Lecture Parsing

PARSING WITH CONTEXT-FREE GRAMMARS
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PARSING

Parsing is the process of recognizing and assigning STRUCTURE Parsing a string with a CFG:

Finding a derivation of the string consistent with the grammar The derivation gives us a PARSE TREE
EXAMPLE (CFR LAST WEEK)
PARSING AS SEARCH
Just as in the case of non-deterministic regular expressions, the main problem with parsing is the existence of CHOICE POINTS There is a need for a SEARCH STRATEGY determining the order in which alternatives are considered
TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP SEARCH STRATEGIES

The search has to be guided by the INPUT and the GRAMMAR TOP-DOWN search: the parse tree has to be rooted in the start symbol S
EXPECTATION-DRIVEN parsing
BOTTOM-UP search: the parse tree must be an analysis of the input
DATA-DRIVEN parsing
AN EXAMPLE OF TOP-DOWN SEARCH (IN PARALLEL)
AN EXAMPLE OF BOTTOM-UP SEARCH
NON-PARALLEL SEARCH
If its not possible to examine all alternatives in parallel, its necessary to make further decisions:
Which node in the current search space to expand first (breadth-first or depth-first) Which of the applicable grammar rules to expand first Which leaf node in a parse tree to expand next (e.g., leftmost)
TOP-DOWN, DEPTH-FIRST, LEFT-TO-RIGHT
TOP-DOWN, DEPTH-FIRST, LEFT-TO-RIGHT (II)
TOP-DOWN, DEPTH-FIRST, LEFT-TO-RIGHT (III)
TOP-DOWN, DEPTH-FIRST, LEFT-TO-RIGHT (IV)
A T-D, D-F, L-R PARSER
TOP-DOWN vs
BOTTOM-UP
TOP-DOWN:

Only search among grammatical answers BUT: suggests hypotheses that may not be consistent with data Problem: left-recursion
BOTTOM-UP:

Only forms hypotheses consistent with data BUT: may suggest hypotheses that make no sense globally
LEFT-RECURSION

A LEFT-RECURSIVE grammar may cause a T-D, D-F, L-R parser to never return Examples of left-recursive rules:

NP NP PP S S and S But also:

NP Det Nom Det NPs
THE PROBLEM WITH LEFT-RECURSION
LEFT-RECURSION: POOR SOLUTIONS
Rewrite the grammar to a weakly equivalent one
Problem: may not get correct parse tree Problem: limit is arbitrary
Limit the depth during search
LEFT-CORNER PARSING

A hybrid of top-down and bottom-up parsing Strategy: dont consider any expansion unless the current input can serve as the LEFT-CORNER of that expansion
FURTHER PROBLEMS IN PARSING
Ambiguity
Church and Patel (1982): the number of attachment ambiguities grows like the Catalan numbers
C(2) = 2, C(3) = 5, C(4) = 14, C(5) = 132, C(6) = 469, C(7) = 1430, C(8) = 4867
Avoiding reparsing
COMMON STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITIES
COORDINATION ambiguity
OLD (MEN AND WOMEN) vs (OLD MEN) AND WOMEN Gerundive VP attachment ambiguity
ATTACHMENT ambiguity:
I saw the Eiffel Tower flying to Paris I shot an elephant in my pajamas
PP attachment ambiguity
PP ATTACHMENT AMBIGUITY
AMBIGUITY: SOLUTIONS

Use a PROBABILISTIC GRAMMAR (not covered in this module) Use semantics
AVOID RECOMPUTING INVARIANTS
Consider parsing with a top-down parser the NP:
A flight from Indianapolis to Houston on TWA NP Det Nominal NP NP PP NP ProperNoun
With the grammar rules:

INVARIANTS AND TOP-DOWN PARSING
THE EARLEY ALGORITHM
DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

A standard T-D parser would reanalyze A FLIGHT 4 times, always in the same way A DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING algorithm uses a table (the CHART) to avoid repeating work The Earley algorithm also

Does not suffer from the left-recursion problem Solves an exponential problem in O(n3)
THE CHART
The Earley algorithm uses a table (the CHART) of size N+1, where N is the length of the input
Table entries sit in the `gaps between words Completed constituents In-progress constituents Predicted constituents
Each entry in the chart is a list of

All three types of objects are represented in the same way as STATES
THE CHART: GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
STATES
A state encodes two types of information:
How much of a certain rule has been encountered in the input Which positions are covered A , [X,Y]
DOTTED RULES

VP V NP NP Det Nominal S VP
EXAMPLES
SUCCESS
The parser has succeeded if entry N+1 of the chart contains the state
S , [0,N]
THE ALGORITHM
The algorithm loops through the input without backtracking, at each step performing three operations:

PREDICTOR: add predictions to the chart COMPLETER: Move the dot to the right when looked-for constituent is found SCANNER: read in the next input word
THE ALGORITHM: CENTRAL LOOP
EARLEY ALGORITHM: THE THREE OPERATORS
EXAMPLE, AGAIN
EXAMPLE: BOOK THAT FLIGHT
EXAMPLE: BOOK THAT FLIGHT (II)
EXAMPLE: BOOK THAT FLIGHT (III)
EXAMPLE: BOOK THAT FLIGHT (IV)
READINGS
Jurafsky and Martin, chapter 10.1-10.4

Lecture Parsing

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Lecture Parsing

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PARSING WITH CONTEXT-FREE GRAMMARS

EXAMPLE (CFR LAST WEEK)

TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP SEARCH STRATEGIES

BOTTOM-UP search: the parse tree must be an analysis of the input

AN EXAMPLE OF TOP-DOWN SEARCH (IN PARALLEL)

AN EXAMPLE OF BOTTOM-UP SEARCH

TOP-DOWN, DEPTH-FIRST, LEFT-TO-RIGHT

TOP-DOWN, DEPTH-FIRST, LEFT-TO-RIGHT (II)

TOP-DOWN, DEPTH-FIRST, LEFT-TO-RIGHT (III)

TOP-DOWN, DEPTH-FIRST, LEFT-TO-RIGHT (IV)

A T-D, D-F, L-R PARSER

NP NP PP S S and S But also:

NP Det Nom Det NPs

THE PROBLEM WITH LEFT-RECURSION

LEFT-RECURSION: POOR SOLUTIONS

Rewrite the grammar to a weakly equivalent one

Limit the depth during search

FURTHER PROBLEMS IN PARSING

COMMON STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITIES

I saw the Eiffel Tower flying to Paris I shot an elephant in my pajamas

Use a PROBABILISTIC GRAMMAR (not covered in this module) Use semantics

AVOID RECOMPUTING INVARIANTS

Consider parsing with a top-down parser the NP:

A flight from Indianapolis to Houston on TWA NP Det Nominal NP NP PP NP ProperNoun

With the grammar rules:

INVARIANTS AND TOP-DOWN PARSING

THE EARLEY ALGORITHM

Each entry in the chart is a list of

THE CHART: GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

A state encodes two types of information:

THE ALGORITHM: CENTRAL LOOP

EARLEY ALGORITHM: THE THREE OPERATORS

EXAMPLE: BOOK THAT FLIGHT

EXAMPLE: BOOK THAT FLIGHT (II)

EXAMPLE: BOOK THAT FLIGHT (III)

EXAMPLE: BOOK THAT FLIGHT (IV)

Jurafsky and Martin, chapter 10.1-10.4

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