the reviewed sites is at different stages of the process of seeking funding, determining the demand characteristics and carrying out the detailed system planning. In most cases the use of fully automated shuttles is planned with the exception of a semi-automated system and a platooning system. The anticipated advantages of the systems include increased network/ link capacity, higher convenience for end-user and lower implementation and operating costs. At this early stage of the planning process the funding still remains a problem for all sites due to the (real and perceived by the decision-makers) risk of implementing an innovative technology like CTS. The interviewees envisaged various potentials for different application areas, including lowdemand areas, historic city centres and private applications, and having the potential to alleviate some of the current transport-related problems. Disadvantages of CTS included end-user familiarity with conventional systems, legal and certification issues and scepticism about operation in shared environments. Potential barriers to the deployment of CTS were mainly different organisational difficulties. When trying to define a deployment path for ensuring a successful implementation of CTS, a staged introduction in view of the technology level as well as the size of the application and education of the market was mentioned.
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow The main objectives of this analysis of potentials and limitations of CTS were to examine the system operating scenarios for CTS, the barriers to deployment of CTS and the deployment path for a widespread introduction of CTS in urban areas. In the following the main results of this analysis will be described in view of these three headings. System Operating Scenarios for CTS: - Public transport in areas, where conventional transport is restricted (historic city centres) - Public transport for low-demand areas (rural areas) or at low-demand times (at nights) - Feeder applications to multi-modal public transport interchanges and/ or park&ride - System to cover last-mile, which cannot be served by conventional public transport - Sole mode of transport on various private sites (theme park, exhibition, campus, etc.) - Small to medium-scale applications in contained environments for targeted demands Barriers to the Deployment of CTS: - End-User familiarity with conventional public transport systems and modes - General perception of public transport and the implications of the private car society - Organisational issues for coordinating CTS and the existing multi-modal system - Little experience with CTS leading to a high risk for operators and decision-makers - Scepticism towards CTS operating in shared environments with other traffic - Legal/ certification issues and securing funding for implementation and operation Deployment Path for CTS Implementation: - Staged introduction of CTS to prepare the market and to prove the technology: Technology-related: Driver-Assistance Semi-Automation Full Automation Application-related: Test-track on private grounds Small-scale public demo Small-scale permanent system, then gradually increasing the scale - Education of the market to tackle unfamiliarity with an innovative technology like CTS - Securing funding for CTS implementation (e.g. through congestion charging, mobility tax)
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ANNEX A:
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW ON INNOVATIVE SYSTEMS
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Category Location System Issue General Description
Car Sharing Turin (Italy) Elettra Park
CyberMove WP1 T1.1/ T1.3 CTS Potentials and Limitations Literature Review Examples
Summary of Results
Air quality in the city of Turin is quite poor, which is to a considerable extent due to heavy car use. Noise is also considered an important source of nuisance. A strong need is felt to improve the quality of life in the city. This resulted in the Elettra Park project, a carsharing system with electric vehicles, which ran between September 1996 and December 1998. The pilot had a budget of about 1 million Euro and is sponsored by the City of Turin and Fiat in co-operation with the AEM (Turin electricity supplier) and ATM (the Turin public transport company). Furthermore the system is monitored by the Italian research organisation CSST with regard to the technical operation and the customer responses. The main goals of the project are to improve the quality of life in the city by reducing noise pollution and improving local air quality, and to test the technology and user acceptance of the new system.
The Elettra Park project involves a fleet of electric cars (Fiat Pandas), which can be automatically rented in a public parking area. The cars have a maximum capacity of two passengers as the back seat is taken up by the battery. A full recharge of a vehicle takes approximately 8 hours, allowing a range of 50 to 70km, and a maximum speed of 100 km/hr. Next to the rental station, a parking lot was created for Elettra Park customers to park their private car. Customers have to sign a contract and pay a deposit. The customers then receive an electronic card on which an identification code and the prepaid amount are recorded. At the parking lot, the customer inserts the electronic card into one of the two master columns, and enters her/his identification code. When approved, the system allocates the vehicle with the best state-of-charge of the battery. The power supply is interrupted and the vehicles doors are opened by a centralised mechanism. The customer has to remove the recharge plug and then gets into the vehicle, finding the keys inserted. After use, the vehicle has to be returned to the parking area. The customer then turns off the vehicle, (leaving the key in the vehicle) connects the vehicle to the recharge column, inserts the electronic card in the masters column and enters her/his identification code. The central management unit locks the vehicles doors, locks the recharge plug and sub-tracks the rental fee, which is based on the used time, from the prepaid amount memorised on the card. The minimal rental fee is 1.8 Euro for the use up to one hour. After this period, the additional fee is 0.03 Euro per minute during the second hour and 0.04 Euro per minute for each additional hour.
Spatial Setting
The Elettra Park is located very near the city centre of Turin. In total, a number of 22 vehicles has been made available for public use. The system can be used only inside the urban area, and is available from 7.00 a.m. to 10.30 p.m. during the whole week. Customers are free to drive up to approximately 50km around the city, including within the limited traffic zone and on days when private vehicles are excluded. Furthermore the use of parking areas throughout the city centre is free of charge for electric vehicles.
Performance and Findings
In the first half year of the experiment, about 1500 cards had been sold to users. Peak sales were in the first few weeks with the first 800 cards sold in the first month, dropping to an average of around 10 new customers each week. During this first period about 40% of the customers only made a single trip, about the same number made 2-5 trips, while 17% are regular users making 6 or more trips. A part of the clientele made no trips because they had only recently purchased the card. The average number of trips for the total system was 27 trips per day. For most trips the renting time varied between 1 and 2 hours, of which it is driven for 0.5 to 1.5 hours. The average distance covered during a single mission lies around 18.7km. When this value is compared to the average distance of an urban displacement in Turin of 12.4 km, it can be hypothesised that the use of the electric vehicles is connected to longer trips or better, to several reasons. The age distribution of users is quite uneven. Some 42% are between 18 and 27 while 27% are between 28 and 37. The use seems to decrease rapidly with age. Most users are students (31%), followed by office workers (18%) and independent professionals (12%). Furthermore, according to the interviewed expert of CSST most Elettra Park participants had a average to high income and a high level of education. More males then females joined the project. The positive acceptance of the Elettra Park system by younger people can be attributed to both socio-cultural phenomena (greater attention to respect for the environment, curiosity, etc.) and to more practical reasons such as not having a car of ones own (Carrara & Inaudi, 1997). About half of all trips are made for reasons of shopping (18%) and running errands (31%) while 14% of the trips is made for work purposes. A great majority of the Elettra Park users (84%) live in Turin, and of these about 50% within a radius of 1 km of the parking area. 12% come from surrounding towns. As most users live very near to the parking, it is not surprising that a great share (43%) reach the parking area by foot. 25% use public transport, while 14% exchange their own vehicle for an electric one at the transfer point. The overall user satisfaction turned out to be positive. The self-service operation of taking out and returning the vehicles was judged to be easy, there were no problems with the electronic card and the fees were considered fair. The most serious points of criticism concerned the opening hours and waiting times. 33% of the customers felt that the system should be available for a longer period of the day. The limited availability was valued negatively by 48% of the customers. Because of the high number of customers and the required recharging time, at some times of the day (the late morning and early afternoon) not enough vehicles were available to satisfy all the requests. The Elettra Park demonstrated the technical feasibility of a system of automated rental of electric vehicles. Also it has been accepted by a large group of customers. The system was not a commercial success, but this was not an objective of the project. The main barrier to the implementation of Elettra Park is the high capital cost of the system. This is especially attributed to the high cost of the battery of the electric vehicles and the information technology to manage and operate the system. According to the interviewed expert of CSST it will be very difficult for such a system to become profitable, but when measured by other indicators, the system can be seen as successful. Since March 1999, the city of Naples has been operating two hiring stations similar to the former Elettra Park in Turin. This initiative is part of the ATENA project. Unfortunately no information about the initial findings of this project is currently available.
Fig. A1: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing Elettra Park)
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Category Country System Issue General Description
Car Sharing San Francisco (USA) CarLink
Summary of Results
The majority of trips in the U.S.A. are drive-alone car trips. Apparently transit services are unable to satisfy the presumed high value placed on instant flexibility and mobility. To improve the competitiveness with private cars, CarLink, a commuter based carsharing project was initiated in the San Francisco Bay Area. The primary CarLink partners included the Institute of Transportation Studies at the University of California Davis, American Honda Motor Company, the Bay Area Rapid Transit District (BART), the California Department of Transportation and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. These partners provided funding, technical assistance and donations to test and evaluate CarLink. INVERS and Teletrac provided advanced carsharing and vehicle tracking technologies. The CarLink project, which operated from January 1999 to November 1999, was intended as a short-term, exploratory demonstration to gain insights into participant response to this concept.
12 natural gas powered Honda Civics were made available for shared use by a maximum of 60 participants. The CarLink model includes three user structures: Homebased Users, Workbased Commuters and Day Users. Homebased users drove a CarLink vehicle between home and the DublinPleaston station daily, keeping the car overnight and through the weekends for personal use. There was a fee of $200 per month for this package. Workbased commuters took BART to the Dublin-Pleaston station and drove CarLink vehicles to and from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory at a nearby businesspark (possibly carpooling with other workside commuters). There was a fee of $60 per month for this package. Most Homeside Users parked CarLink vehicles at BART in the morning before the majority of WorkSide Commuters arrived at the station. In the evening the opposite 65ulfil65a. Day users employed CarLink vehicles for business trips or personal errands during the day. The fee was $1.50 per hour and $0.10 per mile for personal trips. All user fees included fuel, insurance and maintenance costs.
Spatial Setting
The Dublin-Pleaston BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit) station was the main access point for the CarLink vehicles (the cars were exchanged by Homeside and Workside participants at this location) The station attracts residents from the immediate surrounding areas as well as those living up to an hour away. The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory served as the workside employment center for the field test. The laboratory is located approximately 25 kilometres east of the Dublin-Pleaston station. Bus connections between the BART station and the laboratory are offered on a limited and fixed basis and require approximately 45 minutes.
Fifty-four participants, six members short of the targeted number, joined the ten-month CarLink programme. The clientele consisted of 11 homeside users, 20 workside commuters and 24 day users, but of the last group only 6 members actually used the service. As expected, the majority of the Homeside User trips (65%) were between BART and home, and most Workside Commuter trips (80%) were between BART and work. Shopping (10%) and visit/recreation (10%) were other purposes for Homeside user trips. Most Day Use trips were made for personal related purposes (40%) and business related purposes (20%). 12% Of Day Use trips were to nearby living individuals homes for lunch or to pick up an item. After joining CarLink, Homeside Users and Workside Commuters decreased their personal vehicle use. Although the CarLink survey population is too small to draw significant conclusions, participant profiles can indicate some general trends. Homeside users tended to live in suburban areas in the vicinity of the Dublin-Pleaston station. All Homeside users commuted by BART prior to the CarLink programme. Workside commuters were more likely to live in a large urban area, and about half used BART to commute on a regular basis prior to joining CarLink. Day users were the most diverse among CarLink groups. They were likely to live in small cities or suburbs, with a variety of commute modes prior to CarLink. The field test participants exhibited a high degree of modal satisfaction prior to CarLink use and a majority of of participants (60%) did not change their current transport modes. Thus, modal satisfaction was not a principal motivating factor for CarLink participation. Guaranteed parking at the BART station however turned out to be a key success factor. Taken as a whole, CarLink users were predominantly male (67%), married (69%), employed (100%) with a high level of education (75%) and high incomes (81%) Moreover 36% of all users were between 24 and 40 years of age and 59% were between 41 and 64 years of age. A survey prior to the CarLink field test showed that those interested in CarLink use were 4 times more likely to express environmental concern. The costs of the CarLink project exceeded the revenues, but gaining a maximum profit was not a principal goal of the demonstration project. Scenario analyses show however a potential economic viability of the service. According to the interviewed field test manager of CarLink II programme, the number of homeside users will be the bottleneck for the CarLink market potential. In August 2001 CarLink II has been launched operations. The primary differences from CarLink I are an increase from 12 to 27 vehicles, a shift from one employer to many and an emphasis on economic viability. Results of this project are expected at the end of 2002.
Fig. A2: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing CarLink)
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Car Sharing Amsterdam (The Netherlands) Witkar
Summary of Results
In 1974 an on-demand carsharing project called Witkar was started in Amsterdam by a group of volunteers. The main goal of the project was the reduction of space and energy needed for urban transportation by substitution of private car use for use of small electric public vehicles. The Witkar project was ended after about a decade in October 1986.
The Witkar system can be regarded as a station car concept. This concept consists of cars parked at central locations, such as transit stations, business parks, high density residential areas, etc. that can be hired and driven by subscribers for any type of short trip. After a trip, the user can leave the vehicle at any station designed for the station car vehicles, where it can be picked up by another user. The Witkar vehicles could be used for the transportation of up to two people in the inner city and surrounding districts of Amsterdam. The vehicles could be driven on the urban road network, mixed with regular cars. Origin and destination of a ride had to be any Witkar station, where the electric vehicle could be recharged again. The price of a ride was based on the time a vehicle had been used. (0.07 Euro per minute) To be able to use a Witkar, one had to have a driving license, and be a member of the Witkar organisation, costing a membership fee of 1.8 Euro per month. A special key gave access to the vehicles, and was used for identification of the driver and registration of the ride. The key was linked to a prepaid users account at the bank of Amsterdam, making automated billing possible.
Spatial Setting
The Witkar project is taking place in the inner urban area of Amsterdam. The inner city of Amsterdam has a high density of shopping working and recreation places and the surrounding central districts have a rather high population density. Amsterdam is characterised by a dense public transport network, but the city is also accessible by car. However, due to the sparse space, some parking problems arise for the private car. The Witkar project started in 1974 with just 4 vehicles and 1 station near the inner city of Amsterdam. A few years later the system had increased to a number of 25 vehicles and 7 stations, spread across the inner city and central districts of Amsterdam. Strangely it is unclear which criteria were used to locate the Witkar stations because in some cases it seems rather illogical. Because the Witkar had a maximum driving range of about 6km, the vehicles could only be used in the inner urban area.
According to the Witkar organisation, the Witkar was mainly targeted toward local residents, tourists, public transport users and hotel guests for working, shopping and recreation purposes. It remains however unclear by what groups and for what purpose the system has actually been used. In 1976 the Witkar organisation had about 3500 subscribed members. Most of the members were male, between 18 and 30 years old with no children and highly educated. About 50% of them owned a car. An important fact however is that the major part of the 3500 members did not have the intention or possibility to use the Witkar at all, but paid a contribution because of ideological reasons. Therefore the profile of the actual users of the Witkar is not very clear. In 1986 the business organisation CIMK calculated the economic potential of the Witkar. Assuming the Witkar would not substitute rides with public transport and rides of less than 1 km and restricting the influence of the Witkar to an area within 250 meter of a Witkar station, the CIMK found that only a very small part of all movements in the inner-city and surrounding districts were potential Witkar trips. Therefore the Witkar system could only be economical efficient with at least 19 to 25 stations and 17000 to 19000 members. The Witkar project however never got that big. In 1986, just before the project was ended, only 3 stations and about 9 vehicles were still in use. The main disadvantages of the system turned out to be the very small driving range of about 6 km, due to worn batteries, failing electronics and poor availability at the stations. A typical problem of the system was the lack of vehicles at origin stations, and a lack of parking space at destination stations. An additional problem emerged at full stations because the registration of the Witkar use could not be ended when the vehicle wasnt parked at the station. These problems, in combination with the few available stations made the system less attractive to use, and caused financial inefficiency. The Witkar organisation, entirely consisting of volunteers, put all available money in the technical development of the Witkar and because the system wasnt profitable, no money remained to make the system economically efficient by increasing the number of stations. Therefore the Witkar got captured in a vicious circle. Due to too few users there was not enough money to make the system more attractive by increasing the number of stations. In combination with the technical problems this caused a decreasing number of people using the Witkar, then even less money was available to improve the system etc.
Fig. A3: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing Witkar)
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Car Sharing Switzerland CityCar
Summary of Results
Of the 26 Swiss Cantons, Valais has the highest proportion of private electric vehicles. This is mainly due to the car-free mountain resorts, which are the Cantons most frequently visited tourist destinations. The presence of electric vehicles and the popularity of the region among tourists could be seen as a possible cause-and-effect relationship. In this context Martigny, a small town in Valais, decided to join in a Swiss trial with electric vehicles. From February 1998 to November 2001 an innovative pilot called CityCar took place in Martigny. The project involved making a fleet of electric vehicles available to the population. Approximately half the cost of the trial was financed by local and federal authorities, while the remainder of the costs is financed by several private partners, headed by Poste Suisse. The project started with a test phase and a first evaluation. From May 2000 to June 2001 the CityCar service was opened for the general public.
The CityCar system can be regarded as a station car concept. This concept consists of cars parked at central locations, such as transit stations, businessparks, high density residential areas, etc. that can be hired and driven by subscribers for any type of short trip. After a trip, the user can leave the vehicle at any station designed for the station car vehicles, where it can be picked up by another user. The vehicles, Ligier Ambras with a capacity of two people, are electric-powered and have a range of approximately 80km. Given the available vehicle autonomy, the CityCar vehicles can be recharged overnight at the stations. The speed of the vehicles is limited to 50 km/h. Positioning of the CityCars by GPS and in-car electronics provide a permanent link between the vehicles and the CityCar team at the control center, enabling continuous management and monitoring of the car fleet. The CityCar team can track the vehicles on a map, automatically reduce vehicle speeds to comply with speed limits, restrict the action radius to keep the vehicles in a specific sector and identify abnormal use of the CityCars. Moreover the CityCar team is responsible for the vehicles maintenance, vehicle distribution to the stations and customer relations. Subscribers to the CityCar project get a personal smartcard and a code. The smartcard provides access to the CityCar and by entering the code, after which the vehicle starts. During the trip the smartcard registers relevant data like the duration of the trip and the vehicle milage. After each trip a receipt is automatically produced and send to the subscriber. The price consists of 1.35 Euro per trip, plus 0.10 Euro per minute driven and 0.03 Euro per minute parked. There is a possibility to make a vehicle reservation for 0.70 Euro. These prices are kept relative low to keep the service available for everyone.
Spatial Setting
The CityCar project in Martigny involves a fleet of 30 CityCars. The self-service vehicles are distributed among 20 stations which have been set up in the city center and the surrounding districts. Temporary parking at the public parking lots in Martigny is free of charge for CityCars (however a price of 0.03 Euro per parked minute is charged by the CityCar system). The three main objectives of the CityCar pilot in Martigny are to decrease pollution, decrease the use of conventional fuel and offer a mobility service to the population and visitors of Martigny. The service mainly targets three types of customer: people who live near CityCar stations for shopping and recereation, tourists and business and office staff for travel in town.
According to a questionnaire (n=179) held among residents of Martigny in October 1998, (previous to the start of the CityCar test phase) the majority of the respondents (75%) had a very positive opinion about the CityCar project, especially the group between 18 and 25 years old. Of all respondents only 7% felt negative about the CityCar. 31% of the respondents expect never to use the CityCar, 45% expects to use the service and 13% expects to use it often. Again the group of age between 18 and 25 is the most positive, while the group above 55 years old appeared to be the least interested in the CityCar service. When the respondents were asked to mention the greatest benefit of the CityCar, an overwhelming majority came up with the environmental friendly character of the system (63%) followed by the preferred parking (8%). The most named disadvantages were the small size of the vehicle (18%) and the price of the service (17%). The first disadvantage seemed to be especially important to younger people, while the second disadvantage was more often for elderly people. After the CityCar service closed down in June 2001, an evaluation of the project has been carried out. The evaluation study mainly on the technical side of the project. It turned out the CityCar was a technical success, and the pilot has met its objectives by decreasing pollution and the use of conventional fuel and offering a new mobility service to the population and visitors of Martigny. The economic viability of the CityCar however turned out to be very poor.
Fig. A4: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing CityCar)
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Car Sharing Paris (France) Praxitele
Summary of Results
In October 1997 the Praxitele project started in Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, a town in the Paris region. The Praxitele is an on demand carsharing system, based on the same concept as the former Witkar in Amsterdam. The main aims are to improve the liveability of cities, by reducing air and noise pollution and improving access to urban area, and to diversify the public transport supply by offering a more individualised public transport system, which favours intermodality and use of public transport in general. The project was ended after a 20-month period in July 1999.
Spatial Setting
The Praxitele system can be regarded as a station car concept. This concept consists of cars parked at central locations, such as transit stations, business parks, high density residential areas, etc. that can be hired and driven by subscribers for any type of short trip. After a trip, the user can leave the vehicle at any station designed for the station car vehicles, where it can be picked up by another user. The Praxitele project provides users with 4 passenger electric vehicles (Renault Clio) for short urban trips between dedicated stations. The origin and destination of a trip can be at any station, where the vehicles can be recharged. In the first phase of the project, access to the vehicles was provided by members of the Praxitele service staff, called jockeys, which were present at each station between 7.30 am and 7.00 pm. In the second phase the vehicles were accessible 24 hours a day with a non-contact smart card. The price is based on the time of use and consisted of a flat fare for the first 30 minutes (between 1.5 and 7.5 Euro) and a price per additional minute (between 0.15 and 0.30 Euro per minute) Different prices have been made for use at peak hours or off-peak hours and paying a subscription fee of 6.10 Euro per month or no subscription. The jockeys, who gave the users access to the vehicles in the first phase of the project, had another important function that did remain essential in the second phase, namely driving vehicles from one station to another in response to demand. The performance of the system depended on its capacity to satisfy the large majority of customers at the stations. Achieving this required a system, which redistributed (empty) cars between the stations on the basis of relative levels of demand at each. A third function of the jockeys concerned the cleaning and handling minor maintanance of the vehicles. The Praxitele pilot project is taking place in Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, some 20km to the West of Paris city limits. Saint-Quentin has a low population density and is typically designed for the car-system. The city has a large road system and virtually no congestion or parking problems, except at the railway station. According to the residents the public transport network is very good during peak-hours, but inadequate at off-peak hours. The project started with 30 vehicles and 5 stations, one next to the railway station, two within residential areas and two in or near local research parks. At the end of the project, in July 1999, the number of vehicles had increased from 30 to 47 while the number of stations rose from 5 to 14. The new stations however had in some cases rather poor facilities and vehicles could only be recharged at the 5 initial stations.
Most use of the Praxitele was a feeder service to a railway station. 75% of the trips in March 1999 had the Montigny railway station as either their origin or destination, frequently for work-related purposes, which accounted for an increasingly polarized utilization of the service during peak periods. (ca. 60% of all trips were made at peak hours) The links within the town were dominated by trips between the shopping centres and residential areas. The local traffic rose steadily as new stations were opened later on, in spite of the poor facilities at some of them. Utilization of residential stations, those at shopping centres and the railway station has taken off, while use of the stations located at employment centres or firms has, in most cases, never done so. As a result, seven stations were responsible for 95% of the traffic in April 1999. The Praxitele was targeted toward 3 different market segments; the local residents, the employees of local companies and the visitors to these companies. During the project residents pointed out to be much easier to attract to the system than employees and even regular visitors. Measures have been taken to balance the segments in the experiment, but their effect has not been very strong. Most users of the system were male, employed, under age of 35, highly educated and lived in Saint-Quentin, frequently near (less than 400m) a station. About one quarter of the users had no car, one quarter was sharing a car with other members of the household and almost half of the users had a car available to them personally. The most devoted users of the system were people who never had a car available to them personally. For this group the distance to the station played a very marginal role. For persons living in a household with at least one car the distance to a station turned out to be decisive in determining the level of use. The Praxitele use showed a steady, non-asymptotic rise in both the number of subscribed users and the frequency of use during the 20-month period of the project. The trial has shown that despite the spatial limitations there is a serious potential for the concept, attracting a widely differentiated clientele, including car owners. A second conclusion that can be drawn from the project is the technical feasibility of the concept. The Praxitele operating team was able to handle the minor technical problems that appeared and as a result of improvements in maintenance practices the presence rate of the vehicles increased throughout the trial. In April 1999 about 90% of the fleet was available for use. An average rate of one car for eight customers was achieved during the last six months of the project. The vehicles were used mainly for short trips, with an average distance of 7,6 km and an average duration of 23 minutes. Because the vehicles were capable of driving over 60 km, this didnt appear to be a problem. In the first stage of the project, when only 5 stations were available, 60% of all trips were made between different stations and 40% was made in a loop, with the same station as both origin and destination point. In a later stadium, when the number of stations had increased from 5 to 14, around 90% of all trips were made between different stations. Users stated that without the Praxitele they would use the bus (60%) or private car (38%). The level of use of the Praxitele at night (8% of working day traffic), and in the early evening and daytime offpeak periods (40% of working day trips) provides the basis for the success of the system. Redistribution of the vehicles by jockeys in response to demand turned out to be decisive for the performance of the system. Somewhat more than 50% of the jockeys time was taken by redistribution of vehicles in response to demand. Recharging of the vehicles took up about 25% of their working time, just as the third task of the jockeys: cleaning, maintenance and repairs. In April 1999 a capacity of 43 vehicles proved to be sufficient for meeting the demand. Simulations have shown that without redistribution (except at the end of the day) a capacity of 59 vehicles was required to reach the same level. The availability of recharging facilities at just 5 out of 14 stations caused an additional need for redistribution trips. In July 1998 only 46% of all trips were commercial trips. Ironically in this way the concept can be interpreted as a taxi service, with the taxidriver following instead of driving the vehicle. In a later stage of the project the redistribution of the vehicles was managed by the control center, where the redistribution process was carried out by using complex algorithms. The combination of low volumes and high spatial and temporal variations in traffic caused great difficulty in forcasting demand, but in April 1999 the share of the commercial trips hade rose to 70% of all trips. If automatic recharging facilities had been available at every station, the non commercial redistribution trips could probably be further reduced from 30% to 20% of all trips. During the project it became clear that some stations were more popular than others. For example 75% of all trips had the Montigny railway station as either origin or destination. Because of the emerge of principal stations, just like any other transport system, spreading over a greater area requires disproportionate growth of the amount of vehicles or redistribution trips. Simulations have shown that without redistribution 34 vehicles would be able to serve the traffic from the 3 principal stations (75% of all trips). For the whole system, a number of 59 vehicles is required. The 25 additional vehicles are disproportionate when compared to the extra generated traffic, but necessary to allow the system to operate as a network, which is an essential aspect of the concept. Because the version of the Praxitele was a prototype and not a fully developed system, the trial showed very high fixed costs. It is expected these costs will reduce as technology has improved and fallen in price and the system will be fully developed. The operating costs of the Praxitele were also rather high, partial due to the small scale of the project. At present time, the average costs of an 8km trip is approximately 10.9 Euro. The maximum price which the great majority of Praxitele users regard as acceptable for such a trip is 3.8 Euro. This means the system is still far from achieving equilibrium for the variable costs.
Fig. A5: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing Praxitele)
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Car Sharing La Rochelle (France) Liselec
Summary of Results
La Rochelle has long been a pioneer in urban environmental protection and city-friendly public transit systems. Concrete measures for the environment have been taken since the early 1970s. A few years ago, the city was looking for an environmental-friendly transport system to improve public transport attraction by offering an additional service for short trips in the urban area. La Rochelle decided to sign a partnership with the group of three partners that created the Liselec concept. PSA Peugot Citroen provides the electric cars, Alcatel CGA is in charge of the electronics and Via GTI coordinates the group. Since September Liselec has been operational in La Rochelle.
The Liselec system can be regarded as a station car concept. This concept consists of cars parked at central locations, such as transit stations, businessparks, high density residential areas, etc. that can be hired and driven by subscribers for any type of short trip. After a trip, the user can leave the vehicle at any station designed for the station car vehicles, where it can be picked up by another user. Customers who join the Liselec programme sign a contract and pay in advance. Two types of contracts are available. The most used type of payment are package rates, consisting of a monthly subscription fee of 5.5 Euro and a price for the actual consumption, based on the time of use (0.09 Euro per minute) and mileage (0.18 Euro). The transaction ends once the vehicle has been returned at one of the seven stations. The second type of contract, especially targeted towards firms, is a flat monthly rate for 5 to 100 hours of use and an unlimited mileage. The minimum duration of any contract is 3 months. To use the Liselec service, customers go to any of the stations where a number of vehicles are available round the clock and seven days a week. Cars that are charged and ready to go can be recognised by a green light on the rear. When a customer waves a prepaid smartcard, which was given after signing a contract, in front of the terminal, which is visible through the left rear window, the doors unlock automatically. Inside the car a code has to be entered into the keypad to release the vehicle lock. When returning the vehicle to a station, the code has to be re-entered into the keypad. The elapsed time will appear on the screen. To lock the door, the smartcard should be waved in front of the terminal. When a car comes back on a station, it transfers by radio the data recorded during a trip to a modem located on the station. Every 30 minutes, each modem calls the central computer and transfer the data, so the Liselec staff can monitor the vehicles and decide if it is necessary to redistribute the vehicles. Moreover, the 6 jockeys go around four times a day on each station to take care of the cars and also see if redistribution is necessary.
Spatial Setting
Divided over seven locations in La Rochelle 25 electric Peugot 106s and 25 electric Citroen Saxos are available for the subscribers. The Liselec stations are located at high-use places in the inner urban area of La Rochelle: the bus station, the railway station, the university complex, the cultural centre, the sports complex and at the downtown shopping area. In June 2001 a seventh station has been created at the harbour. The locations at the university and the shopping area turned out to be the most popular stations. According to an interviewed expert of the city of La Rochelle the stations have to be located rather nearby each other in order to allow rapid redistribution and therefore guarantee of vehicle availability. The Liselec users are free to move around in La Rochelle, or make a trip to one of the 17 surrounding cities. The use of parking areas throughout the city is free of charge for electric vehicles.
The average Liselec trip covers 6 kilometres and the mean time of use is 33 minutes. Although it is allowed to make longer trips towards surrounding cities, this does not happen very often. Most trips are short and directly from one station to another. The Liselec service is used by customers on average 90 times a day. According to the interviewed expert of the city of La Rochelle, the average number of redistribution trips lies around 20 trips, so 82% of all trips can be regarded as commercial trips. This does not make the Liselec profitable. According to the interviewed expert of the La Rochelle does not necessarily have to be profitable. About 62% of Liselecs operational costs are covered by the revenues. This is twice as much as the average public transport system in France. Liselec users are generally young, 50% of is less then 35 years old. Students form the principal group of customers (37%), followed by shopkeepers (15%) and employees of local companies (13%). Most customers have a high level of education, and the majority of the clientele (69%) is men. According to an interviewed expert of the city of La Rochelle the Liselec service is mostly used for shopping or running errands in the late afternoon. The Liselec is also often used in the evening by students for trips towards the city centre for recreation purposes. The bus service is not available at that time. The Liselec service attracted around 470 subscribers during the first 18 months of the service. With about 6 new clients every week, there is now a steady grow in the Liselec clientele. According to an interviewed expert of the city of La Rochelle, of the 270 cancellations since the start of the service only 5 were unsatisfied customers. Most cancellations are made by students who end their study and move out of the city. A survey among 130 customers showed that the users have a very positive opinion of the service. Members especially appreciated the driving comfort of the cars, the self-service system, the availability of the cars and the competence of the sales agency staff. There seems however to be a demand for more stations
Fig. A6: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing Liselec)
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Taxi Concepts Toulouse (France) Le Touc
Summary of Results
In April 1998 the Touc project was launched in the French city Toulouse. The project resulted from crossing different needs. The local authority wanted to guarantee and maintain social activity in the downtown areas, while limiting the use of cars in the city by reducing the parking spot number. The Casino supermarket in the city centre wanted to stop the purchase transfer to the city peripheral shopping centres and the industry wanted to offer a new transportation service using clean vehicles. This resulted in the application of Le Touc, an electric vehicle providing a free taxi service in the inner city of Toulouse.
The Touc is a small four-wheeled electric vehicle with no doors and no heating system. It can be compared in appearance to the three-wheeled vehicles, which are used in Asian countries. The Touc is able to carry four passengers plus the driver, leaving room at the back of the vehicle for an enclosed cargo area with a capacity of 150 kilos. The maximum speed lies around 30 to 35 km/h, but regarding to the French law, the vehicle is a heavy four wheels cycle and is not allowed to go faster then 34 km/h. The operating range of the electric vehicle is approximately 80 km. The Touc is developed for short trips of up to 5km. Although journeys of this distance are usually covered by walking or cycling, in some cases like most elderly people, families with young children, or anyone carrying heavy bags, this is not an option.
Spatial Setting
The Touc application in Toulouse is the result of a cooperation between mobility provider Touclouse and the Pont des Demoiselles supermarket, part of one of the biggest French supermarket chain Casino. The supermarket is located in a densely populated urban area close to the centre of Toulouse, with only eighty parking spots, shared with other business. To stop the purchase transfer to the city peripheral shopping centres and to improve his sales, the manager of the Casino supermarket contracted Le Touc in order to provide free transportation to customers between the supermarket and their homes. Casino also gets the advertising rights on the large rear and side panels that enclose the cargo area at the back of each vehicle. The city of Toulouse also provides a modest subsidy to Le Touc. The project started with four vehicles and seven drivers. Three vehicles are circulating while the last one is charging or under maintenance. Customers can call the Toucs central office to arrange to be picked up at a specific time. All of the Touc drivers are equipped with radios so they can be quickly dispatched to pick up people. Customers can also just wait for a passing Touc and get aboard if there is room. Right after the customers call, a vehicle picks them up at their home. After shopping, the customers are given a ticket offering a free ride home. Homes must however be within a 10 minute radius trip, approximately 3 to 4 km. Several months after the Touc was introduced in Toulouse, a second application of the Touc started in Belle Ile en Mer, a famous French holiday island. The island suffered of daily pollution during the summer due to severe traffic jams. Therefore in 1997 the local authority desired to ban tourist buses from the city centre. For the people arriving by vehicles to visit the downtown, a peripheral car and bus park has been created. From there a nine-passenger free shuttle, powered by gasoline was used to transport the tourists to the city centre. In the summer of 1998 an experiment started by replacing the shuttle by Toucs. During this summer five Toucs ran a round trip between the park and the centre each five minutes from 9 am to 6 pm, as a demand responsive transport mode. In the summer of 2000 the Touc had become an integrated part of the citys transport system. After the Touc applications in Toulouse and Belle Ile en Mer, the Touc was implemented at ten other sites in 1998 and 1999. Several studies involving cities or private companies have been launched to analyse the possibilities of implementing a similar service. The applications concern both permanent services, mainly for Casino supermarkets and temporary services for special events, like the World Cup and two symposia. The Toulouse Blagnac International Airport also experimented for two weeks with six Toucs replacing the diesel engine shuttle, providing a non-stop transportation service between the terminal and the P2 car park. Most of the Touc implementations concern people transportation for shopping or leisure by door to door transportation or by linkage of the parking lot to the main entrance buildings during special events. The door to door Casino supermarket service is targeted towards local residents, living within 3 or 4 kilometres of the supermarket. Many of them are elderly pensioners. At special events the Touc is mainly used by tourists. The service of Le Touc turned out to be a great success in two typical applications. The first setting is the inner urban area with a very limited number of parking lots, where the Touc provides free transportation for shopping people between a supermarket or shopping mall and their homes in the central districts. The second setting is the transportation between a peripheral car park and the main entrance buildings in a car free area, often during special events. Despite of the considerable high operational costs of the Touc, people can use it for free. This can be explained by the innovative business model of Le Touc. The Touc use is namely considered as a part of the service of a supermarket or an event. The Casino supermarket management stated the sales at the Pont des Demoiselles supermarket have increased 18-20% in six to eight months thanks to the Touc transporting 120 to 200 people a day. The financial benefits of the Casino supermarket exceed the monthly contract fee of the Touc service. Some difficulties for the free service appeared when local cab drivers staged a protest, complaining that they lost paying customers (taxis in Toulouse charge a minimum fare of about 3 Euro) to the free transport service. The disagreement was settled by explaining that the Touc isnt competing with the taxis, but is filling a niche that the taxi isnt able to serve cost-effectively. Customer surveys of the Casino supermarket Touc applications and the experiment at the Toulouse Airport showed that the passengers of the Toucs felt good about the vehicles and the services offered to them. This also increases the willingness of people to pay for the programmes. No customer surveys of the others applications of Le Touc are known.
Fig. A7: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Taxi Concepts Le Touc)
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ANNEX B:
SUMMARY OF EXPERIENCE REPORTS FOR EXISTING SYSTEMS
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Partner Country System Issue General System Description
FROG The Netherlands ParkShuttle, ParkingHopper, CyberCab
CyberMove WP1 T1.1/ T1.3 CTS Potentials and Limitations Experience Report Systems
Summary of Results The system technology consists of vehicles and a supervisory control system. The supervisory control system displays the status of vehicles and enables interaction with the surroundings of the track (e.g. requests at stations and traffic lights/ barriers). There are two basic people mover models: the ParkShuttle and the CyberCab. The ParkShuttle vehicle can be compared to a (mini-)bus. It operates on pre-defined routes in the network, stopping only at those stations where people request to be picked up. The ParkShuttle is available in a 10-person and a 20-person version. The maximum speed of the ParkShuttle is 40 km/hr. The cabin is spacious and light, and it is well illuminated at night. Large windows provide all round vision and add to the security feeling of the passengers. The vehicles have a lowered floor, accommodating easy access for passengers and wheelchairs. User control functions are grouped together on the centrally placed user console. Passengers can communicate directly with a monitoring station via intercom. Interior video surveillance can be installed as an option, as well as heating and air conditioning. The CyberCab can be compared to a taxi. It is fully flexible, capable of stopping anywhere, picking up passengers and transporting them to any destination via the shortest route on the network. The CyberCab seats 4 passengers. The height of the vehicle does not allow passengers to be transported standing up. The max speed of the CyberCab is 30 km/hr. The control system, handles traffic control and transportation request dispatching by communicating commands to vehicles and receiving status information from the vehicles via a Radio Frequency wireless link. The ParkShuttle and the CyberCab use a dedicated track to avoid congestion and ensure safety. Mixing with pedestrians or cyclists is possible if limited to short stretches of track, since the vehicles are equipped with an obstacle detection system that will detect traffic and consequently slow down or even stop to avoid possible collisions, Low operating costs: the operating costs are significantly lower, through manpower, efficiency and energy savings. Low investment: the investment in the infrastructure compared with other automated systems is significantly lower through the use of a basic tarmac track. Short waiting and journey times. Flexibility: the technology makes expansion of or changes to the route quick and easy to make. Minimum use of space: the accuracy of the system makes it possible to keep the width of the road surface to a minimum. Environmentally friendly: the electric drive ensures a low-noise vehicle with minimal emissions. At grade implementation avoids any visual intrusion. Safe and reliable: safety and reliability are guaranteed because the behaviour of the vehicles is predictable and controllable. Door-to-door transport: by implementation as feeder and onward transport. High quality: the quality of travel is enhanced through transport on demand. Public Transportation: People movers can be applied as a form of public transportation either as a feeder or stand-alone system e.g. for (new) residential areas, at/near public transportation interchanges, near business parks and parking areas. Private Sector: People movers can provide transportation over private property as a service to visitors, guests or personnel of companies, hospitals, airports, amusement parks and other places of interest (such as an archaeological site e.g.). Specific applications: People movers will also be suitable for applications that are neither public transport nor belong in the private sector. These specific applications can e.g. be found near shopping centers, temporary events and university campuses. Regularly studies are performed to determine whether or not 2gettheres automated people mover system is suited to perform the transportation at a certain location. The studies are quite elaborate and describe the system, the added value of an automated system compared to traditional forms of transportation at that particular location, the routing and the type and the number of vehicles required. The final chapter contains cost indications for the transportation system, infrastructure and the operational costs as well as suggestions for generating revenue/ operational income. Over the last two years approximately 35 studies have been conducted. Usually concerning the transportation between a parking facility or public transportation station and another location (e.g. a business park). Parking to recreational site (zoo, theme park): 5; Parking to city centre: 2; Station to business park: 3; Station to city centre: 3; Station to shopping mall: 1; Station to stadium: 1; On private company grounds: 1; On an exhibition: 2; On a resort: 1; Within city neighbourhood: 3. There is not a single innovative system that is suitable for every transportation problem a local community has. The systems are new and can be customised to meet the customers requirements and wishes. Personal contact will establish a relationship with a potential customer and creates the opportunity to educate him on the possibilities of the innovative transportation system. Once the contact is established, a study needs to be performed regarding the implementation of the innovative transportation system. This study should include all the information a customer needs to compare the innovative system to traditional forms of transportation. Most important here are the investment, operational costs and operational income. Barriers to the implementation of innovative transportation systems at this moment of the process are the investment costs (usually higher than traditional modes) and the risk associated with the decision. Although the operational costs of innovative transportation systems are lower and the generated operational income is higher, the higher investment in an innovative system will make a potential customer more hesitant. There are currently three operational systems, the ParkShuttle at Amsterdam Shiphol Airport, the Parking Hopper at a business park near Rotterdam and the CyberCab at the Floriade flower show in Amsterdam (operated by FROG, but technology from YAMAHA). Airport long-stay car park; Business park; Flower Show. The Amsterdam Airport Schiphol system has been operational since December 1997. The five ParkShuttles transport passengers from stops near their cars to the passenger lounge. From here buses provide transportation towards the departure terminals. Long term parking lot P3 has more than 10.000 spaces. The infrastructure is a double loop track. Each loop is one kilometer long and has 3 stops. At any given time there are three ParkShuttles in operation. Meanwhile, the additional vehicles are being charged. The operational vehicles space themselves along the track to ensure minimal waiting times at each stop. The ParkShuttle project in the city of Capelle a/d Ijssel forms a new link in the public transportation chain to and from business park Rivium. The system was realized in February 1999. The ParkShuttle connects Rivium to bus and subway station Kralingse Zoom, a 1300m journey over a single lane track with three passing locations. On demand operation in off-peak hours ensures maximum service for passengers. Every ten years the Netherlands host the horticultural show Floriade, featuring a 40m high observation. During operation from April to October, 25 CyberCabs provided transport to the top of the observation point. The vehicles use a track spiraling up the hill at a max speed of 11km/hr and a max capacity of 600 pass/hr/dir. Surveys prove that the Shiphol system is well used and greatly appreciated. The Floriade demonstrated that in order to operate a system, an operator will need to have a degree of certainty. The Floriade organisation had extensive research to establish the number of visitors they could expect. All operations were advised to be based on 2,7 million visitors. Due to unknown circumstances, only 2,1 million visitors visited the Floriade. All operations had to adjust to the new circumstances. In order to establish projects and to attract an operator, it is thus important to consider how operational income is going to be generated. And it is important to create certainty for the operator regarding the minimal income that can be generated.
Infrastructure Technology/ Vehicle Technology
CyberCab - 4- person vehicle
ParkShuttle G2 - 20- person vehicle
Application Areas Detailed System Description Experience with Planning Process
Operating Systems
No. of Systems and Overview Application Areas Detailed System Description
Experience with Planning, Operation
Fig. B1: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (FROG)
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ROBO France Simserhof Ride
Summary of Results Wire guided system, based upon AGVs technology. The overall infrastructure includes: electric wire buried in the floor, with several oscillators, more than 50 tags (transponders), also buried in the floor, giving absolute data to the vehicles, a RS232 wireless network, using 5 relays located along the path and a PC for remote control and supervision of the vehicles. The vehicle looks like a trailer, with 2 front driving/steering wheels and 2 rear passive ones. Its dimensions are (lxbxh): 6 x 1.8 x 2.5 m. The weight is 2.3 t empty and 4 t with all passengers. The maximum speed is 1.6 m/s, with a typical acceleration of 0,4 m/s2. Some other features: 3 sensors for wire guiding, a single MPC 555 micro-controller for motions control, Syndex software, only 2 motors, one for each front wheel, free front axle (passive mechanical differential system) and a wireless RS232 communication with the supervisor. Very accurate positioning, even at high speeds, thanks to the wire guiding system, automatic (through supervision software) or manual operation available (through a joystick) and efficient management of the fleet.
Vehicle Technology
Group of visitors in theme parks, museums or any leisure area, automatic transport of people in industrial or business parks and automatic buses in inner cities, where cars are restricted.
To define the mechanical structure, virtual reality tools were used to simulate the RIDE motions in a 3D model of the gallery. Using this simulator, it was possible to pre-define an acceptable path, avoiding collisions and allowing tight manoeuvres, such as e.g. gate crossing. The most effective solution for the vehicle guidance had to be found with significant constraints: Repeatability of path following, because of very tight passages (only a few cm clearance); Temperatures changes, due to indoor/outdoor travel (9C indoors, up to 35C outdoors), humidity (95% indoors), robustness, durability. Algorithms to control the robot using wire guided system technology had to be developed. They were implemented using SynDEx/ MPC555. Among the different available solutions to communicate between the vehicles and the supervision system, an industrial RS232 wireless network with 5 relays along the path was chosen, requiring non onboard PCs in the vehicles. A human-machine interface was developed, based on communication software operated on Windows 2000. -
Application Areas
Detailed System Description Experience with Planning Process The overall development, including vehicle design and manufacturing was done in 11 months. The software took only 3 months, including debugging, thanks to the tools efficiency.
Operating Systems
The Ride of Simserhof is a system developed for automatically visiting the gallery of one of the Ligne Maginot forts. The visit lasts 30 min, is 800 m long, and each of the 5 vehicles can transport up to 22 visitors. After having watched an historic film, visitors get into the RIDEs. Then, they travel through a gallery, where a show highlighting the military patrimony of the second world war is performed, synchronized with the vehicle motions. Outdoor/ indoor transport of visitors in a theme park/ museum (private application).
Application Areas
Five vehicles, guiding infrastructure (wire) and its electronics, 1 micro-controller per vehicle, 1 PC for supervision, 1 wireless RS232 network.
This type of ride is dedicated to restricted areas, because of certification issues and speed limitations (10 to 12 km/h max).
Fig. B2: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (ROBO)
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RUF Denmark Rapid Urban Flexible (RUF)
Summary of Results Rapid Urban Flexible (RUF) is a dualmode system, so it can use either ordinary roads or a special guideways in a very slender triangular shape. Sliding contacts on each side of the monorail will supply the vehicles with power. Modular construction of monorail. Typically 20 m between masts. RUF infrastructure is normally organized as a network where lines are connected in junctions. Road driving is normally manual but rail driving is fully automated. RUF vehicles all comply with the RUF standard but can be of different size: Mini-RUF is a two-seater for commuters. RUF is a family car with four seats plus a child seat. Midi-RUF is a six seats PRT (Personal Rapid Transit) vehicle with the ability to carry a wheelchair. It is a public vehicle using the network in point to point demand mode. Maxi-RUF is a ten-seater bus. All vehicles have a channel running through the middle of the vehicle. It must be able to contain the guideway even in the tightest curve (26 m radius of curvature). As public transport RUF has the advantage that transfer between bus and train is not needed since the bus vehicle is also the train vehicle. The ride comfort on the rail is superior compared to trains. The access is superior compared to busses since every seat has its own door. There is no standing in the RUF system. Seats are single seats so personal security is very high. In PRT mode (midi-RUF) it can offer on-demand service 24 hours a day in the network. As a car, RUF can offer electric propulsion without problems of large batteries. The RUF batteries are small and normally they are only needed to bring the vehicle to the network, a distance of typically 3 km. Commuters using the RUF system will experience a very fast trip and a predictable travel time (no congestion on the network). The time on the monorail can be used constructively, since the vehicle is driven automatically in a very safe mode. The vehicle is locked to the monorail. It cannot derail and all vehicles are normally part of a train so collisions within the train are impossible. Top speed on the monorail is 150 km/hr. Energy consumption is very low due to the train coupling principle. Noise is very low and there is no pollution in the near environment. The RUF system can use electricity from any available sources so it is ideal for transition to a sustainable transport society. The RUF system has the potential to substitute busses, trains and cars in cities. It is not able to substitute heavy freight trains but it can distribute small freight everywhere in the area covered by the network +50km. First applications will probably be as a system to improve existing public transport. Park and Ride systems based on RUF can be made more attractive than traditional systems where the user has to walk a long distance to a platform and wait for a train with long intervals. In RUF the user can wait in their own car and there is no waiting for the train since the maxi-RUF performs as both, a bus collecting passengers at the car park and as a train bringing the passengers to the city. Public transport with RUF can also be PRT (midiRUF) or public cars used by means of smart cards or cellular phones to manage payment. When a network of monorails has been created for public transport, the same network can be used for commuters using privately owned vehicles. The ultimate RUF transport system will be a mix of all modes. One of the most important aspects of a dualmode system like RUF is, that it is well adapted to the structure of modern cities. People prefer to live in their own house, so the cities become very widespread. The traditional transport systems are created for cities where people live in high rise buildings close to railway stations. The RUF system can cover widespread cities in a very attractive way. A total of 7 studies have been carried out, including Copenhagen Ringsted; Lautrop parken, Ballerup; Ring 3, Lyngby Glostrup; Cergy Pontoise, Paris; Los Angeles, California; Seattle, Washington; Austin San Antonio, Texas Most of the studies were done on RUF systems working as extension for the existing public transport system. A few were done as total systems covering whole cities (LA, Seattle).
Vehicle Technology
Application Areas
Most systems studied were line systems. LA and Seattle were networks covering large areas. In LA, the system used Right of Way available in the wide streets where streetcars have been running in the past. In Seattle, the network was created in such a way that 60% of the population had less than 10 minutes on road to reach the RUF network. It was found that the Dual Mode principle is ideal when sustainable mobility is needed in a modern city with widespread population. The main problem is that planning authorities know very little about this new principle. They are brought up with knowledge of cars, trains and busses. As a consequence they feel insecure about dualmode. Since June 2000 a test track for RUF has been operational in Ballerup outside Copenhagen.
Experience with Planning Process
Operating Systems
Application Areas
The test track is situated very close to a potential real system (Lautrop parken) where it can connect to a train station and distribute passengers in a large business district with many IT companies.
The test track is very limited (24 m rail), but Danish sponsors (Siemens, NCC, Semco and others) have made it possible in the near future to expand the track to 200 m. The test vehicle is a car sized RUF. A 1:1 design model has been created with funding from the Danish Design Foundation. The maxi-RUF has not yet been built, but a 1:1 mock-up of the passenger section is ready. Even though the test track is very simple, it has attracted a lot of media attention. The tests have proved the basic functionality. Tests with the maxi-RUF will be needed before a real system can be built.
Fig. B3: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (RUF)
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SSA Switzerland SERPENTINE
Summary of Results MagntoGlisseur transmission of energy for: -side and longitudinal guiding - transmission of information
Vehicle Technology
Platform for about 4 persons standing 4 directional driving wheels Security detector: - track - laser - mechanical detector Low energy consumption : 0.2 l/100 km, optionally 3m2 of photovoltaics sensors/capsule Network origin/destination on marked down narrow track Recirculation of vehicles without driver
Access to the rapid public transport stations (range 1 to 2km) Internal transports in shopping centres or airports Micro cars in city centres and historical cities (range 5km) Friendly and playful approach to urban transport Ouchy quays EPFL Werfenweng Antibes Nancy Urban transport for tourists Transport university campus Low mobility in winter resort Connection to park and ride Access to new cities The constructed blocks are surrounded on a mesh from 200 to 400m with a strip similar to a cycle track A traffic circle in the main intersections allows exchange between meshes Cross walks or traffic areas are protected
Application Areas
The network concept adapted from private transports is unknown in public transports in general as it is designed as one or several lines with exchanges at stops The accurate digital data collection remains difficult. Data on actual origin/destination are seldom available 1 demo track in Yverdon First step of Pilote dOuchy
Operating Systems
Application Areas
Demonstration of urban transports open to the public on September 22nd 2002
330 m track 1 terminal - turning short loops - capsules Experimentation shows the interest of users Difficulty in obtaining authorisation in mixed site Long period is necessary for measurements in real site (specific obstacles, user behaviour, sensitivity to various states of the weather)
Fig. B4: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (SERPENTINE)
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UB UK Urban Light Transport (ULTra)
Summary of Results ULTra is a system of automated four seat vehicles operating on a segregated guideway network to provide passengers with safe, fast, demand responsive transport. The track is low cost and the structural cost and performance predictions have been confirmed in the build of the prototype system. Columns are designed to be truck proof. Considerable attention was given to minimising visual intrusion during the design. In questionnaire studies it was found that over 90% of people were very happy with the appearance of the track and less than 1% felt that it would be an unacceptable intrusion in their city. Overhead or At-grade Alternatives: Width: 2m; Overhead Depth: 0.45m; Height above roadway: 5.7m; Column spacing: 18m. ULTra runs on its own guideway network with offline stations. Typically, the network is arranged in a series of loops serving key transport locations around the city. These loops are combined by merge/ diverge sections. In combination with off-line stations this provides non-stop travel. Track is passive, and switching is achieved by in-vehicle steering using an electronic guidance system. Stations have spacings similar to bus stops. The network form allows the guideway to be one way, providing important benefits in cost and visual intrusion. A variety of application studies have been completed and it is typically found that, to provide reasonable accessibility, individual tracks need to be spaced at around 500m separation, or about every sixth side road. Operation of the network is based on a synchronous system with fixed slots for each vehicle at the prescribed headways. This requires free routes to be identified from start to destination through all merges before launch of a trip from the station. Extensive simulations have been done to optimise the synchronous control process, including development of empty vehicle management algorithms. It is found that around 65% of the available line capacity can be used. However, in nearly all applications the critical factor on overall system capacity is found to be the stations rather than the line. Small multiberth stations permitting a throughput of up to 500 vehicles per hour have been devised. A headway of 1 second is planned. This will permit meeting brick wall stop criteria. Early applications will have a considerable margin over this for safety reasons. The headway permits a typical passenger load during the peak hour of over 2000 passengers per route km, assuming an average 1.4 passengers per vehicle load. The prototype ULTra vehicle is based on conventional automotive technologies, and is electrically powered with four conventional rubber tyre wheels. Principal parameters are given in the box. The vehicle is equipped with two permanent and two flip-down seats and has a level entry from the station. Thus, there is plenty of room for wheelchairs, shopping or pushchairs. Doors are automatic and have a novel patented opening action. Because the vehicle is light and only travels at low speed power requirements are low. This means that battery power with opportunity recharging is practicable. Tests have shown that it is practicable to recharge a 5min trip in 1 minute. Battery pack weight at 64kg is only 8% of gross weight, compared to many electric vehicles, which require up to 50% of gross weight for batteries. This could make electric vehicles practicable. Gross Weight: 800kg; Empty weight: 400kg; Max speed: 40kph; Length: 3.7m; Width: 1.45m; Height: 1.6m; Passengers: 4; Continuous power: 2kW. Questionnaire studies in Bristol and Cardiff show that 98-99% of respondents believe the vehicle interior and exterior to be good or excellent. In most cases, passengers do not need to wait for a vehicle, since one will already be at the station. Simulations demonstrate that ULTra can meet its target that 90% of passengers wait less than 1 minute. Travel is on-demand, non-stop, point-to-point, and network based rather than corridor based. Passengers do not need to plan their trips, consider schedules, or transfer between vehicles. Travel should be faster than other urban transport forms. Although maximum speeds are modest (40km/hr), there is no delay due to congestion and non-stop service ensures short trip times. Travel should be very reliable and predictable affording passengers greater certainty in their travels. ULTras target is safety levels at least as good as for passengers in trains, approximately 10 times higher than automotive safety. Also segregation implies less conflict with non-users. Passengers receive essentially private vehicles, travel with chosen companions and have more control over their travel environment than in conventional public transit. In addition to user benefits, ULTra promises additional benefits to non-users and society: ULTra is energy efficient. Automated control allows high utilisation. Small vehicles and guideways imply less land take. Ultra will reduce congestion. Studies indicate significant modal shifts away from the car to PRT. Although originally designed to meet urban transport requirements, the flexibility of the system permits consideration for a variety of other applications e.g. airports, university/commercial/industrial campus applications and new green/brown field site developments. Future developments could include private vehicles, intercity applications, and freight. The initial application is proposed in Cardiff. The National Assembly of Wales has approved a bid by Cardiff County Council which will allow the Council to support the first stage in the implementation of ULTra Cardiff is particularly suited to the ULTra system because regeneration has totally changed the transportation requirements. The docks area, a former industrial zone, is now a prestigious business and residential centre but one which is, at present, disconnected from the main city centre. Journeys between the two centres are already causing a variety of difficulties. Analysis shows that ULTra offers an effective solution, both directly and by complementing existing public transport. Based on the recent stated preference studies, the addition of a network link in the Bay area would lead to 1,800,000 additional trips per year on conventional rail and bus transport supported by the ULTra network. The first stage will enable the system to be operated between the Bute Street railway station and the Inner Harbour, Wales Millennium Centre, National Assembly of Wales and County Hall. Progress on the link between the Bay and the City Centre will be progressed in parallel, possibly as a public/ private partnership project. It is envisaged that vehicles could be operating in the Bay area by early 2005, with the City Centre being connected during 2005 if the partnership approach is successful. The estimated costs of the complete 7.7 km scheme are 39M. Projected passenger levels are 5M per year. There is strong political support for the system both in Cardiff County Council and the National Assembly of Wales. However, opposition parties have chosen to make the novel features of the system a target for criticism. Other key regulatory issues controlling the pace of development are the Safety approvals through HM Rail Inspectorate and approval under the UK Disabilities Discrimination Act DDA. ULTra is being considered under the Rail Vehicle Accessibility Regulations. Generally, it has been found that the regulatory authorities have been very constructive. The ULTra system is currently undergoing prototype testing on two tracks; a simple track in Bristol and a more complex 1 km guideway with overhead sections in Cardiff. Four working vehicles of various types exist and the programme is now in the intensive testing phase. Initial passenger trials are planned at the end of the year. Initial results have been very encouraging. Vehicle and track have been successfully integrated and multiple circuits of the complex guideway have been competed under fully automatic control.
Vehicle Technology
No. of Studies and Overview Application Areas
Operating Systems
Application Areas Detailed System Description Experience with Planning, Operation
Fig. B5: Summary of Experience Reports Systems (ULTra)
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ANNEX C:
SUMMARY OF EXPERIENCE REPORTS FOR TEST SITES
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Partner Country Test Site Issue Site Description
IPN Portugal Coimbra (Sites A and B)
CyberMove WP1 T1.1/ T1.3 CTS Potentials and Limitations Experience Report Test Sites
Summary of Results A: Coimbra city centre, traditional commercial area and the connection to a market supply point B: Re-development in an area of about 80 hectares on both sides of the Mondego River, between Santa Clara Bridge and Europa Bridge, in connection with a park and several buildings to support activities in the area.
Application Area
A: Private and commercial (light and heavy) transport coexists in the city centre along with urban transport systems, which are operated by the local authority (two types of systems: one that allows people to move inside the city, and the other, connecting parking spaces in suburban areas to the city centre). The vehicles are buses for 20 to 45 persons, based on fossil fuel. B: Existing planning of a cable electric tram for the connection between two places inside the park (Alegria Street and Lus de Cames Square) A: Supplying the businesses in the commercial area with goods, and providing access for staff and customers in the city centre. B: Tourism (sightseeing) and to provide a transport system for children, handicapped and old people.
Planning Details
A: The connection of the commercial areas with a freight delivery system will reduce the traffic of commercial transportation drastically in the city centre (light and heavy vehicles). This could be expanded to the transportation of staff and customers. B: The use of individual vehicles, like cybercars, could complement the existent cable electric tram system since they offer an individual transport system with high availability and low waiting times. For both sites the infrastructure required to implement CTS consists of regular roads, for the vehicles, with few modifications. These modifications are the placement of transponders along the vehicles path in order to aid their navigation system. There is also the need for a fleet management system through which the vehicles can be remotely monitored and controlled. This brings the need for an infrastructure for communication between the vehicles and the operations centre. This communication infrastructure consists of several access points along the path, for wireless communication between the vehicles and the operations centre. A calling system is also needed to request the vehicles at several points of the network. Both test-sites have similar demands in the vehicles technology. The vehicles are intended to be environmental friendly and as such the solution of using electrical vehicles will be adopted. The vehicles navigation system, which serves as an aiding system for the driver, consists of fusion between GPS and inertial data, further aided by the transponders placed in the infrastructure. The vehicles will also be equipped with a system for obstacle detection based on visual information. These vehicles will operate in a semi-autonomous way since current legislation does not contemplate fully autonomous vehicles. In both sites the vehicle can operate in manual or semi-autonomous way where human intervention is only needed in some special situations. A: The objective is to organise commercial transport access to the city centre, hence diminishing traffic significantly, as with an organised freight delivery system, the number of vehicles for delivery decreases. B: The planned cable electric tram route will easily support other vehicles with small modifications, so that the same route can be used by small electric vehicles (specially aiming at elderly and disabled users). In this project stage, is too early to define routes and facilities, but soon more data will be available. One advantage common to both sites is the ecological/ environmental benefit of using zero emission vehicles. A: CTS can be used to increase the traffic flow, in the morning, by avoiding the rush-hour and using a fleet of medium sized vehicles with optimised paths of delivery. At this time, with the conventional system, an average of 6% to 10% of the morning traffic is due to the transportation of goods for the local commerce. B: CTS will allow on-demand availability with very short waiting times, providing a shared, individual transport system, in contrast to the mass transport system provided by the cable electric tram. A: Could be supported by local authorities. A more detailed economical feasibility study must be performed to obtain a decision. B: This re-development area is financed by the Polis Program supported by the Portuguese Government, however all transportation infrastructure must be economically viable. In this site a private company must be responsible for the system.
System Description
Vehicle Technology
Advantage of System
Planning Process
Stakeholder Involvement -
Land-Use Planning
A: No alterations will be needed, only those inherent to the distribution facilities. The effect on traffic flow will be positive, according to the decrease of commercial traffic. B: The application of the proposed system has no significant affect to the initial POLIS project in land use terms.
The Local Authority is aware of the congestion caused by the commercial traffic in the city centre, consequently the proposed site A represents a possible answer to resolve this main problem.
Fig. C1: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Coimbra Sites A and B)
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INRIA/ GEA France Antibes
Summary of Results The city of Antibes/ Juan les Pins is located on the French Riviera, in the south of France and is part of an urban Agglomeration called Sophia Antipolis, the name of an International Science Park dedicated to IT technologies. The total population is 160 000. Antibes city population is 73,000 with a density of 2780 h/km2, which more than doubles in summer season. The historical Greco-Roman city centre, covers 1% of the total city area and is an attractive site for tourism, with 1 million visitors a year. Both historical and modern city situation leads to problems in term of traffic, parking and public transport because of the geographical situation. The economical activity is intense, leading to 335 000 internal daily trips, 80 % of them made by Antibes citizens themselves. Apart from the ancient city, where pedestrians have priority (3ha pedestrian area), Antibes is very private car accessible. 50% of private cars trips run less than 2 km long. The road network (220 km/26.48 km2) is unequally spread over the area: a high density in the historical city not adapted to cars, a good network density in the modern city suitable to cars traffic and insufficient motorway infrastructure all around. Dedicated bicycles lanes do not exist. The siteseeing attractiveness is reinforced by an intensive cultural activity. More than 1/3 of the year, exhibitions, opera concerts, jazz festival, sails races, markets, etc. are organised on public spaces. Public transport has a modal share of only 4%. Public transport provides good connections, with a network of 15 bus lines, but the service quality is poor in peak season due to a lack of reserved lanes. A free service of small shuttles (4 lines) is gaining more and more success. The demand mainly consists of visitors, who want to visit the historical centre for cultural events or restaurant. More critical are special events such as Le salon des Antiquaires the first two weeks of April, or the Musique au Cur, in July. The exhibition is located on one of the biggest car parks at the city entrance, so decreasing the total offer of parking places. The local authorities plan to build a large parking at a distance of around 1,000 meters. There is no existing system except a free service shuttle going along the harbour every 20 minutes, from 7 am to 7 pm. The strategy is to restrict access of vehicles not adapted to the historical city street network in order to decrease traffic effects (noise, pollution, damaging monuments, congestion, etc.) and to re-develop public spaces devoted to cultural and commercial activities. These strategies require innovative and complementary solutions to public transport and people mover or car pooling is seen as a way to introduce new mobility management. The first milestone is the construction of a large car park (~2000 places), with a service of manually driven shuttles. A new parking strategy is planned for the whole city in combination with modification of the traffic management. In parallel a CTS experimentation is planned for April 2004, with a first public test for the exhibition of Salon des Antiquaires, with about 70,000 visitors in 15 days. Timings: Funding: April 02 to February 03; Conceptual design: December 01 to September 02; Feasibility study: November 02 to January 03; Implementation: March 03 to February 04; Trial (2-4 shuttles): March 04 July 04. As a first step, the design is a model of urban integration, which does not decrease the public space. The CTS line is not definitive, it means that depending on the season or the day, they may not be operational and be replaced by conventional shuttle bus, the CTS line will be shared with a bicycle lane, the design is an opportunity to redesign a roundabout and car park entrance with a double interest: increase security for private vehicles and pedestrians and secure the CTS operation. The unique impact linked to CTS will be the guiding systems, either wire-guided or transponder technology. The vehicles are electric powered with batteries on board, to decrease to air and noise pollution problems. The later one being the main requirement of the population. To 79ulfil the transport specification, 300 person/hr, a total of 4 shuttles, 20 places is needed. Vehicles are based on CyberCars partners such as proposed by Frog or Robo. They have to be fully automatic, with a maximum speed of ~20 km/hr in order to assure a maximum of 5 minutes waiting time, including 4 stops. However, the possibility to run smaller CyberCars such as individual CyCabs (Robo) or CyberCabs (from Floriade Frog/Yamaha) could be tested. The principal design characteristics are: Distance: 1,400m with an added 350m option for the Opera events; Service: on demand, 24 hours a day, ~5 minutes max waiting time; Vehicle capacity: 20-25 places/ vehicle, easy access for disabled and elderly people; Technical speed: 20 km/hr; Commercial speed: 10 km/hr; System capacity: ~300 persons/hr, 4 vehicles in service; Integration: it is proposed to reorganise the traffic and reserve one way road for CTS. This way of integrating CTS should minimise the demonstration costs. The main difficulty is foreseen on the section between the Porte Marine and the Opera (one way path); System operation: Classical method (as a lift) to call CTS is needed but it is also an occasion to experiment on demand calls by mobile phone; Information System and Vehicles: On board vocal and display information in order to deliver explanations on the automated. Possibility of multimedia messages to test city oriented advertisement. A direct vocal link with the supervisor should be accessible; Accompanying measures: Specific parking policies along the harbour (free access at the Fort Carr and parking spaces close to the Porte Marine, chargeable to the users). Combined tickets for specials exhibitions. Alternative collective transport systems: a tramway like system not possible to justify (cost/ performance) with a demand of 300 p/hour or a regular shuttle service cannot be considered 24 hours a day with a frequency of 5 minutes. Originally, the main attractive point of CTS for the operator is the flexibility. Flexibility for the transportation capacity, hours in days, weeks and years, and in route planning. Another important factor is of course the cost comparison (manual/ automatic) that should be demonstrated. For the end users, the main impact expected is due to the automation of the service bringing constant quality of the service, a guaranty of a maximum waiting time of 5 minutes 24 hours a day. In addition, travel information and potential advertisement by the city of cultural events is an attractive option. The availability of funding is not known yet. A planning with different milestone has been presented and accepted by the city authority. A financial partnership with the region of Provence Cte dAzur and the Communaut dAgglomration de Sophia Antipolis is applied for. A complementary partnership with industries operators or sponsors should be organised. The mobility department is leading the project in collaboration with other departments (environment, economy, culture, etc.). The CTS project is in tune with todays planning described in order to respect new laws such as PDU, Urban Mobility Plan and environment, at regional and national level. A great interest is shown for the trial proposed. A careful planning with milestones has been accepted in order to secure all necessary decisions including public reaction, economic associations and regulation of transport systems.
Application Area
Planning Details
System Description
Vehicle Technology
Advantage of System
Planning Process
Stakeholder Involvement Land-Use Planning Local Authority Interest
Fig. C2: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Antibes)
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GEA Switzerland Lausanne-Crissier
Summary of Results The city of Crissier is located in the western suburbs of Lausanne near the lake of Geneva. The population of Lausanne is about 120.000, its urban agglomeration represents an additional population of about 130,000. The western region of Lausanne is characterized by a very important area of industrial and skilled activities, by the proximity of the Federal Polytechnic School and the University of Lausanne (about 22,000 students and employees), both linked to the TSOL, the metro of the western agglomeration in the centre of which Crissier is located. Crissiers territory covers the principal road network of the agglomeration including the highway and its junction. It increases the general accessibility except at peek hours, and the junction is enduring the heaviest traffic jam of French Switzerland (50,000 veh/day). Internal mobility principal characteristics are, on one hand to be cut from the north to the south in two equal areas (an activity area of 6,000 workers and a residential area of 6,000 inhabitants), on the other hand, to be cut by a major road of the west agglomeration of Lausanne from the East to the West (20,000 to 40,000 veh/day). Beside the dense road network, the public transport network consists of two conventional bus lines (frequencies: about 20 min) connecting Crissier with Lausanne and Renens. This bus would be replaced by CTS. Like on the existing bus lines, the forecasted demand is composed of local users travelling short distances, as well as commuters from and to Lausanne. On average, the daily amount of passengers using the existing transport systems reaches about 1500. A transfer on to the CTS should take place, so that a similar number of passengers is expected to use it. However, with the CTSs more flexible and more convivial functioning, it might be possible to increase the number of internal trips in Crissier using the existing transport infrastructure. The authorities of Crissier are involved in the Cristals project since 1998. At this moment, they had defined their development strategy including an internal line of public transportation. A mock-up of the vehicle was presented to the population of Crissier (scale 1:1). A very enthusiastic reaction in favour of the small urban shuttle was observed. A few months later, a pilot project description was sent to federal authorities and regional government. Since this moment, Crissier hasnt received the funding necessary for a test-trial. The CyberMove context has restarted the project. The planning of the project is: Funding: December 01 to January 03; Conceptual design: December 01 to August 02; Decision: November 02; Feasibility study: September 02 to January 03; Demo: February 03 to December 03; Trial (3 shuttles): January 04 to July 04. The residents of Crissier feel a certain insufficiency of the service offered by public transport of Lausanne (TL). The lack of school buses, of an internal structured line, and of peripheral links, reinforces the feeling of the cars omnipresence and its effects. Locally, Crissiers strategy is structured on the following aims: Increase the attractiveness of public transport; Propose a light public service, flexible and complementary to the TL network (internal north-south line); Serve the activities and peripheral area; Manage traffic in the village; Protect the residential areas from the transit traffic. The Cristals shuttle is introduced on regular roads without any efforts of integration (no infrastructure). It is manually driven. No stop infrastructure, no timetable and no access control is planned. These aims at increasing the commercial speed and the frequency of the shuttle, with a maximum flexibility. The vehicles are electric powered with batteries on board, to minimise to air and noise pollution problems. The principal goal is to test, through Crissiers experiment, a new kind of flexible transport mode. As the demand is always changing during the day, the proposed CTS also changes its capacity, by the use of platooning technologies. Each cabin is an 8 places vehicle. The first one is driven by a professional driver, the following vehicles are drawn without any contact. This means that this kind of semi-automatic CTS is more able to be introduced on regular roads without any integration (no infrastructure) than a fully automated system. That means also that any public transport operator is able to manage a fleet of vehicles with the maximum flexibility (no definitive lines, no fixed capacity). There are no facilities on the principal road of Crissier, except close to the railway station of Renens where the shuttle is supposed to run on an existing dedicated bus line, avoiding a strong density of traffic. Otherwise, the width of the road forbids any overtaking and passing and each private vehicle is supposed to follow the shuttle. The transportation system is used as a mobile traffic restrainer. The principal characteristics are: length: ~ 2.5 km, number of convoys in circulation: 2, commercial speed: ~ 20 km/hr. The principal advantage of this semi-automated system over conventional or existing systems is the flexibility of the capacity and the line. The transport operator is able to change the dimensioning of the service towards the evolution of the demand. No infrastructure is required: this opportunity decreases the costs of the system. For the end-user a professional driver presents a better security guarantee than a fully automated system, and is more acceptable. This system, if developed in larger urban areas, is able to provide a free service transportation for general user. A fleet including identical vehicles can be managed by the operator on different types of services, according to the evolution of the demand during the day. The availability of funding is not known yet. A financial partnership with the region of Lausanne and the canton of Vaud is applied for. The total cost of the test trial is about 1.7 millions. A complementary partnership with industries operators or sponsors has been organised, but no decision yet . Since 1998, the local operators and industrial services have tightly followed the evolution of the project. Three important operators are know to be interested by the test trial: Car Postal (promoter of city cars project,) TL (Transports of Lausanne, involved in the feasibility study and the management of the line during the trial) and TPG (Transports of Geneva, involved in the development of the prototypes). Political decisions must be taken towards their involvement in the project. The CTS project runs in tune with current planning efforts made in the Ouest lausannois (suburbs west of Lausanne) on both the transport and the land use planning level. This planning aims at designing a certain amount of public transport lines around which urban development (residences, jobs) should mainly be concentrated. In this context, the CTS line connecting Crissier to Renens train station (mobility centre of regional importance) is very important. The local authorities have always been strongly involved and motivated throughout the Cristals project. This concept has already been proposed during the master planning of Crissier. It has been communicated to the neighbour cities and local population. It obtained a strong agreement at this occasion. But a small city like Crissier cannot afford such a project alone. This is the reason why local authorities have been looking for larger supports. From the national point of view, the federal law on land planning will soon introduce (at the end of 2002) financial support to the urban agglomerations through a new law about on agglomeration projects. In this context an urban agglomeration presenting a global project with specific measures for sustainable urban development will be financially supported by the Federal Government.
Application Area
Existing Transport System Demand Characteristics
Planning Details
System Description
Vehicle Technology
Advantage of System
Planning Process
Availability of Funding Stakeholder Involvement
Land-Use Planning
Fig. C3: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Lausanne-Crissier)
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GEA France Nancy
Summary of Results Nancy is in the heart of the urban agglomeration Communaut Urbaine du Grand Nancy with 400,000 inhabitants and a group of 20 cities and is located in the east of France, 100 km away from Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg. The city offers multiple facets, Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque and Art Nouveau. Nancy is composed of three towns: the historical city, the new city of Charles III and the royal city of Stanislas, with the Golden Gates of Stanislas Square, and a set of architectural monuments bringing Nancy to be a World UNESCO patrimony. Nancys population is 105,000 on with an area of 1500 ha, roughly a square of 4 by 4 km (around 6600 hab/km 2). The old city is 33 ha. The Meurthe canal area, is a completely new urban area (330 ha) near the old city, all along a canal where leisure and promenade are already attractive. The urban concept is Modernity and the 21st century. The plan includes: Architectural schools, engineering schools, a 3000 seats cinema, an International Centre for conferences, and offices. Individual transport system: The CTS site is located between two important radial access roads to Nancy city centre. Two parallel links connect these two avenues. Additional roads serve the quarter and are of very local importance. Public transport system: currently the CTS site is mainly served by Nancys tramway line in connection with the city centre and the train station. An existing tramway project plans to serve the sector with a loop, but this project is now on hold. A long tangential bus line (about 15 km) also serves the area. It joins different peripheral areas of Nancy like Meurthe-Canal, crossing most of the major radial access routes to the city centre. However, it is important to note at this point that the CTS, only located on a short segment of the previously mentioned bus line, is not meant to substitute the existing public transport system, but is rather a complement to it, as the CTS will serve a very different purpose. The CTS demand will mostly consist of short trips, joining mainly the tramway station to an important cinema centre (Multiplexe under construction) and secondarily to the Meurthe canal area, depending on its development. The CTS also takes in consideration the forcasted demand linking different leisure sites on shores of both the Meurthe river and the Canal. The authorities of Nancy are divided in two principal sections: the city and the urban community. A lot of responsibilities are shared between these two institutions, which are under reorganisation. This is the main reason as to why no decision has yet been taken, at this point of the project, the timetable is as follows: Design of the project: March 02 to November 03; Funding: May 02 to May 03; Decision: April 03; Feasibility study: May 03 to December 03; Demonstration: January 03 to July 03; Test trial: August 04 to October 04. The local authorities of Nancy have planned a tramway line, internal to the sector of Meurthe-canal. This high capacity system of transportation is not necessary for such a small urban area, which is already connected to the old city by the existing tramway line. The choice of a first CTS line has been made, in substitution to the tramway line project. A complementary leisure line is supposed to connect the Meurthe river to the canal, these two lines forming the first step of an internal network. This consists of a guided track fully integrated in dedicated spaces. A completed network would be able to offer another type of service: a door-to-door transportation by small loops all connected around the different blocks. This alternative possibility is still open. The vehicle technology is not chosen yet. It must be a fully automated system providing an on demand service. The details of the project and the choices of the local stakeholders and authorities will be defined in the following months. The transportation strategy will be central in the choice of the type of the network and the vehicle technology. Most of the line is shared with pedestrians and cyclists. It is integrated in the numerous planned green spaces (malls, gardens, squares). Part of it is dedicated to CTS only, with conflict zones at the crossings. A regulation system will be provided to solve the security problems between the different modes. The opportunity of a new development site is the full integration of CTS in the urban planning and design. The dimensions of the public spaces take into account the different needs of each mode of transportation. The location of the infrastructure is shared with pedestrians and cyclists, the experiment will measure the compatibility level between these modes. Global and diversified fleets managed on different types of services (general user transportation, tourists) can be mixed in the proposed lines. This system may be complementary to the existing bus line crossing this area along Mothes boulevard. And the CTS line is offering a modern image in a modern neighbourhood. The political implication is not defined yet. The situation of the decision structure is not clear, because of some hesitations between local and regional responsibilities, demonstrating clearly the bounds between local and general planning: even if CTS is a local measure, it is part of a general system of transportation. At this stage of the project, the stakeholder involvement is weak because of the different political levels of decision. It is too early to clearly define the kind of support the project is able to receive.
Application Area
Planning Details
System Description
Vehicle Technology
Advantage of System
Planning Process
Land-Use Planning
The CTS site area is currently undergoing important urban planning studies. The design of CTS is an integrated part of this planning and therefore its design is not directly faced with big land use constraints. The CTS lines are a great support to enhance the urban density. It is better to propose a public transportation system before developing new constructions program than the contrary, where the CTS lines must find their way through a constraining environment. The local authority interest is medium taking into account a big political restructuring at the regional level. This situation is increasing the lack of time necessary for evaluation of the project and decision. But they have already demonstrated a big involvement in some technical demonstrations of CTS, notably the Cycab.
Fig. C4: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Nancy)
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DITS Italy Rome (City-Centre)
Summary of Results The study area is the city centre of Rome. The system will run from San Giovanni to the Teatro di Marcello passing just in front of the Coliseum, the Imperial Fora and the Campidoglio and through Piazza Venezia. The existing road network consists of motorways, highways, and main roads with a total length of about 1200 km and over 6000 km of local roads. The structure of the main network is based on the radial system created by the ancient Romans more than 2000 years ago. The radii are connected through rings, some of them complete and some others under completion; among them the GRA, which includes the whole urban area and is being widened to three lanes per direction for the whole length, and the internal ring road, which includes the central and semi-central areas and is planned to be completed in the next years. The road network supports the road public transport system, based on bus, rail and tram services. Road network public transport is operated through 258 bus lines in service during day time and 22 bus lines in service at night, 6 tram lines, which use over 100 km of reserved and protected lanes in the most important sections. The peripheral routes have the role of feeders to the main network elements; most of the urban routes however work as distributors in their peripheral sections and collectors in the main radial sections. Also the regional railway and metro systems are based on the structure of the road network, in this way determining the most important corridors in the town as multi modal facilities. The metro system has two lines, which are the main diameters of the town. The network, with a length slightly greater than 36.5 km, serves 48 stations with 80 trains. The city centre is the most congested and polluted area of the city. The heart of the centre (Limited Traffic Zone) is closed to unauthorised traffic during daytime but the surrounding areas are affected, other than by the generated and attracted traffic, by significant through traffic flows. The public transport network, mainly on the road, suffers from congestion and is infrequent and slow. In average, all over Rome, both pedestrian and public transport shares are only 20% each of the total mobility, while 60% trips are travelled by private transport; in the historical centre this modal share changes into 34% of pedestrians, 29% public transport and 37% private transport. The daily trips by scope are divided into 22% systematic, 40% non-systematic, 38% journey-back-home. Modal split is characterised by 21% pedestrian trips, 59% trips on private vehicles, 20% trips on public transport. The project here described was firstly conceived because, to promote the sustainable mobility in medium and big cities, a national law on mobility management was promulgated. Each company with more than 300 employees had to provide a mobility plan for its staff. Rome municipality has 28.542 employees in more than 400 offices, 30 of which have more than 300 employees each. A extensive survey was conducted on the mobility needs of the employees of these offices, especially those located in peripheral areas poorly served by public transport or in the very centre of the city and, as a result of this survey, a number of measures to ease Rome municipality employees mobility were proposed. These include a shuttle bus service to link the metro stations of the A and B lines with the Campidoglio and Anagrafe, especially in the early hours of the morning when the buses are very infrequent. Thus this site was chosen for a CTS study. The technical solution chosen is to have fully automated small vehicles (10 to 15 people) running on totally protected lanes shared only with trams. At the intersections, all at grade regulated by traffic lights, the cybercars will meet unrestricted private traffic. Because Rome has mainly problems of space and cannot, for archaeology reason, construct underground lines, without long and difficult studies, a fully reserved lane could not be provided. Thus most of the line is shared with trams and the remaining part with pedestrian and cyclists. A roughly estimated passenger demand is about 3 000 passengers/hr in peak hours. To meet it with 15 passenger capacity vehicles it should be necessary to have a vehicle every 18 seconds, which is impossible because of the intersections. Thus the system has been roughly dimensioned to have a frequency of one vehicle every 6min. With the given frequency the average waiting time would be 3 minutes and the maximum 6. The expected maximum travel time, given a path length of 3.25 km and an expected average speed of 10 km/h, is around 20 minutes. A comparison has been made between the costs of the proposed system and that of route 117. The average cost of route 117 is 4.81/(vehkm), while a fully automatic system with the same performances would cost 3.81/(vehkm). This cost reduction is mainly due to saving of staff costs.. The route chosen for the system is the one proposed by the Rome Municipality for the shuttle bus. The proposed system will start from Piazza San Giovanni running on the protected tram lane in Via Emanuele Filiberto to Viale Manzoni where, still following the tram tracks, it will turn right. That intersection is one of the most crucial points of the system because it will turn left on a five links intersection. The system will then run on Viale Manzoni and Via Labicana crossing Via Merulana. The end of Via Labicana on Piazza del Colosseo is the second crucial intersection of the route; the system will leave the tram lane and crossing the intersection it will move on the left hand side of the street where a new totally protected lane will be realised. On the Imperial Fora side the system will share its lane with pedestrians as far as Piazza Venezia, where it will turn around the Victor Emanuel Monument and go down Via del Teatro di Marcello. Potential users were interviewed to assess their needs and to involve them in the process. The director responsible for technological innovation of Rome mobility agency was interviewed among the decision makers. In his opinion a transport system based on CyberCars is not the most suitable for the proposed site. The heavy traffic and the intersection at the grade will not allow the system to have a frequency of 6 vehicles per minute that should be necessary to ensure the minimal capacity of 3600 passengers per hour necessary to satisfy the demand of a route where a metro would be needed (and is currently under executive planning). Italian operators are, in general, very interested in innovations implying the absence of the driver since driver costs from 50% to more than 70% of the total cost per vehicle-kilometre but they are sceptical about the actual applicability of a CyberCars-based system in the centre of Rome. The most interesting characteristics of CTS is the fact of being on-demand, useful to ensure an efficient and reliable transport system in peripheral low-population-density areas. Nevertheless a demonstrator in the city centre will give much more visibility to the project than one in a peripheral area and can lay the groundwork for further studies and developments. The final users proved to be sceptical about the possibility of a CyberCars-based system to be part of the main public transport network. Their support is much more in favour of a lower demand network. One of the main end user needs for the city centre is the pollution reduction that the proposed system can provide. The municipal authority of Rome is the main promoter of this site for a study and, possibly, for a small scale field trial. They highlighted the transport needs, especially for their employees in the early hours of the morning, and suggested the sites. The adoption of a fully automated system worries them but, if the system is provided with the necessary authorisation and guarantees, they will fully support it even economically.
Application Area Existing Transport System
System Description
Planning Details Infrastructure Technology/ Vehicle Technology
Proposed Route/ Facility Advantage of System
Planning Process
Availability of Funding Stakeholder Involvement
Land-Use Planning Local Authority Interest
Fig. C5: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Rome City-Centre)
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DITS Italy Rome (Exhibition)
Summary of Results Romes present exhibition space, Fiera di Roma, is south of the city centre but well inside the GRA. The available parking is scarce and the public transport insufficient. Thus every event causes congestion and road accidents. Furthermore the present Fiera di Roma has the entrance on one of the most important motorways of Rome, Via Cristoforo Colombo, which is the only street in Rome with 5 lanes per direction. The Rome municipality decided to move the exhibition to outside the city centre. The chosen location is outside the GRA on the airport highway, very close to the airport railway. The new Fiera di Roma, with a surface of over 210,000 m2 for exhibition, will be completed by 2004 together with the new station for the railway and with a car park, 350 000 m2 all at grade. The distance between the new railway station and the nearest exhibition entrance is about 350m while the average distance from the parking lots is around 500m. The entrance to the exhibition is on the second floor. On the second floor people should still walk for 350 m, entering by the west entrance, or 500 m entering by the east one. The exhibition itself is designed along one central corridor of around 3 km length. All the area has yet to be built. So far the only existing transport mean is the metropolitan railway linking the airport with the city. It is forecasted to add a new station on the line jus in correspondence to the new exhibition.
Application Area
The only demand for the system will be that of the people going to the exhibition either by car (parking on the exhibition carpark) or by train alighting at the new station), therefore the demand will coincide with the flow of people to the exhibition.
Planning Details -
System Description
Infrastructure Technology/ Vehicle Technology/ Proposed Route/ Facility Advantage of System
The technical solution chosen to reach the objectives is a network of CyberCars covering the entire car park where the CyberCars will share the road with cars entering or leaving it, with three main stations at the Railway station and at the two exhibition entrances. On the east entrance, the one with the longer walkway at the second floor, the CyberCars should get into the elevator and reach the second floor where they should run along the corridor and bring people into the exhibition. The proposed network has the following characteristics: network length 4.54 km, expected average travel time 3 min and maximum travel time 6 min, expected average waiting time 2 min and maximum waiting time 4 min. The only possible solution to run a park and train shuttle service with acceptable waiting and service time was to use a fully automated transport network.
Planning Process
The entire construction of the new exhibition is under the funding search procedure. Almost half of the necessary budget is already available but the new transport system is not included in this budget. Only after a study proving the profitability of installing a CTS the investors could decide to include the CTS in their project.
In a private application operators and decision makers are the same and, at that development stage, an end-user needs survey has not yet been made. The only user needs collected so far are those of the consortium building the new Fiera di Roma. As any other private company their main aim is to increase their profit this means to attract as many people as possible spending as little as possible. The walking distances must be reduced in some way to attract people but at the lowest possible cost.
Land-Use Planning -
Local authorities are mainly concerned in moving the exhibition area out of the city centre of Rome and if CTS proves to be able to make this successful, they would be interested.
Fig. C6: Summary of Experience Reports - Sites (Rome Exhibition)
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ANNEX D:
SUMMARY OF STRUCTURED INTERVIEW RESULTS BY PARTNER
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Partner Country Interview No. User Group Decision maker (public)
CRF Italy 1
CyberMove WP1 T1.1/ T1.3 CTS Potentials and Limitations Structured Interview
Interviewee
Nonelected
Operator (public) Decision maker& Operator (private) Issue Potentials of CTS
National Level Regional Level Local Level Elected Regional Level Local Level Public Transport Operator General Service Provider Airport Theme Park Large Business University Campus
Public Transport System Operator in Urban Areas
Summary of Results For which Application CTS will be useful in case of lines with small or non-systematic demand either in particular periods of the day (e.g. night) or in particular zones (e.g. suburban areas). A possible application, in the case of a more systematic demand, could be the use of CTS to connect an interchange/ parking with some central areas. To solve which Problems First of all, existing transport modes have to manage with operation cost issues, especially for small erratic demand. Another problem is the difficulty to plan the overall service, in term of correct timing and offer of capacity fitted to the demand. Which Advantages CTS could help to reduce cost for non-systematic demand, to improve transport efficiency and could allow the service provider to control the overall system based on information/ telematics tools.
Which Operating Characteristics
CTS should use medium size vehicles with dedicated lines in order to cope with other already existing transport modes and safety issues. CTS should provide exchange of information to and from the users/ advanced methods of payments (smart card) should be developed/ important aspects are safety (video cameras), comfort (seats) and ecological solutions.
Limitations of CTS
Conventional systems can travel together with ordinary traffic and can transport a large number of passengers/ traditional vehicles do not pose legal problems related to automatic driving.
Which Barriers to be considered
Automatic driving seems not possible without protected lanes. But protection structures could be difficult to realise. Moreover these lanes make use of public space, which is a fundamental resource in a city.
Which Developments necessary
In order to have an efficient use of CTS technology, it will be necessary to find a solution to safety and various legal issues. Other developments are related to the realisation of dedicated protected infrastructures and to the design and manufacturing of new vehicles.
Which Applications not useful -
An intermediate step to facilitate the deployment of CTS could be the use of automatic guidance (particularly if based on light infrastructures) as a support system, maintaining however the presence of the driver. The main advantages of this solution are lower investment costs compared to e.g. a tram with rail, the possibility to use a smaller width of dedicated lanes (especially with increasing speed an automatic guidance could follow the path more precisely compared to a human driver): this is much appreciated in urban transport, improvements in quality and efficiency, coming e.g. from precise positioning at the stops. This approach would avoid problems related to responsibility and safety, since the driver can take the control of the vehicle at any moment.
Fig. D1: Summary of Structured Interviews (CRF, Italy Public Transport Operator)
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CRF Italy 2
Interviewee
Nonelected
Provider of Car Sharing Scheme for the City Centre
Summary of Results For which Application CTS will be useful primarily in two situations: to connect parking in suburban areas to the city centre, or to allow people to move inside the city centre when there are traffic restrictions.
CTS will help to solve the followings drawbacks which now limit the diffusion of the car-sharing business: complex procedures to use this kind of cars, limited diffusion of parking areas, low flexibility, use of vehicles not specifically designed for urban environment.
Which Advantages
CTS should allow on demand availability with very short waiting times and flexibility in destination and itinerary. Access to restricted area is a considerable advantage offered by ecological vehicles.
For these applications CTS should allow dual operation (manual vs. automatic, e.g. platooning) to guarantee a fast availability following a request and at the same time freedom for the user to choose the itinerary in a certain area.
Limitations of CTS
Conventional vehicles allow to travel on longer distances (urban and extra-urban). Users are more familiar with the traditional vehicles.
In case of CTS needing separated lanes, the difficulty in using public ground must be considered. Organisational aspects involve the integration with other modes of transports. There is a need to define regulations for automatic driving.
Solutions for dedicated lanes, coexisting with normal traffic are necessary, a well organised control centre to control the vehicles availability, route guidance and flexible pricing procedures will be a key point. An effort seems needed to design specific vehicles which are easy to repair, to maintain and to clean, while offering a quality service to the customers.
Which Applications not useful
CTS technology is less appealing for systematic mobility demand, which can be satisfied by mass transport solutions.
The implementation of CTS should follow incremental steps, especially in term of the application areas: from small dedicated areas (e.g. a commercial centre) to central city areas where restriction to the private traffic are applied, and may be to extended urban areas.
Fig. D2: Summary of Structured Interviews (CRF, Italy Car-Sharing Provider)
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ROBO France 1
Interviewee
Nonelected
Communaute d Agglomerations de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarrritz (Urban Planning Department)
Summary of Results For which Application To complete existing collective transport solutions: e.g. lack of transport solution between the Bayonne Railway station and downtown, where most bus stations are located. Another problem due to the location of the railway station is that people, coming for shopping downtown must walk through a unique 800 m-long bridge. An automatic transport system should be welcome to connect both districts. In thematic areas: e.g. an adequate CTS should be the best solution to transport people in the ecologic park planned in Anglet, around Chiberta lake. The theme of the park is the Nature, and the length of the circuit should not exceed 3km. A noiseless and nonpolluting system is good in such an environment and the fact that it could be automated fits our needs. Everywhere it is difficult to build heavy and expensive infrastructures, where it is difficult even impossible to install conventional buses, or where the length of trip is short: Connection between railway station and bus stations in Bayonne downtown, with large shuttles; linking the parking with the Airport terminal (Biarrtitz), with small shuttles (a few hundreds meters); linking all the parking to the beaches (Anglet), where the seafront is almost 4 km long, with only 2 big parkings at both ends; linking the Biarritz parking to the local bus departure area (Biarritz railway station), a trip of a few hundred meters, with middle-size shuttles; visiting the (forthcoming) ecologic park of Anglet (3 km). Low infrastructure cost (mainly needed for automatic navigation and safety issues); reduction of exploitation costs (no drivers); flexibility of operation, which can be adjusted depending on the amount of passengers, without increasing exploitation costs.
Which Advantages
Which Operating Characteristics -
Limitations of CTS
CTS technology has disadvantages in the cases of higher capacity (number of persons transported), long distances, high speeds and on operation on public roads.
Psychological barriers for automated vehicles in public areas (safety, reliability). Sharing space with conventional systems being difficult today, specific and protected areas need to be installed.
Experience with CTS technology through real-size experiments is needed to consider implementation of this technology.
Which Applications not useful
CTS technology is not useful for e.g. high demands (mass transportation) on public roads mixing with pedestrians or private vehicles.
Education of the end users (public), education of politicians (decision-maker), must be scheduled in Urban Development layouts, including some dedicated lines and areas to CTS, to ensure a sufficient frequency of use to be considered as a good alternative to existing collective transports (to make the proof of its usefulness) and to make real-case demonstrations and exhibitions to show the systems
Fig. D3: Summary of Structured Interviews (ROBO, France Local Authority)
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TRG UK 1
Interviewee
Nonelected
Southampton City Council, Department for Transport and Infrastructure Management
Summary of Results For which Application First/ last step of a multi-modal journey (e.g. from a public transport interchange to the final destination of the trip); access to and transport within various areas restricted for conventional modes (e.g. private vehicles or buses with ICE motors); private and individual mode of transport to be used mainly for short distances and operated on-demand.
Allow access to areas, where other modes of transport are restricted (e.g. pedestrian area, exhibition centre, theme park); improve quality of multi-modal journeys and public transport in general (e.g. more personalised/ individual transport, fewer interchanges, no walking distances at the end or beginning of the trip, less waiting time in case of on-demand operation).
Which Advantages
A CTS application is in many characteristics similar to the conventional public transport systems taxi and minibus. CTS can provide privacy, individual transport and on-demand operation, but with the advantage of being very easily controllable by the relevant transport authority (in view of e.g. traffic safety, public transport regulations, social issues, economic/ funding).
Personal transport with small individual vehicles, running on the road, operated fully automated, fully demandresponsive on a network of routes, with a combination of shared and dedicated tracks, with off-line stops operated on-demand, combination of government subsidy and private funding for the operation, as economically viable only on private sites.
Limitations of CTS
CTS applications have disadvantages compared to conventional public transport systems in the case of longer trips and when comparing in to the use of private vehicles, e.g. when transporting large or heavy goods, general comfort of private vehicles, availability of the vehicle, acceptability of CTS (trust, reliability), technology feasibility (no personal experience with CTS).
Potential barriers to the implementation of CTS include technology/ system reliability (proven through experiments and real-size applications as well as accepted by the public), familiarity (the public needs to see CTS as an option for their journey planning), infrastructure (alterations to existing structures), financial, legal and influence of various pressure groups.
Further technology developments necessary for CTS applications are needed mainly for enabling the safe system operation in environments shared with other road user, including cyclists, pedestrians and/ or manually operated vehicles (e.g. for vehicle guidance, navigation technology, obstacle detection, fleet management, platooning, infrastructure technology)
Which Applications not useful -
The introduction of CTS should begin with applications in controlled/ segregated environments (e.g. theme parks), to test the technology, prove the reliability and to introduce the concept to the public. The next step should be to have a number of pilot applications in different less controlled areas, together with an education of all users. The funding for the implementation of following systems should come through local taxes (e.g. congestion charging schemes or general mobility taxes.
Fig. D4: Summary of Structured Interviews (TRG, UK Local Authority)
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
APM ATS AVL CSO CTS D DG DRTS EC EESD EU FROG ICE IST ITS PRT PT RUF T TDC ULTra WP ZEV
Automated People Mover Automated Transport System Automatic Vehicle Locating Car Sharing Organisation Cybernetic Transport System Deliverable Directorate General Demand-Responsive Transport System European Commission Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development European Union Free Ranging on Grid Internal Combustion Engine Information Society Technology Intelligent Transport System Personal Rapid Transit Public Transport Rapid Urban Flexible Task Travel Dispatch Centre Urban Light Transport Work Package Zero Emission Vehicle
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CYBERMOVE EESD EVK4 2001 00051 Cybernetic Transportation Systems for the Cities of Tomorrow

Analysis of Potentials and Limitations of Cybernetic Transport Systems

INFORMATION ON THE COMBINED DELIVERABLE D1.1/ D1.3:

Report Co-ordinator: TRG, UK

User Group Decision-maker (Public Application)

Operator (Public Application) Decision-maker& Operator (Private Application)

CTS User Groups Relevant for Analysis

Application Area Public Application

Site Characteristics Citywide

Airport Theme Park Large Business University Campus, etc.

General Site Characteristics for CTS

CTS Operating Conditions Size Mode Track Operation

Frequency Route Environment Time

Characteristics Location Operation

General Operating Conditions for CTS

Experiences with CTS-related Systems

System Carsharing Witkar CityCar Praxitele Liselec Elettra Park CarLink

Demand Characteristics of Carsharing

System Carsharing Witkar CityCar Praxitele Liselec Elettra Park CarLink

Carsharing User Characteristics

Low importance Comfort Travelling Time Accessibility call centre

Sharing a taxi Simple costs structure

User Satisfaction Criteria for Taxis

Description of Operating Systems

Structure for Experience Reports for Systems

Structure for Experience Reports for Sites

Results of Experience Reports for Existing Systems

Results of Experience Reports for Test Sites

Conclusion to Experience Reports

Topic Checklist for Structured Interviews

Operator (public) Decision-maker& Operator (private)

Fig. 10: User Groups to be covered by Structured Interviews

Operator (public) Decisionmaker& Operator (private)

Fig. 12: Structured Interviews by User Group and Country

Results of Structured Interviews

Conclusion of Structured Interviews

Innovative Systems reviewed

Fig. 13: Summary of Results from the Literature Review

Possible Application Areas

No. of Studies and Overview

Detailed System Description

Experience with Planning

No. of Systems and Overview

Detailed System Description

Experience with Operation

Existing Transport System

Proposed Route/ Facility

Local Authority Interest

To solve which Problems

In which Cases Disadvantages

Applications not useful

Deployment Path for CTS

Fig. 16: Summary of Results from the Structured Interviews

SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW ON INNOVATIVE SYSTEMS

Category Location System Issue General Description

Car Sharing Turin (Italy) Elettra Park

Performance and Findings

Category Country System Issue General Description

Car Sharing San Francisco (USA) CarLink

Performance and Findings

Fig. A2: Summary of Literature Review Examples (Car Sharing CarLink)

Category Country System Issue General Description