CHAPTER 38

Automation of Manufacturing Processes

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

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Chapter 38 Outline

Figure 38.1

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Development in the History of Automation of Manufacturing Processes

TABLE 38.1 Date 15001600 16001700 17001800 18001900 1808 1863 19001920 1920 19201940 1940 1943 1945 1948 1952 1954 1957 1959 1960s 1965 1968 1970 1970s 1980s 1990s Development Water power for metalworking; rolling mills for coinage strips. Hand lathe for wood; mechanical calculator. Boring, turning, and screw cutting lathe, drill press. Copying lathe, turret lathe, universal milling machine; advanced mechanical calculators. Sheet-metal cards with punched holes for automatic control of weaving patterns in looms. Automatic piano player (Pianola). Geared lathe; automatic screw machine; automatic bottlemaking machine. First use of the word robot. Transfer machines; mass production. First electronic computing machine. First digital electronic computer. First use of the word automation. Invention of the transistor. First prototype numerical-control machine tool. Development of the symbolic language APT (Automatically Programmed Tool); adaptive control. Commercially available NC machine tools. Integrated circuits; first use of the term group technology. Industrial robots. Large-scale integrated circuits. Programmable logic controllers. First integrated manufacturing system; spot welding of automobile bodies with robots. Microprocessors; minicomputer-controlled robot; flexible manufacturing systems; group technology. Artificial intelligence; intelligent robots; smart sensors; untended manufacturing cells, Integrated manufacturing systems; intelligent and sensor-based machines; telecommunications and global manufacturing networks; fuzzy logic devices; artificial neural networks; Internet tools.

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Approximate Annual Volume of Production

TABLE 38.2 Type of production Experimental or prototype Piece or small batch Batch or high volume Mass production Number produced 110 105000 5000100,000 100,000 and over Typical products All Aircraft, special machinery, dies, jewelry, orthopedic implants, missiles. Trucks, agricultural machinery, jet engines, diesel engines; computer components, sporting goods. Automobiles, appliances, fasteners, food and beverage containers.

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Flexibility and Productivity of Manufacturing Systems

Figure 38.2 Flexibility and productivity of various manufacturing systems. Note the overlap between the systems; it is due to the various levels of automation and computer control that are possible in each group. See, also, Chapter 39, for details. Source: U. Rembold, et al., Computer Integrated Manufacturing and Engineering. Addison-Wesley, 1993.

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Characteristics of Production Methods

Figure 38.3 General characteristics of three types of production methods: job shop, batch, and mass production.

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Transfer Mechanisms
Figure 38.4 Two types of transfer mechanisms: (a) straight and (b) circular patterns.

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Transfer Line

Figure 38.5 A large transfer line for producing engine blocks and cylinder heads. Source: Ford Motor Company.
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Dimensioning and Numerical Control

Figure 38.6 Positions of drilled holes in a workpiece. Three methods of measurements are shown: (a) absolute dimensioning, referenced from one point at the lower left of the part; (b) incremental dimensioning, made sequentially form one hole to another; and (c) mixed dimensioning, a combination of both methods.

Figure 38.7 Schematic illustration of the major components of a numerical-control machine tool.
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Open- and Closed-Loop Control Systems

Figure 38.8 Schematic illustration of the components of (a) an open-loop and (b) a closed-loop control system for a numberical-control machine. DAC means digital-toanalog converter.

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Direct and Indirect Measurements

Figure 38.9 (a) Direct measurement of the linear displacement of a machine-tool work table. (b) and (c) Indirect measurement methods.

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Tool Movement and Interpolation

Figure 38.10 Movement of tools in numerical-control machining. (a) Point-to-point, in which the drill bit drills a hole at position 1, is retracted and moved to position 2, and so on. (b) Continuous path by a milling cutter. Note that the cutter path is compensated for by the cutter radius. This path can also be compensated for cutter wear. Figure 38.11 Types of interpolation in numerical control: (a) linear, (b) continuous path approximated by incremental straight lines, and (c) circular.

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Point-to-Point and Contour Maching

(a) (b)

Figure 38.12 (a) Schematic illustration of drilling, boring, and milling with various paths. (b) Machining a sculptured surface on a 5-axis numerical control machine. Source: The Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.

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Adaptive Control
Figure 38.13 Schematic illustration of the application of adaptive control (AC) for a turning operation. The system monitors such parameters as cutting foce, torque, and vibrations; if they are excessive, it modifies process variables such as feed and depth of cut to bring them back to acceptable levels.

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Adaptive Control in Milling

Figure 38.14 An example of adaptive control in milling. As the depth of cut or the width of cut increases the cutting forces and the torque increase. The system senses this increase and automatically reduces the feed to avoid excessive forces or tool breakage, in order to maintain cutting efficiency. Source: Y. Koren.

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Workpiece Inspection for Adaptive Control

Figure 38.15 In-process inspection of workpiece diameter in a turning operation. The system automatically adjusts the radial position of the cutting tool in order to produce the correct diameter.

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Self-Guided Vehicle

Figure 38.16 A self-guided vehicle (Caterpillar Model SGC-M) carrying a machining pallet. The vehiclre is aligned next to a stand on the floor. Instad of following a wire or stripe path on the factory floor, this vehicle calculates its own path and automatically corrects for any deviations. Source: Courtesy of Caterpillar Industrial, Inc.

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Six-Axis S-10 GMF Robot

Figure 38.17 (a) Schematic illustration of a six-axis S-10 GMF robot. The payload at the wrist is 10 kg and repeatability is 0.2 mm (0.008 in.). The robot has mechanical brakes on all itrs axes, which are coupled directly. (b) The work envelope of the robot, as viewed from the side. Source: GMFanuc Robotics Corporation.

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End Effectors

Figure 38.18 (a) Various devices and tools attached to end effectors to perform a variety of operations. (b) A system of compensating for misalignment during automated assembly. Source: ATI Industrial Automation.

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Industrial Robots
Figure 38.19 Four types of industrial robots: (a) cartesian (rectilinear), (b) cylindrical, (c) spherical (polar), (d) articulated (revolute, jointed, or anthropomorphic).

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Work Envelopes
Figure 38.20 Work envelopes for three types of robots. The choice depends on the particular application. See also Fig. 38.17.

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Figure 38.21 Spot welding automobile bodies with industrial robots. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

Examples of Industrial Robot Use

Figure 38.22 Sealing joints of an automobile body with an industrial robot. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

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Automated Assembly Operations

Figure 38.23 Automated assembly operations using industrial robots and circular and linear transfer lines.

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Mechanical and Tactile Sensors

Figure 38.25 A robot gripper with tactile sensors. In spite of their capabilities, tactile sensors are now being used less frequently, because of their high cost and their low durability in industrial applications. Source: Courtesy of Lord Corporation.

Figure 38.24 A toolholder equipped with thrustforce and torque sensors (smart toolholder), capable of continuously monitoring the cutting operation. Such toolholders are necessary for adaptive control of manufacturing operations. (See Section 38.5.) Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

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Machine-Vision Applications

Figure 38.26 Examples of machine-vision applications. (a) In-line inspection of parts. (b) Identification of parts with various shapes, and inspection and rejection of defective parts. (continued)

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Machine-Vision Applications (cont.)

Figure 38.26 (continued) (c) Use of cameras to provide positional input to a robot relative to the workpiece. (d) Painting parts having different shapes by means of input from a camera. The systems memory allows the robot to identify the particular shape to be painted and to proceed with the correct movementso f a paint spray attached to the end effector.

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Flexible Fixturing
Figure 38.27 Schematic illustration of a flexible fixturing setup. The clamping force is sensed by the strain gage, and the system automatically adjusts this force. Source: P. K. Wright.

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Design-for-Assembly Analysis
Figure 38.28 Stages in the designfor-assembly analysis. Source: Product Design for Assembly, 1989 edition, by G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst. Reproduced with permission.

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Automated Assembly Transfer Systems

Figure 38.29 Transfer systems for automated assembly: (a) rotary indexing machine, (b) in-line indexing machine. Source: G. Boothroyd.

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Robot Assembly Station

Figure 38.30 A two-arm robot assembly station. Source: Product Design for Assembly, 1989 edition, by G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst. Reproduced with permission.

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Guides
Figure 38.31 Various guides that ensure that parts are properly oriented for automated assembly. Source: G. Boothroyd.

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Automated Assembly Parts

Figure 38.32 Redesign of parts to facilitate automated assembly. Source: G. Boothroyd.

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Design Comparison
Figure 38.33

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