Chapter 6 - Stress and Strain - A4

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering
59
CHAPTER 6

STRESS AND STRAIN DISTRIBUTION IN ELASTIC CONTINUA

6.1 BASIC RELATIONSHIPS

The fundamental problem of elastic continua is to evaluate the stress field of
a massive structure subjected to body forces, distributed loads (or boundary
stresses) and external forces.

The stress state over the domain of the structure is described by the stress
vector

| |
T
zx yz xy z y x
= (6.1)

with
x
...
zx
the stress components, while the strain state is described by the
strain vector

| |
T
xz yz xy z y x
= (6.2)

with
x

zx
the strain components.

In the differential formulation, A(u) = 0, B(u) =0, the physical
phenomenon is defined by the following equations:

a. The Navier equilibrium, expressed for an infinitesimal element (the
equilibrium of an elementary volume)

= +
= +
= +
0
0
0
z
zy
zx z
y
yz yx y
x
xz
xy
x
f
y x z
f
x x y
f
z y x
(6.3)

with f
x
, f
y
and f
z
the elementary forces acting along the x, y and z axes.

Chapter 6 Stress and Strain Distribution in Elastic Continua_________________________

60

Fig. 6.1 Stress, shear strain and displacement notations in global coordinates

b. The strain - displacement relationships are

x
u
x
= ;
y
v
y
= ;
z
w
z
= ;
x
v
y
u
xy
= ;
y
w
z
v
yz
= ;
z
u
x
w
zx
= (6.4)
z
y x
x
y
0
M
N
M
N
0
2

1

zx

xz

xy

yx

zy

yz

x

z

y

x y
z
M
w
M
u v
d


61
where u, v, and w the displacement components along the axes of a 3D
Cartesian coordinate system.

Following the standard notations in The Elasticity Theory (which implies
small deformations), the strain - displacement relationships are written in a
matrix form:

| |d =
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
w
v
u
x z
y z
x y
z
y
x
z
u
x
w
y
w
z
v
x
v
y
u
z
w
y
v
x
u
zx
yz
xy
z
y
x
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
(6.5)

with | |
T
w v u = d the vector of Cartesian components of displacement
and | | a matrix of differential operators (first order derivatives).

c. For elastic continua (which implies a linear elastic behavior of the
material), the stress - strain relationship will be linear with the following
form:

( )
0 0
E + = (6.6)
where:
the stress vector;

0
the vector of initial strains, such as those due to temperature
changes, shrinkage or crystal growth (as alkali-aggregate reactions);

0
the vector of initial residual stresses (as the tectonic stresses
inside a rock mass).


62
In order to explain the matrix notation, lets consider the particular case of
two-dimensional (2D) plane stress, with the stress vector
(
(
(
=
xy
y
x
(6.7)
The stress - strain relationships (expressed by the Hookes law) are:

y x x x
E E

=
1
0 ,

y x y y
E E

1
0 ,
= (6.8)

y x xy xy
E

) 1 ( 2
0 ,
+
=

By replacing and grouping the terms in relationship (6.8), the elasticity
matrix yields:
(
(
(
(
=
2
1
0 0
0 1
0 1
1
2
E
E (6.9)

Similarly, for a full three-dimensional (3D) problem, the elasticity matrix
yields:

( )
( )( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+

=
a
a
a
b b
b b
b b
E
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
2 1 1
1

E with

) 1 ( 2
2 1
= a and
=
1
b (6.10)


63
Resuming briefly, for the differential approach applied to a strain/stress
analysis:

the unknown function u in A(u) = 0 is the displacements vector d =
d(x, y, z);

the Navier equations | |d = with the Hookes law E = are the
partial differential equations A(u) = 0;

the boundary conditions B(u) = 0 are expressed as applied forces (or
distributed loads) on the boundaries of the structure and/or
prescribed displacements according to the structures supports.

6.2 THE VARIATIONAL APPROACH

The natural variational principle is attached to the problem. The
corresponding functional is the total potential energy of the system

+
(
+ =

V V
T
V
T T
dV dV dV E
0 0
E
2
1

| | W U d dV
V
c
T T T
+ = + + +

R p d f d (6.11)
where:

- the first 3 terms (inside the first pair of brackets) represent the strain
energy U caused by the induced stresses, initial stresses
0
and initial
strains
0
;
- the last 3 terms (inside the second pair of brackets) represent the
potential energy of the external loads W due to body forces f and
distributed loads p; a term as
c
T
R can be added as the energy due
to the concentrated loads R
c
, being the displacements of the
applying points of concentrated loads;
- V is the volume of the domain (the structure) and the boundary
subjected to distributed external loads.


64

Fig. 6.2 Finite elements model used in a structural analysis
P
P
P
P
P
P P
P
z
x y
ph
ph
ph
ph
4
1
2
3
5
6
7
8
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
z
x
y


65
The displacement field d(x,y,z) which satisfies the structural equilibrium
under the loading system and the prescribed boundary conditions has to
minimize or make stationary the functional E, i.e. 0 = E .

6.3 THE FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS

The finite element model of the given structure implies that the structure is
separated by discretization lines (or surfaces) into a number of finite
elements (see figure 6.2). The displacement function over the domain
subjected to analysis, ) , , ( z y x d in the 3D space or ) , ( y x d in the 2D space,
is expressed in terms of nodal displacement
i
by means of the shape
functions ) , , ( z y x N . In the general form:

e i i
z y x z y x N N d = =
) , , ( ) , , ( (6.12)

An example of a 2D approximation is shown in figure 6.3. For the
quadrilateral element [1, 2, 3, 4], considering only one degree of freedom
(DOF) per node, the displacement field over the area is:

4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1
) , ( ) , ( ) , ( ) , ( ) , ( N N N N d y x y x y x y x y x + + + = (6.13)

Fig. 6.3 Linear displacement approximation over the elements area

Assuming a linear interpolation over the element, i.e. the shape functions
N
i
(x,y) are linear (first degree polynomials):
2
1
3
4
x
y
) , ( y x d
) , ( b x d 1

2


66

a
x
x ) ( ) 0 , (
1 2 1
d + =
a
x a
b x

+ = ) ( ) , (
3 4 3
d (6.14)
=
= + =
4
1
)] 0 , ( ) , ( [ ) 0 , ( ) , (
i
i i
b
y
x b x x y x N d d d d
By replacing, the displacement field yields:

4 3 2 1
1 ) , ( d |
.
|
\
|
+ + |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ =
ab
xy
b
y
ab
xy
ab
xy
a
x
ab
xy
b
y
a
x
y x (6.15)

Note that
(
(
(
=
) , , (
) , , (
) , , (
) , , (
z y x w
z y x v
z y x u
z y x d is the vector of unknown displacement
components along the coordinates axes of a certain point inside the finite
element, and
(
(
(
=
i
i
i
i
w
v
u
are the displacements of any node i.
The functions ) , , ( z y x
i
N have to be chosen such that the exact nodal
displacements
i
yield when the co-ordinates of the node i are inserted:

I N = ) , , (
i i i i
z y x (identity matrix) (6.16)

while for all the other nodes the function N
i
(x,y,z) vanishes

0 N N = = = ..... ) , , ( ) , , (
k k k i j j j i
z y x z y x (null matrix) (6.17)

The strain field. With known displacements all over the element, the strains
at any point can be determined.

| | | |
e e
B N d = = = (6.18)

For the 2D approximation, the derivative operator leads to the following
expressions of strain:


67
| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
x y
y
x
0
0
, the derivative operator (6.19)

x
u
x
= ;
4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1
u N u N u N u N u + + + = ;

4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
u
x
N
u
x
N
u
x
N
u
x
N
x
=
(6.20)
y
v
y
= ;
4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1
v N v N v N v N v + + + = ;

4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
v
y
N
v
y
N
v
y
N
v
y
N
y
=
x
v
y
u
xy
= ;

4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
v
x
N
v
x
N
v
x
N
v
x
N
u
y
N
u
y
N
u
y
N
u
y
N
xy
=

e
xy
y
x
v
u
v
u
v
u
v
u
x
N
y
N
x
N
y
N
x
N
y
N
x
N
y
N
y
N
y
N
y
N
y
N
x
N
x
N
x
N
x
N
B =
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
=
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1
4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
(6.21)


68
With the shape functions already known, the matrix B can be easily
obtained.

The stresses field. For a linear elastic material, the stress field

e
B E E = = (6.22)

where E is the elasticity matrix, containing the appropriate material
properties. For an isotropic material only the Hooke modulus E and the
Poisson ratio are necessary.

The potential energy of an element. Substituting the main relationships
into the functional corresponding to the elements region (domain):

( )

+ =
Ve
T T
e e
Ve
T T
e e
dV dV E
0
2
1
B EB B

d dV dV
T T
e
Ve
T T
e
Ve
T T
e
p N f N E B
0
(6.23)

Note that now the functional depends only on the nodal displacements
e
.
The integrals are expressed in terms of the known functions N and B and in
terms of the known constant values E,
0
,
0
, f and p.

Using the notations:
=
Ve
T
dV EB B k (6.24)

= + + + =

d dV dV dV
T T
e
Ve
T T
e
Ve
T T
e
Ve
T T
e
p N f N E B B r
0 0

p f
r r r r + + + =
0 0

(6.25)
the new expression:
r k
T
e e
T
e e
E =
2
1
(6.26)

becomes the total potential energy of the finite element.


69
The total potential energy of the structure will be obtained by adding the
contributions of all elements in the mesh and the contribution of the external
concentrated forces.

=
c
T
e
E E R (6.27)

If we designate as the vector of nodal displacements of the discretized
structure (obtained by an augmentation process, as shown in Chapter 4 the
DSM), then:

c
T
m
T
m
T
E R r k |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1 1
2
1
*. (6.28)
With the notations
=
m
1
k K ;
+ =
m
c
1
R r R (6.29)

the total potential energy of the structure becomes

R K
T T
E =
2
1
(6.30)

Note that the functional has the simple, quadratic form.

Remark: If the initial stress system is self equilibrating as must be the case
of normal residual stresses, then 0
0
=

r . However, if an excavation is
made in a rock mass where known tectonic forces are present, a material
removal will cause a force imbalance, which results from the previous term.

The structural equations. The stationary condition for the total potential
energy is:

0
, 1
=
= n i
i
E
(6.31)
which yields to:

* In the augmentation process, the local node number (at element level) is
replaced by the global node number (at structure level)


70
K = R (6.32)

Note: K is now identified with the stiffness matrix of the structure (called
global or master stiffness matrix) and consequently k is the element
stiffness (or elemental stiffness) matrix; R is the nodal forces vector and
consequently r are nodal forces corresponding to body forces r
f
, initial
stresses r
0
, distributed forces r
p
and initial strains r
0
acting on each
element.

The finite element approximation reduces to a problem of minimizing the
total potential energy E defined in terms of a finite number of nodal
displacements. This process leads to the formulation of the simultaneous set
of algebraic equations.

Assessing the strain and stress fields. Once the nodal displacements have
been determined by solving the overall structural equations, the
displacements, strains and the stresses at any point of the structure can be
found. Returning to the element level

d = N
e

e
= B
e
(6.33)

e
= E B - E
0
+
0

The boundary conditions. In structural analyses, the boundary conditions
are expressed as prescribed support displacements.

Without substitution of a minimum number of prescribed displacements in
order to prevent the rigid body movements of the structure, it is impossible
to solve the structural system, because in such a situation the displacements
can not be uniquely determined by the forces. Mathematically this can be
interpreted as matrix K being singular.

For fixed boundaries, when all displacement components of a node i are
zero, the prescribing procedure means the substitution of


71
0 =
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
=
0
0
0
i
i
i
i
w
v
u
. (6.34)

This is equivalent to reducing the number of equilibrium equations, by
deleting those corresponding to the i
th
node from the system. Moreover, the
corresponding columns are also deleted.

For the prescribed not null displacements of a certain number of nodes
( 0
n
), in order to substitute the known displacements, the structural
system should be rewritten by partitioning:

)
`
=
)
`
=
n
u
n
u
n nu
un u
R
R
K K
K K
R K (6.35)

The index u stands for unknown and the index n for known, so that
u
are
the nodal displacements to be determined and
n
are the prescribed
displacements.

After partitioning, the system can be written as

n n un n u
R K K = +

n n n u un
R K K = + (6.36)

and the first group of equations

{ } * } { ] [ } { } { ] [ R K R K = =
n un n n n
(6.37)

allows the determination of
u
. The second group of equations can be used
for nodal reaction assessment, corresponding to the prescribed
displacements.

In order to avoid the reorganization of data in the computer memory (for
partitioning) it is often convenient to proceed with a direct solution of the
original equation system, by using an artifice: the diagonal coefficient of the


72
matrix K
ii
at the node concerned is multiplied by a very large number and
simultaneously the term at the right-hand side of the equation is replaced
multiplying the prescribed displacement value by the same large number.
This has the effect of replacing the selected equation with
n i
K K

= ,
specifying that the displacement in question
i
is equal to the prescribed
value
n
. If
K is large enough i.e. several order of magnitude larger then

ii
K , the solution of the structural equation will have
n i
(i.e. a very
large stiffness spring
K is added in the node i and a very large

concentrated force
n
K
is applied along the corresponding direction n).

Example: Applying the variational approach to the 2D truss element

For the two-node truss element the internal energy U
e
is

=
L
e
dx EA U
0
2
1

where the strain is related to the nodal displacements through:

| |
e
e
e
e
e
j
i
e
j
i
j
i
u
u
L u
u
x
N
x
N
x
Bu
u
=
(
(
=
(
(
= 1 1
1
; | | 1 1
1
=
L
B

This form is symmetrically expanded by inserting = B u
e
into the second
and
T
= (u
e
)
T
B
T
into the first :

| | | | dx
u
u
L
EA
L
u u U
e
j
e
i
L
o
e
j
e
i
e
(
(
=

1 1
1
1
1
1
2
1

The nodal displacements can be written outside the integrals, giving

| |
e e T e
e
j
e
i
L
e
j
e
i
e
) (
u
u
dx
L
EA
u u U u K u
2
1
1 1
1 1
2
1
0
2
=
(
(

=

in which


73

=
(

=
L
T
L
e
dx EA dx
L
EA
0 0
2
1 1
1 1
B B K

is the element stiffness matrix. If the elongation stiffness EA is constant
along the element,

(

=
(

= =

1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
2
0
L
EA
L
L
EA
dx EA
L
T e
B B K

which is the same element stiffness matrix derived using the DSM
previously.

Chapter 6 - Stress and Strain - A4

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______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

K is large enough i.e. several order of magnitude larger then

K is added in the node i and a very large

is applied along the corresponding direction n).

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