Contents

Articles
EIA Class 1 dielectric EIA Class 2 dielectric Barium titanate Strontium titanate Curie temperature Piezoelectricity Permittivity Electric susceptibility Relative permittivity Permeability (electromagnetism) Sintering 1 2 4 7 11 13 25 31 32 36 40

References
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EIA Class 1 dielectric

EIA Class 1 dielectric

The EIA Class 1 dielectric materials are ceramic dielectric materials used in ceramic capacitors of small values (typically <5 nF). The EIA Class 1 dielectrics in general are usually based on titanate formulas (usually titanium dioxide with calcium titanate) with low or zero content of barium titanate; due to that low content, their susceptibility to microphonics is low. (Cf. EIA Class 2 dielectric.) Their dependence on temperature is linear. C0G (EIA) or NP0 (industry spec) is the material with the lowest capacitance/temperature dependence (Negative-Positive zero). C0G/NP0 dielectrics have the lowest losses, and are used in filters, as timing elements, and for balancing crystal oscillators. Ceramic capacitors tend to have low inductance because of their flat plate construction. Most other types of capacitor are wound and thus inductive. This makes ceramic capacitors well suited to high-frequency work, where they are often used as a leadless disc or plate soldered inline with the PCB track. NP0 refers to the shape of the capacitor's temperature coefficient graph (how capacitance changes with temperature). NP0 means that the graph is flat and the device is not affected by temperature changes. The C0G/NP0 material can be used up to gigahertz frequencies. Common materials are C0G/NP0, P350, N1000/M3K. The ceramic composition may involve one or more of dielectric electroceramics materials. There are two naming conventions. The EIA version relies on letter-digit-letter code for the slope of the temperature-capacitance dependence. The industry version uses a N/P prefix (N for negative, P for positive) and the slope coefficient. See the comparison for some common materials:
EIA M7G C0G B2G U1G P2G R2G S2H T2H U2J P3K R3L

Industry P100 NP0 N030 N075 N150 N220 N330 N470 N750 N1500 N2200

The EIA three-character code for the material capacitance-temperature slope is derived from the low and high temperature limit, and the range of capacitance change.

ppm/C C B L A 0.0 0.3 0.8 0.9

Multiplier 0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 -1 -10 -100 -1000 +1 +10 +100 +1000

Tolerance in ppm/C (25-85 C) G H J K L M N 30 60 120 250 500 1000 2500

M 1.0 P R S T V U 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.7 5.6 7.5

EIA Class 2 dielectric

EIA Class 2 dielectric

The EIA Class 2 dielectric materials are ceramic dielectric materials used in ceramic capacitors. The EIA Class 2 dielectrics in general are usually based on formulas with high content of barium titanate (BT), possibly mixed with other dielectric electroceramics. Due to its piezoelectric properties, they are subject to microphonics. Other oxides added can be the same as used for Class 1 ceramics.

Comparison to Class 1 dielectrics

In comparison with the EIA Class 1 dielectrics they tend to have severe temperature drift, high dependence of capacitance on applied voltage, high voltage coefficient of dissipation factor, high frequency coefficient of dissipation, and problems with aging due to gradual change of crystal structure. Aging causes gradual exponential loss of capacitance and decrease of dissipation factor.

Marking code
The EIA three-character code is derived from the minimum and maximum temperature limit, and the amount of capacitance change permitted within that range.

Minimum temperature X Y Z -55 C -30 C +10 C

Maximum temperature 4 5 6 7 8 9 +65 C +85 C +105 C +125 C +150 C +200 C

Capacitance change permitted A 1.0% B 1.5% C 2.2% D 3.3% E 4.7% F 7.5% L +15% / -40% P 10% R 15% S 22% T +22% / -33% U +22% / -56% V +22% / -82%[1]

EIA Class 2 dielectric

Common types
Although this code can describe a huge number of possible dielectrics, only a few are commonly manufactured. X5R performs better than other dielectrics, such as Y5V, and permits the construction of physically smaller capacitors than other dielectrics, such as NP0 and X7R. Typically its temperature variation of capacitance is +/-15% over a range of -55 to +85 degrees Celsius. The temperature variation is, however, non-linear. X7R is designed for capacitors with capacity ranging typically between 3.3 nF to 330 nF (SMT: 100 pF to 10 F). Good for non-critical coupling, filtering, transient voltage suppression, and timing applications. Has high dielectric constant. It is an EIA Class 2 dielectric. Its variation over a temperature range of 55 to +125 C is 15%. Y5P and Y5V are other such class 2 ceramics, with temperature range of 30 to +85 C and wide capacitance change with temperature of 10% or +22/-82%.[1] Usually used for capacitances between 150 pF and 2 nF (SMT: 10 nF to 10 F). Y5P is equivalent to the IEC code 2B4. Z5U is commonly found from 2.2 nF to 2.2 F, 20%. Good for bypass, coupling applications. Low price and small size, poor temperature stability. This is equivalent to the IEC code 2E6.

References
[1] AVX. "Y5V Dielectric" (http:/ / download. siliconexpert. com/ pdfs/ Caps/ AVX/ Cy5v. pdf) (pdf). siliconexpert.com. . Retrieved 2011 October 31.

Barium titanate

Barium titanate
Barium titanate

Identifiers CAS number PubChem ChemSpider RTECS number Jmol-3D images 12047-27-7 6101006
[2] [3] [1]

10605734

XR1437333 Image 1
[4]

Properties Molecular formula BaTiO3 Molar mass Appearance Odor Density Melting point 233.192 g/mol white crystals odorless 6.02 g/cm , solid 1625 C
3

Solubility in water insoluble Solubility Band gap slightly soluble in dilute mineral acids; dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid and hydrofluoric acid 3.2 eV (300 K, single crystal)
[5]

Structure Crystal structure Space group Tetragonal, tP5 P4mm, No. 99 Hazards R-phrases S-phrases R20/22 S28A, S37, and S45
(what is: / ?) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25C, 100kPa) (verify) [6]

Infobox references

Barium titanate is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula BaTiO3. Barium titanate is a white powder and transparent as larger crystals. This titanate is a ferroelectric ceramic material, with a photorefractive effect and

Barium titanate piezoelectric properties.

Structure
The solid can exist in five phases, listing from high temperature to low temperature: hexagonal, cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, and rhombohedral crystal structure. All of the phases exhibit the ferroelectric effect except the cubic phase. The high temperature cubic phase is easiest to describe, consisting of octahedral TiO6 centres that define a cube with Ti vertices and Ti-O-Ti edges. In the cubic phase, Ba2+ is located at the center of the cube, with a nominal coordination number of 12. Lower symmetry phases are stabilized at lower temperatures, associated with the movement of the Ba2+ to off-center position. The remarkable properties of this material arise from the cooperative behavior of the Ba2+ centres.
Structure of cubic BaTiO3. The red spheres are oxide centres, blue are Ti4+ cations, and the green spheres are Ba2+.

Production and handling properties

Barium titanate can be manufactured by heating barium carbonate and titanium dioxide. The reaction proceeds via liquid phase sintering. Single crystals can be grown around 1100 C from molten potassium fluoride.[7] Other materials are often added for doping, e.g. to give solid solutions with strontium titanate. Reacts with nitrogen trichloride and produces a greenish or grey mixture, the ferroelectric properties of the mixture are still present in this form. Much work has been dedicated to its morphology. Fully dense nanocrystalline barium titanate has 40% higher permittivity than the same material prepared in classic ways.[8] The addition of inclusions of barium titanate to tin has been shown to produce a bulk material with a higher viscoelastic stiffness than that of diamonds. Barium titanate goes through two phase transitions that change the crystal shape and volume. This phase change leads to composites where the barium titanates have a negative bulk modulus (Young's modulus), meaning that when a force acts on the inclusions, there is displacement in the opposite direction, further stiffening the composite.[9] Like many oxides, barium titanate is insoluble in water but attacked by sulfuric acid. Its bulk room-temperature bandgap is 3.2 eV, but it increases to ~3.5 eV when the particle size is reduced from about 15 to 7 nm.[5]

Uses
Barium titanate is a dielectric ceramic used for capacitors. It is a piezoelectric material for microphones and other transducers. The spontaneous polarization of barium titanate is about 0.15 C/m2 at room temperature and its Curie point is 120 C.[10] As a piezoelectric material, it was largely replaced by lead zirconate titanate, also known as PZT. Polycrystalline barium titanate displays positive temperature coefficient, making it a useful material for thermistors and self-regulating electric heating systems. Barium titanate crystals find use in nonlinear optics. The material has high beam-coupling gain, and can be operated at visible and near-infrared wavelengths. It has the highest reflectivity of the materials used for self-pumped phase conjugation (SPPC) applications. It can be used for continuous-wave four-wave mixing with milliwatt-range optical power. For photorefractive applications, barium titanate can be doped by various other elements, e.g. iron.[11] Thin films of barium titanate display electrooptic modulation to frequencies over 40GHz.[12] The pyroelectric and ferroelectric properties of barium titanate are used in some types of uncooled sensors for thermal cameras.

Barium titanate High purity barium titanate powder is reported to be a key component of new barium titanate capacitor energy storage systems for use in electric vehicles.[13]

Natural occurrence
Barioperovskite is a very rare natural analogue of BaTiO3, found as microinclusions in benitoite.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] http:/ / www. commonchemistry. org/ ChemicalDetail. aspx?ref=12047-27-7 http:/ / pubchem. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ summary/ summary. cgi?cid=6101006 http:/ / www. chemspider. com/ 10605734 http:/ / chemapps. stolaf. edu/ jmol/ jmol. php?model=%5BBa%2B2%5D. %5BBa%2B2%5D. %5BO-%5D%5BTi%5D%28%5BO-%5D%29%28%5BO-%5D%29%5BO-%5D Keigo Suzuki and Kazunori Kijima (2005). "Optical Band Gap of Barium Titanate Nanoparticles Prepared by RF-plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition". Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 44: 20812082. doi:10.1143/JJAP.44.2081. http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special%3Acomparepages?rev1=455377376& page2=%3ABarium+ titanate Francis S. Galasso "Barium Titanate, BaTiO3" Inorganic Syntheses 1973, Volume 14, 142143. doi:10.1002/9780470132456.ch28. Nyutu, Edward K.; Chen, Chun-Hu; Dutta, Prabir K.; Suib, Steven L. (2008). "Effect of Microwave Frequency on Hydrothermal Synthesis of Nanocrystalline Tetragonal Barium Titanate". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 112 (26): 9659. doi:10.1021/jp7112818.

[9] Jaglinski, T; Kochmann, D; Stone, D; Lakes, Rs (2007). "Composite materials with viscoelastic stiffness greater than diamond". Science 315 (5812): 6202. doi:10.1126/science.1135837. PMID17272714. [10] Wadhawan, Vinod K. (2000). Introduction to ferroic materials. CRC Press. p.10. ISBN9789056992866. [11] "Fe:LiNbO3 Crystal" (http:/ / www. redoptronics. com/ Fe-LiNbO3-crystal. html). . Retrieved 2009-06-06. [12] Tang, Pingsheng; Towner, D; Hamano, T; Meier, A; Wessels, B (2004). "Electrooptic modulation up to 40 GHz in a barium titanate thin film waveguide modulator". Optics Express 12 (24): 59627. doi:10.1364/OPEX.12.005962. PMID19488237. [13] "Nanoparticle Compatibility: New Nanocomposite Processing Technique Creates More Powerful Capacitors" (http:/ / gtresearchnews. gatech. edu/ newsrelease/ barium-titanate. htm). . Retrieved 2009-06-06.

External links
Nanoparticle Compatibility: New Nanocomposite Processing Technique Creates More Powerful Capacitors (http:/ /gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/newsrelease/barium-titanate.htm) EEStor's "instant-charge" capacitor batteries (http://blog.wired.com/gadgets/2007/09/instant-charge-.html)

Strontium titanate

Strontium titanate
Strontium titanate

Identifiers CAS number PubChem ChemSpider EC number MeSH Jmol-3D images 12060-59-2 82899 74801
[2] [3] [4] [5] [1]

235-044-1

Strontium+titanium+oxide Image 1 [7] Image 2 Properties

[6]

Molecular formula Molar mass Exact mass Appearance Density Melting point Refractive index (n )
D

SrTiO3 183.49 g mol

1 1

183.838305258 g mol

White, opaque crystals 5.1 g cm3

[8] [8]

2080 C (3740 F) 2.41 Structure

Crystal structure
(verify) [9]

Simple cubic

(what is: / ?) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25C, 100kPa)

Infobox references

Strontium titanate is an oxide of strontium and titanium with the chemical formula SrTiO3. At room temperature, it is a centrosymmetric paraelectric material with a perovskite structure. At low temperatures it approaches a ferroelectric phase transition with a very large dielectric constant ~104 but remains paraelectric down to the lowest temperatures measured as a result of quantum fluctuations.[10] It was long thought to be a wholly artificial material, until 1982 when its natural counterpartdiscovered in Siberia and named tausonitewas recognised by the IMA. Tausonite remains an extremely rare mineral in nature, occurring as very tiny crystals. Its most important application

Strontium titanate has been in its synthesized form wherein it is occasionally encountered as a diamond simulant, in precision optics, in varistors, and in advanced ceramics. The name tausonite was given in honour of Lev Vladimirovich Tauson (19171989), a Russian geochemist. Disused trade names for the synthetic product include strontium mesotitanate, Fabulite, Diagem, and Marvelite. Other than its type locality of the Murun Massif in the Sakha Republic, natural tausonite is also found in Cerro Sarambi, Concepcin department, Paraguay; and along the Kotaki River of Honsh, Japan.[11][12]

Properties
Strontium titanate is both much denser (specific gravity 4.88 for natural, 5.13 for synthetic) and much softer (Mohs hardness 66.5 for natural, 5.5 for synthetic) than diamond. Its crystal system is cubic and its refractive index (2.41as measured by sodium light, 589.3nm) is nearly identical to that of diamond, but the dispersion (the optical property responsible for the "fire" of the cut stones) of strontium titanate is over four times higher, at 0.19 (BG interval). This results in an excess of fire when compared to diamond.[11][12] Synthetics are usually transparent and colourless, but can be doped with certain rare earth or transition metals to give reds, yellows, browns, and blues. Natural tausonite is usually translucent to opaque, in shades of reddish brown, dark red, or grey. Both have an adamantine (diamond-like) lustre. Strontium titanate is considered extremely brittle with a conchoidal fracture; natural material is cubic or octahedral in habit and streaks brown. Through a hand-held (direct vision) spectroscope, doped synthetics will exhibit a rich absorption spectrum typical of doped stones. Synthetic material has a melting point of ca. 2080C (3776F) and is readily attacked by hydrofluoric acid.[11][12] The synthetic material has a very large dielectric constant (300) at room temperature and low electric field. It is also used in high-voltage capacitors. Strontium titanate becomes superconducting below 0.35 K and was the first insulator and oxide discovered to be

Atomic resolution image of SrTiO3. Brighter atoms are Sr and darker ones are Ti

Structure of SrTiO3. The red spheres are oxygens, blue are Ti4+ cations, and the green ones are Sr2+.

superconductive.[13] At temperatures lower than 105 K, its cubic structure transforms to tetragonal.[14] It is an excellent substrate for epitaxial growth of high-temperature superconductors and many oxide-based thin films. Its monocrystals can be used as optical windows and high-quality sputter deposition targets. SrTiO3 is a suitable material for electronics: niobium-doped strontium titanate, is electrically conductive. High-quality, epitaxial SrTiO3 layers can also be grown on silicon without forming silicon dioxide, thereby making SrTiO3 an alternative gate dielectric material. This also enables the integration of other thin film perovskite oxides onto silicon.[15]

Strontium titanate

Synthesis
Synthetic strontium titanate was one of several titanates patented during the late 1940s and early 1950s; other titanates included barium titanate and calcium titanate. Research was conducted primarily at the National Lead Company (later renamed N. L. Industries, Inc.) in the United States, by Leon Merker and Langtry E. Lynd. Merker and Lynd first patented the growth process on February 10, 1953; a number of refinements were subsequently patented over the next four years, such as modifications to the feed powder and additions of colouring dopants.

A modification to the basic Verneuil process (also known as flame-fusion) is the favoured method of growth. An inverted oxy-hydrogen blowpipe is used, with feed powder mixed with oxygen carefully fed through the blowpipe in the typical fashion, but with the addition of a third pipe to deliver oxygencreating a tricone burner. The extra oxygen is required for successful formation of strontium titanate, which would otherwise fail to oxidize completely due to the titanium component. The ratio is ca. 1.5 volumes of hydrogen for each volume of oxygen. The highly purified feed powder is derived by first producing titanyl double oxalate salt (SrTiO(C2O4)22H2O) by reacting strontium chloride (SrCl2) and oxalic acid ((COOH)2.2H2O) with titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4). The salt is washed to completely eliminate chloride, heated to 1000C in order to produce a free-flowing granular powder of the required composition, and is then ground and sieved to ensure all particles are between 0.20.5 micrometres in size.[16] The feed powder falls through the oxyhydrogen flame, melts, and lands on a rotating and slowly descending pedestal below. The height of the pedestal is constantly adjusted to keep its top at the optimal position below the flame, and over a number of hours the molten powder cools and crystallises to form a single pedunculated pear or boule crystal. This boule is usually no larger than 2.5 centimetres in diameter and 10 centimetres long; it is an opaque black to begin with, requiring further annealing in an oxidizing atmosphere in order to make the crystal colourless and to relieve strain. This is done at over 1000C for 12 hours.[16]

A plate cut out of synthetic SrTiO3 crystal

Use as a diamond simulant

Its cubic structure and high dispersion once made synthetic strontium titanate a prime candidate for simulating diamond. Beginning ca. 1955, large quantities of strontium titanate were manufactured for this sole purpose. Strontium titanate was in competition with synthetic rutile ("titania") at the time, and had the advantage of lacking the unfortunate yellow tinge and strong birefringence inherent to the latter material. While it was softer, it was significantly closer to diamond in likeness. Eventually, however, both would fall into disuse, being eclipsed by the creation of "better" simulants: first by yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG) and followed shortly after by gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG); and finally by the (to date) ultimate simulant in terms of diamond-likeness and cost-effectiveness, cubic zirconia.[17] Despite being outmoded, strontium titanate is still manufactured and periodically encountered in jewellery. It is one of the most costly of diamond simulants, and due to its rarity collectors may pay a premium for large i.e. >2 carat (400mg) specimens. As a diamond simulant, strontium titanate is most deceptive when mingled with mele i.e. <0.20 carat (40mg) stones and when it is used as the base material for a composite or doublet stone (with, e.g., synthetic corundum as the crown or top of the stone). Under the microscope, gemmologists distinguish strontium titanate from diamond by the former's softnessmanifested by surface abrasionsand excess dispersion (to the trained eye), and occasional gas bubbles which are remnants of synthesis. Doublets can be detected by a join line at the girdle ("waist" of the stone) and flattened air bubbles or glue visible within the stone at the point of bonding.[18][19][20]

Strontium titanate

10

References
[1] http:/ / www. commonchemistry. org/ ChemicalDetail. aspx?ref=12060-59-2 [2] http:/ / pubchem. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ summary/ summary. cgi?cid=82899 [3] http:/ / www. chemspider. com/ 74801 [4] http:/ / esis. jrc. ec. europa. eu/ index. php?GENRE=ECNO& ENTREE=235-044-1 [5] http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi/ mesh/ 2007/ MB_cgi?mode=& term=Strontium+ titanium+ oxide [6] http:/ / chemapps. stolaf. edu/ jmol/ jmol. php?model=%5BSr%2B%2B%5D. %5BO-%5D%5BTi%5D%28%5BO-%5D%29%3DO [7] http:/ / chemapps. stolaf. edu/ jmol/ jmol. php?model=%5BSr%2B2%5D. %5BO-%5D%5BTi%5D%28%5BO-%5D%29%3DO [8] Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. p.4.89. ISBN0-8493-0486-5. [9] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special%3Acomparepages?rev1=445096043& page2=%3AStrontium+ titanate [10] K. A. Muller and H. Burkard (1979). "SrTiO3: An intrinsic quantum paraelectric below 4 K". Phys. Rev. B 19 (7): 35933602. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.19.3593. [11] "Tausonite" (http:/ / webmineral. com/ data/ Tausonite. shtml). Webmineral.. . Retrieved 2009-06-06. [12] "Tausonite" (http:/ / www. mindat. org/ min-3895. html). Mindat. . Retrieved 2009-06-06. [13] Koonce, C. S.; Cohen, Marvin L. (1967). "Superconducting Transition Temperatures of Semiconducting SrTiO3". Phys. Rev. 163 (2): 380. Bibcode1967PhRv..163..380K. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.163.380. [14] L. Rimai and G. A. deMars (1962). "Electron Paramagnetic Resonance of Trivalent Gadolinium Ions in Strontium and Barium Titanates". Phys. Rev. 127 (3): 702. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.127.702. [15] R. A. McKee, F. J. Walker, and M. F. Chisholm (1998). "Crystalline Oxides on Silicon: The First Five Monolayers". Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (14): 3014. Bibcode1998PhRvL..81.3014M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.3014. [16] H. J. Scheel and P. Capper (2008). Crystal growth technology: from fundamentals and simulation to large-scale production. Wiley-VCH. p.431. ISBN3527317627. [17] R. W. Hesse (2007). Jewelrymaking through history: an encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.73. ISBN0313335079. [18] Nassau, K. (1980). Gems made by man. Santa Monica, California: Gemological Institute of America. pp.214221. ISBN0873110161. [19] O'Donoghue, M. (2002). Synthetic, imitation & treated gemstones. Great Britain: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. pp.34, 65. ISBN0750631732. [20] Read, P. G. (1999). Gemmology, second edition. Great Britain: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp.173, 176, 177, 293. ISBN0-7506-4411-7.

External links
An electron micrograph of strontium titanate, as artwork entitled "Strontium" at the DeYoung Museum in San Francisco (http://www.famsf.org/deyoung/about/subpage.asp?subpagekey=731)

Curie temperature

11

Curie temperature
In physics and materials science, the Curie temperature (Tc), or Curie point, is the temperature at which a ferromagnetic or a ferrimagnetic material becomes paramagnetic on heating; the effect is reversible. A magnet will lose its magnetism if heated above the Curie temperature. The term is also used in piezoelectric materials to refer to the temperature at which spontaneous polarization is lost on heating. An analogous temperature, the Nel temperature, is defined for antiferromagnetic materials. The Curie temperature is named after Pierre Curie. Below the Curie temperature neighboring magnetic spins are aligned parallel within ferromagnetic materials and anti-parallel in ferrimagnetic materials. As the temperature is increased towards the Curie point, the alignment (magnetization) within each domain decreases. Above the Curie temperature, the material is paramagnetic so that magnetic moments are in a completely disordered state. The destruction of magnetization at the Curie temperature is a second-order phase transition and a critical point where the magnetic susceptibility is theoretically infinite. A heat-induced ferromagnetic-paramagnetic transition is used in magneto-optical storage media, for erasing and writing of new data. Famous examples include the Sony Minidisc format, as well as the now-obsolete CD-MO format. Other uses include temperature control in soldering irons, and stabilizing the magnetic field of tachometer generators against temperature variation.[1]

Curie temperature in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials

Given below are various Curie temperatures for different substances.[2]

Below the Curie temperature, neighboring magnetic spins align in a ferromagnet even if there is no magnetic field.

Above the Curie temperature, the magnetic spins are randomly aligned unless a magnetic field is applied.

Curie temperature

12

Substance Iron (Fe) Cobalt (Co) Nickel (Ni)

Curie temp C 770 1130 358

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 622

Gadolinium is ferromagnetic at temperatures below 19 C (66 F),[3] approximately room temperature, and strongly paramagnetic above that temperature.

Curie temperature in piezoelectric materials

In analogy to ferromagnetic materials, the Curie temperature is also used in piezoelectric materials to describe the temperature above which the material loses its spontaneous polarization and piezoelectric characteristics. In lead zirconate titanate (PZT), the material is tetragonal below Tc and the unit cell contains a displaced central cation and hence a net dipole moment. Above Tc, the material is cubic and the central cation is no longer displaced from the centre of the unit cell. Hence, there is no net dipole moment and no spontaneous polarization.

The Curie-Weiss law

A simple theory predicts that, above the Curie temperature, the magnetic susceptibility, , is given by the Curie-Weiss law:

where C is a material-specific Curie constant, T is absolute temperature, measured in kelvins, and Tc is the Curie temperature, measured in kelvins. Thus, the susceptibility approaches infinity as the temperature approaches Tc.[4]

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] Palls-Areny & Webster 2001, pp.262263 Buschow 2001, page 5021, table 1 The Elements, Theodore Gray, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2009 Kittel 1986

References
Buschow, K. H. J. (2001). Encyclopedia of materials : science and technology. Elsevier. ISBN0-08-043152-6. Kittel, Charles (1986). Introduction to Solid State Physics (sixth ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN0-471-87474-4. Palls-Areny, Ramon; Webster, John G (2001). Sensors and Signal Conditioning (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp.262263. ISBN978-0-471-33232-9.

External links
Ferromagnetic Curie Point (http://es.youtube.com/watch?v=X8ZHQQUusGo). Video by Walter Lewin, M.I.T.

Piezoelectricity

13

Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity ( /piezoilktrsti/) is the charge that accumulates in certain solid materials (notably crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various proteins)[1] in response to applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure. It is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein (), which means to squeeze or press, and electric or electron (), which stands for amber, an ancient source of electric charge.[2] Piezoelectricity is the direct result of the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with no inversion symmetry.[3] The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process in that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical charge resulting from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical strain resulting from an applied electrical field). For example, lead zirconate titanate crystals will generate measurable piezoelectricity when their static structure is deformed by about 0.1% of the original dimension. Conversely, those same crystals will change about 0.1% of their static dimension when an external electric field is applied to the material. Piezoelectricity is found in useful applications such as the production and detection of sound, generation of high voltages, electronic frequency generation, microbalances, and ultrafine focusing of optical assemblies. It is also the basis of a number of scientific instrumental techniques with atomic resolution, the scanning probe microscopies such as STM, AFM, MTA, SNOM, etc., and everyday uses such as acting as the ignition source for cigarette lighters and push-start propane barbecues.

History
Discovery and early research
The pyroelectric effect, by which a material generates an electric potential in response to a temperature change, was studied by Carl Linnaeus and Franz Aepinus in the mid-18th century. Drawing on this knowledge, both Ren Just Hay and Antoine Csar Becquerel posited a relationship between mechanical stress and electric charge; however, experiments by both proved inconclusive. The first demonstration of the direct piezoelectric effect was in 1880 by the brothers Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie. They combined their knowledge of pyroelectricity with their understanding of the underlying crystal structures that gave rise to pyroelectricity to predict crystal behavior, and demonstrated the effect using crystals of tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane sugar, and Rochelle salt (sodium potassium tartrate tetrahydrate). Quartz and Rochelle salt exhibited the most piezoelectricity.

Piezoelectricity

14

The Curies, however, did not predict the converse piezoelectric effect. The converse effect was mathematically deduced from fundamental thermodynamic principles by Gabriel Lippmann in 1881.[4] The Curies immediately confirmed the existence of the converse effect, and went on to obtain quantitative proof of the complete reversibility of electro-elasto-mechanical deformations in piezoelectric crystals. For the next few decades, piezoelectricity remained something of a laboratory curiosity. More work was done to explore and define the crystal structures that exhibited piezoelectricity. This culminated in 1910 with the publication of Woldemar Voigt's Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik (textbook on crystal physics), which described the 20 natural crystal classes capable of piezoelectricity, and rigorously defined the piezoelectric constants using tensor analysis.

A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when deformed (change in shape is greatly exaggerated)

World War I and post-war

The first practical application for piezoelectric devices was sonar, first developed during World War I. In France in 1917, Paul Langevin and his coworkers developed an ultrasonic submarine detector. The detector consisted of a transducer, made of thin quartz crystals carefully glued between two steel plates, and a hydrophone to detect the returned echo. By emitting a high-frequency chirp from the transducer, and measuring the amount of time it takes to hear an echo from the sound waves bouncing off an object, one can calculate the distance to that object. The use of piezoelectricity in sonar, and the success of that project, created intense development interest in piezoelectric devices. Over the next few decades, new piezoelectric materials and new applications for those materials were explored and developed. Piezoelectric devices found homes in many fields. Ceramic phonograph cartridges simplified player design, were cheap and accurate, and made record players cheaper to maintain and easier to build. The development of the ultrasonic transducer allowed for easy measurement of viscosity and elasticity in fluids and solids, resulting in huge advances in materials research. Ultrasonic time-domain reflectometers (which send an ultrasonic pulse through a material and measure reflections from discontinuities) could find flaws inside cast metal and stone objects, improving structural safety.

World War II and post-war

During World War II, independent research groups in the United States, Russia, and Japan discovered a new class of man-made materials, called ferroelectrics, which exhibited piezoelectric constants many times higher than natural materials. This led to intense research to develop barium titanate and later lead zirconate titanate materials with specific properties for particular applications. One significant example of the use of piezoelectric crystals was developed by Bell Telephone Laboratories. Following World War I, Frederick R. Lack, working in radio telephony in the engineering department, developed the AT cut crystal, a crystal that operated through a wide range of temperatures. Lack's crystal didn't need the heavy accessories previous crystal used, facilitating its use on aircraft. This development allowed Allied air forces to engage in coordinated mass attacks through the use of aviation radio. Development of piezoelectric devices and materials in the United States was kept within the companies doing the development, mostly due to the wartime beginnings of the field, and in the interests of securing profitable patents. New materials were the first to be developed quartz crystals were the first commercially exploited piezoelectric

Piezoelectricity material, but scientists searched for higher-performance materials. Despite the advances in materials and the maturation of manufacturing processes, the United States market had not grown as quickly. Without many new applications, the growth of the United States' piezoelectric industry suffered. In contrast, Japanese manufacturers shared their information, quickly overcoming technical and manufacturing challenges and creating new markets. Japanese efforts in materials research created piezoceramic materials competitive to the U.S. materials, but free of expensive patent restrictions. Major Japanese piezoelectric developments include new designs of piezoceramic filters for radios and televisions, piezo buzzers and audio transducers that can connect directly to electronic circuits, and the piezoelectric igniter, which generates sparks for small engine ignition systems (and gas-grill lighters) by compressing a ceramic disc. Ultrasonic transducers that transmit sound waves through air had existed for quite some time, but first saw major commercial use in early television remote controls. These transducers now are mounted on several car models as an echolocation device, helping the driver determine the distance from the rear of the car to any objects that may be in its path.

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Mechanism
The nature of the piezoelectric effect is closely related to the occurrence of electric dipole moments in solids. The latter may either be induced for ions on crystal lattice sites with asymmetric charge surroundings (as in BaTiO3 and PZTs) or may directly be carried by Piezoelectric plate used to convert audio signal to molecular groups (as in cane sugar). The dipole density or polarization sound waves (dimensionality [Cm/m3] ) may easily be calculated for crystals by summing up the dipole moments per volume of the crystallographic unit cell.[5] As every dipole is a vector, the dipole density P is also a vector or a directed quantity. Dipoles near each other tend to be aligned in regions called Weiss domains. The domains are usually randomly oriented, but can be aligned using the process of poling (not the same as magnetic poling), a process by which a strong electric field is applied across the material, usually at elevated temperatures. Not all piezoelectric materials can be poled.[6] Of decisive importance for the piezoelectric effect is the change of polarization P when applying a mechanical stress. This might either be caused by a re-configuration of the dipole-inducing surrounding or by re-orientation of molecular dipole moments under the influence of the external stress. Piezoelectricity may then manifest in a variation of the polarization strength, its direction or both, with the details depending on 1. the orientation of P within the crystal, 2. crystal symmetry and 3. the applied mechanical stress. The change in P appears as a variation of surface charge density upon the crystal faces, i.e. as a variation of the electrical field extending between the faces, since the units of surface charge density and polarization are the same, [C/m2] = [Cm/m3]. However, piezoelectricity is not caused by a change in charge density on the surface, but by dipole density in the bulk. For example, a 1cm3 cube of quartz with 2kN (500lbf) of correctly applied force can produce a voltage of 12500 V.[7] Piezoelectric materials also show the opposite effect, called converse piezoelectric effect, where the application of an electrical field creates mechanical deformation in the crystal.

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Mathematical description
Piezoelectricity is the combined effect of the electrical behavior of the material:

where D is the electric charge density displacement (electric displacement), is permittivity and E is electric field strength, and Hooke's Law:

where S is strain, s is compliance and T is stress. These may be combined into so-called coupled equations, of which the strain-charge form is:

, where is the matrix for the direct piezoelectric effect and is the matrix for the converse piezoelectric effect.

The superscript E indicates a zero, or constant, electric field; the superscript T indicates a zero, or constant, stress field; and the superscript t stands for transposition of a matrix. The strain-charge for a material of the 4mm (C4v) crystal class (such as a poled piezoelectric ceramic such as tetragonal PZT or BaTiO3) as well as the 6mm crystal class may also be written as (ANSI IEEE 176):

where the first equation represents the relationship for the converse piezoelectric effect and the latter for the direct piezoelectric effect.[8] Although the above equations are the most used form in literature, some comments about the notation are necessary. Generally D and E are vectors, that is, Cartesian tensor of rank-1; and permittivity is Cartesian tensor of rank 2. Strain and stress are, in principle, also rank-2 tensors. But conventionally, because strain and stress are all symmetric tensors, the subscript of strain and stress can be re-labeled in the following fashion: 11 1; 22 2; 33 3; 23 4; 13 5; 12 6. (Different convention may be used by different authors in literature. Say, some use 12 4; 23 5; 31 6 instead.) That is why S and T appear to have the "vector form" of 6 components. Consequently, s appears to be a 6 by 6 matrix instead of rank-4 tensor. Such a re-labeled notation is often called Voigt notation. In total, there are 4 piezoelectric coefficients, , , , and defined as follows:

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where the first set of 4 terms correspond to the direct piezoelectric effect and the second set of 4 terms correspond to the converse piezoelectric effect.[9] A formalism has been worked out for those piezoelectric crystals, for which the polarization is of the crystal-field induced type, that allows for the calculation of piezoelectrical coefficients from electrostatic lattice constants or higher-order Madelung constants.[5]

Crystal classes
Of the thirty-two crystal classes, twenty-one are non-centrosymmetric (not having a centre of symmetry), and of these, twenty exhibit direct piezoelectricity (the 21st is the cubic class 432). Ten of these represent the polar crystal classes, which show a spontaneous polarization without mechanical stress due to a non-vanishing electric dipole moment associated with their unit cell, and which exhibit pyroelectricity. If the dipole moment can be reversed by the application of an electric field, the material is said to be ferroelectric. Polar crystal classes: 1, 2, m, mm2, 4, 4mm, 3, 3m, 6, 6mm. Piezoelectric crystal classes: 1, 2, m, 222, mm2, 4, 4, 422, 4mm, 42m, 3, 32, 3m, 6, 6, 622, 6mm, 62m, 23, 43m. For polar crystals, for which P 0 holds without applying a mechanical load, the piezoelectric effect manifests itself by changing the magnitude or the direction of P or both. For the non-polar, but piezoelectric crystals, on the other hand, a polarization P different from zero is only elicited by applying a mechanical load. For them the stress can be imagined to transform the material from a non-polar crystal class (P =0) to a polar one,[5] having P 0.
Any spatially separated charge will result in an electric field, and therefore an electric potential. Shown here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor. In a piezoelectric device, mechanical stress, instead of an externally applied voltage, causes the charge separation in the individual atoms of the material, .

Materials
Many materials, both natural and man-made, exhibit piezoelectricity:

Naturally occurring crystals

Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz Sucrose (table sugar) Quartz Rochelle salt Topaz Tourmaline-group minerals

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Other natural materials

Bone: Dry bone exhibits some piezoelectric properties. Studies of Fukada et al. showed that these are not due to the apatite crystals, which are centrosymmetric, thus non-piezoelectric, but due to collagen. Collagen exhibits the polar uniaxial orientation of molecular dipoles in its structure and can be considered as bioelectret, a sort of dielectric material exhibiting quasipermanent space charge and dipolar charge. Potentials are thought to occur when a number of collagen molecules are stressed in the same way displacing significant numbers of the charge carriers from the inside to the surface of the specimen. Piezoelectricity of single individual collagen fibrils was measured using piezoresponse force microscopy, and it was shown that collagen fibrils behave predominantly as shear piezoelectric materials.[10] The piezoelectric effect is generally thought to act as a biological force sensor.[11][12] This effect was exploited by research conducted at the University of Pennsylvania in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which established that sustained application of electrical potential could stimulate both resorption and growth (depending on the polarity) of bone in-vivo.[13] Further studies in the 1990s provided the mathematical equation to confirm long bone wave propagation as to that of hexagonal (Class 6) crystals.[14] Tendon Silk Wood due to piezoelectric texture Enamel Dentin

Man-made crystals
Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), a quartz analogic crystal Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14), a quartz analogic crystal

Man-made ceramics
The family of ceramics with perovskite or tungsten-bronze structures exhibits piezoelectricity: Barium titanate (BaTiO3)Barium titanate was the first piezoelectric ceramic discovered. Lead titanate (PbTiO3) Lead zirconate titanate (Pb[ZrxTi1x]O3 0x1)more commonly known as PZT, lead zirconate titanate is the most common piezoelectric ceramic in use today. Potassium niobate (KNbO3) Lithium niobate (LiNbO3) Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) Sodium tungstate (Na2WO3) Zinc oxide (Zn2O3) Ba2NaNb5O5 Pb2KNb5O15
Tetragonal unit cell of lead titanate

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Lead-free piezoceramics
More recently, there is growing concern regarding the toxicity in lead-containing devices driven by the result of restriction of hazardous substances directive regulations. To address this concern, there has been a resurgence in the compositional development of lead-free piezoelectric materials. Sodium potassium niobate ((K,Na)NbO3). In 2004, a group of Japanese researchers led by Yasuyoshi Saito discovered a sodium potassium niobate composition with properties close to those of PZT, including a high .[15] Bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3) is also a promising candidate for the replacement of lead-based ceramics. Sodium niobate NaNbO3 Bismuth titanate Bi4Ti3O12 Sodium bismuth titanate Na0.5Bi0.5TiO3

So far, neither the environmental impact nor the stability of supplying these substances have been confirmed.

Polymers
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): PVDF exhibits piezoelectricity several times greater than quartz. Unlike ceramics, where the crystal structure of the material creates the piezoelectric effect, in polymers the intertwined long-chain molecules attract and repel each other when an electric field is applied.

Applications
Currently, industrial and manufacturing is the largest application market for piezoelectric devices, followed by the automotive industry. Strong demand also comes from medical instruments as well as information and telecommunications. The global demand for piezoelectric devices was valued at approximately US$14.8 billion in 2010. The largest material group for piezoelectric devices is piezocrystal , and piezopolymer is experiencing the fastest growth due to its light weight and small size.[16] Piezoelectric crystals are now used in numerous ways:

High voltage and power sources

Direct piezoelectricity of some substances like quartz, as mentioned above, can generate potential differences of thousands of volts. The best-known application is the electric cigarette lighter: pressing the button causes a spring-loaded hammer to hit a piezoelectric crystal, producing a sufficiently high voltage electric current that flows across a small spark gap, thus heating and igniting the gas. The portable sparkers used to light gas grills or stoves work the same way, and many types of gas burners now have built-in piezo-based ignition systems. A similar idea is being researched by DARPA in the United States in a project called Energy Harvesting, which includes an attempt to power battlefield equipment by piezoelectric generators embedded in soldiers' boots. However, these energy harvesting sources by association have an impact on the body. DARPA's effort to harness 1-2watts from continuous shoe impact while walking were abandoned due to the impracticality and the discomfort from the additional energy expended by a person wearing the shoes. Other energy harvesting ideas include harvesting the energy from human movements in train stations or other public places[17][18] and converting a dance floor to generate electricity.[19] Vibrations from industrial machinery can also be harvested by piezoeletric materials to charge batteries for backup supplies or to power low power microprocessors and wireless radios.[20] A piezoelectric transformer is a type of AC voltage multiplier. Unlike a conventional transformer, which uses magnetic coupling between input and output, the piezoelectric transformer uses acoustic coupling. An input voltage is applied across a short length of a bar of piezoceramic material such as PZT, creating an alternating

Piezoelectricity stress in the bar by the inverse piezoelectric effect and causing the whole bar to vibrate. The vibration frequency is chosen to be the resonant frequency of the block, typically in the 100kilohertz to 1megahertz range. A higher output voltage is then generated across another section of the bar by the piezoelectric effect. Step-up ratios of more than 1000:1 have been demonstrated. An extra feature of this transformer is that, by operating it above its resonant frequency, it can be made to appear as an inductive load, which is useful in circuits that require a controlled soft start.[21] These devices can be used in DC-AC inverters to drive cold cathode fluorescent lamps. Piezo transformers are some of the most compact high voltage sources.

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Sensors
The principle of operation of a piezoelectric sensor is that a physical dimension, transformed into a force, acts on two opposing faces of the sensing element. Depending on the design of a sensor, different "modes" to load the piezoelectric element can be used: longitudinal, transversal and shear. Detection of pressure variations in the form of sound is the most common sensor application, e.g. piezoelectric microphones (sound waves bend the piezoelectric material, creating a changing voltage) and piezoelectric pickups for Acoustic-electric guitars. A piezo sensor attached to the body of an instrument is known as a contact microphone. Piezoelectric sensors especially are used with high frequency sound in ultrasonic transducers for medical imaging and also industrial nondestructive testing (NDT). For many sensing techniques, the sensor can act as both a sensor and an actuator often the term transducer is preferred when the device acts in this dual capacity, but most piezo devices have this property of reversibility whether it is used or not. Ultrasonic transducers, for example, can inject ultrasound waves into the body, receive the returned wave, and convert it to an electrical signal (a voltage). Most medical ultrasound transducers are piezoelectric. In addition to those mentioned above, various sensor applications include: Piezoelectric elements are also used in the detection and generation of sonar waves. Power monitoring in high power applications (e.g. medical treatment, sonochemistry and industrial processing). Piezoelectric microbalances are used as very sensitive chemical and biological sensors. Piezos are sometimes used in strain gauges. Piezoelectric transducers are used in electronic drum pads to detect the impact of the drummer's sticks, and to detect muscle movements in medical acceleromyography. Automotive engine management systems use piezoelectric transducers to detect detonation by sampling the vibrations of the engine block and also to detect the precise moment of fuel injection (needle lift sensors). Ultrasonic piezo sensors are used in the detection of acoustic emissions in acoustic emission testing. Crystal earpieces are sometimes used in old or low power radios

Piezoelectric disk used as a guitar pickup

Many rocket-propelled grenades used a [22] piezoelectric fuze. For example: RPG-7

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Actuators
As very high electric fields correspond to only tiny changes in the width of the crystal, this width can be changed with better-than-m precision, making piezo crystals the most important tool for positioning objects with extreme accuracy thus their use in actuators. Multilayer ceramics, using layers thinner than 100 m, allow reaching high electric fields with voltage lower than 150 V. These ceramics are used within two kinds of actuators: direct piezo actuators and Amplified piezoelectric actuators. While direct actuator's stroke is generally lower than 100 m, amplified piezo actuators can reach millimeter strokes. Loudspeakers: Voltage is converted to mechanical movement of a piezoelectric polymer film. Piezoelectric motors: Piezoelectric elements apply a directional force to an axle, causing it to rotate. Due to the extremely small distances involved, the piezo motor is viewed as a high-precision replacement for the stepper motor. Piezoelectric elements can be used in laser mirror alignment, where their ability to move a large mass (the mirror mount) over microscopic distances is exploited to electronically align some laser mirrors. By precisely controlling the distance between mirrors, the laser electronics can accurately maintain optical conditions inside the laser cavity to optimize the beam output. A related application is the acousto-optic modulator, a device that scatters light off of sound waves in a crystal, generated by piezoelectric elements. This is useful for fine-tuning a laser's frequency. Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes employ converse piezoelectricity to keep the sensing needle close to the probe.[23] Inkjet printers: On many inkjet printers, piezoelectric crystals are used to drive the ejection of ink from the inkjet print head towards the paper. Diesel engines: High-performance common rail diesel engines use piezoelectric fuel injectors, first developed by Robert Bosch GmbH, instead of the more common solenoid valve devices. Active vibration control using amplified actuators. X-ray shutters. XY stages for micro scanning used in infrared cameras. Moving the patient precisely inside active CT and MRI scanners where the strong radiation or magnetism precludes electric motors.[24]

Metal disk with piezoelectric disk attached, used in a buzzer

Frequency standard
The piezoelectrical properties of quartz are useful as standard of frequency. Quartz clocks employ a crystal oscillator made from a quartz crystal that uses a combination of both direct and converse piezoelectricity to generate a regularly timed series of electrical pulses that is used to mark time. The quartz crystal (like any elastic material) has a precisely defined natural frequency (caused by its shape and size) at which it prefers to oscillate, and this is used to stabilize the frequency of a periodic voltage applied to the crystal. The same principle is critical in all radio transmitters and receivers, and in computers where it creates a clock pulse. Both of these usually use a frequency multiplier to reach gigahertz ranges.

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Piezoelectric motors
Types of piezoelectric motor include: The traveling-wave motor used for auto-focus in reflex cameras Inchworm motors for linear motion Rectangular four-quadrant motors with high power density (2.5 watt/cm3) and speed ranging from 10nm/s to 800mm/s. Stepping piezo motor, using stick-slip effect. All these motors, except the stepping stick-slip motor work on the same principle. Driven by dual orthogonal vibration modes with a phase difference of 90, the contact point between two surfaces vibrates in an elliptical path, producing a frictional force between the surfaces. Usually, one surface is fixed causing the other to move. In most piezoelectric motors the piezoelectric crystal is excited by a sine wave signal at the resonant frequency of the motor. Using the resonance effect, a much lower voltage can be used to produce a high vibration amplitude.

A slip-stick actuator.

Stick-slip motor works using the inertia of a mass and the friction of a clamp. Such motors can be very small. Some are used for camera sensor displacement, allowing anti shake function.

Reduction of vibrations and noise

Different teams of researchers have been investigating ways to reduce vibrations in materials by attaching piezo elements to the material. When the material is bent by a vibration in one direction, the vibration-reduction system responds to the bend and sends electric power to the piezo element to bend in the other direction. Future applications of this technology are expected in cars and houses to reduce noise. In a demonstration at the Material Vision Fair in Frankfurt in November 2005, a team from TU Darmstadt in Germany showed several panels that were hit with a rubber mallet, and the panel with the piezo element immediately stopped swinging. Piezoelectric ceramic fiber technology is being used as an electronic damping system on some HEAD tennis rackets.[25]

Infertility treatment
In people with previous total fertilization failure, piezoelectric activation of oocytes together with intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) seems to improve fertilization outcome.[26]

Surgery
A recent application of piezoelectric ultrasound sources is piezoelectric surgery, also known as piezosurgery.[27] Piezosurgery is a minimally invasive technique that aims to cut a target tissue with little damage to neighboring tissues. For example, Hoigne et al.[28] reported its use in hand surgery for the cutting of bone, using frequencies in the range 2529kHz, causing microvibrations of 60210m. It has the ability to cut mineralized tissue without cutting neurovascular tissue and other soft tissue, thereby maintaining a blood-free operating area, better visibility and greater precision.[29]

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Further reading
Rao S and Sunar M (1994),[30] Fuduka E (2000),[31] Ballato A (1996),[32] Trainer M (2003),[33] as well as Manbachi A and Cobbold RSC (2011).[27]

References
[1] Holler, F. James; Skoog, Douglas A; Crouch, Stanley R (2007). "Chapter 1". Principles of Instrumental Analysis (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. p.9. ISBN9780495012016. [2] Harper, Douglas. "piezoelectric" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=piezoelectric). Online Etymology Dictionary. . [3] Gautschi, G (2002). Piezoelectric Sensorics: Force, Strain, Pressure, Acceleration and Acoustic Emission Sensors, Materials and Amplifiers.. Springer. [4] Lippman, G. (1881). "Principe de la conservation de l'lectricit" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k348640) (in French). Annales de chimie et de physique 24: 145. . [5] M. Birkholz (1995). "Crystal-field induced dipoles in heteropolar crystals II. physical significance" (http:/ / www. mariobirkholz. de/ ZPB1995b. pdf). Z. Phys. B 96 (3): 333340. Bibcode1995ZPhyB..96..333B. doi:10.1007/BF01313055. . [6] S. Trolier-McKinstry (2008). "Chapter3: Crystal Chemistry of Piezoelectric Materials". In A. Safari, E.K. Akdogan. Piezoelectric and Acoustic Materials for Transducer Applications. New York: Springer. ISBN9780387765389. [7] Sensor Sense: Piezoelectric Force Sensors (http:/ / machinedesign. com/ article/ sensor-sense-piezoelectric-force-sensors-0207) [8] Damjanovic, Dragan (1998). "Ferroelectric, dielectric and piezoelectric properties of ferroelectric thin films and ceramics". Reports on Progress in Physics 61 (9): 12671324. Bibcode1998RPPh...61.1267D. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/61/9/002. [9] Kochervinskii, V (July 2003). "Piezoelectricity in Crystallizing Ferroelectric Polymers". Crystallography Reports 48 (4): 649675. Bibcode2003CryRp..48..649K. doi:10.1134/1.1595194. [10] M. Minary-Jolandan, and Min-Feng Yu, Nanotechnology 20 (2009) 085706 (6pp) [11] Lakes, Roderic. "Electrical Properties of Bone: A Review" (http:/ / silver. neep. wisc. edu/ ~lakes/ BoneElectr. html). University of WisconsinMadison. . [12] Becker, Robert O; Marino, Andrew A (1982). "Chapter 4: Electrical Properties of Biological Tissue (Piezoelectricity)" (http:/ / www. ortho. lsuhsc. edu/ Faculty/ Marino/ EL/ EL4/ Piezo. html). Electromagnetism & Life. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN0-87395-560-9. . [13] Pollack, S.R; Korostoff, E., Starkebaum, W. y Lannicone, W (1979). ed. Brighton, C.T., Black, J. and Pollack, S.R.. ed. "Micro-electrical studies of stress-generated potentials in bone". Electrical Properties of Bone and Cartilage (New York City: Grune & Stratton, Inc). [14] Fotiadis, D.I; Foutsitzi, G., and Massalas, C.V (1999). "Wave propagation modeling in human long bones" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ tr43l7562581u4q8). Acta Mechanica 137: 6581. doi:10.1007/BF01313145. . [15] Saito, Yasuyoshi; Takao, Hisaaki; Tanil, Toshihiko; Nonoyama, Tatsuhiko; Takatoril Kazumasa; Homma, Takahiko; Nagaya, Toshiatsu; Nakamura, Masaya (2004-11-04). "Lead-free piezoceramics" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v432/ n7013/ abs/ nature03028. html). Nature (Nature Publishing Group) 432 (7013): 8187. Bibcode2004Natur.432...84S. doi:10.1038/nature03028. PMID15516921. . [16] "Market Report: World Piezoelectric Device Market" (http:/ / www. acmite. com/ market-reports/ materials/ world-piezoelectric-device-market-report. html). Acmite Market Intelligence (http:/ / www. acmite. com). . [17] Richard, Michael Graham (2006-08-04). "Japan: Producing Electricity from Train Station Ticket Gates" (http:/ / www. treehugger. com/ files/ 2006/ 08/ japan_ticket_gates. php). TreeHugger. Discovery Communications, LLC. . [18] Wright, Sarah H (2007-07-25). "MIT duo sees people-powered "Crowd Farm"" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ newsoffice/ 2007/ crowdfarm-0725. html). MIT news. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. . [19] Kannampilly, Ammu (2008-07-11). "How to Save the World One Dance at a Time" (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ International/ story?id=5358214& page=1). ABC. ABC. . [20] True Grid Independence: Robust Energy Harvesting System for Wireless Sensors Uses Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting Power Supply and Li-Poly Batteries with Shunt Charger (http:/ / www. linear. com/ docs/ 29984) [21] Phillips, James R (2000-08-10). "Piezoelectric Technology: A Primer" (http:/ / www. techonline. com/ community/ ed_resource/ feature_article/ 8277). eeProductCenter. TechInsights. . [22] How Rocket-Propelled Grenades Work by Shane Speck (http:/ / science. howstuffworks. com/ rpg3. htm) [23] The scanning mechanism for ROSETTA/MIDAS from an engineering model to the flight model (http:/ / www. cedrat. com/ fileadmin/ user_upload/ cedrat_groupe/ Publications/ Publications/ 2001/ 09/ ESMATS9th_Scanning_piezo_mechanisms_Rosetta_Fligth_model. pdf) [24] Simonsen, Torben R. Piezo in space (http:/ / elektronikbranchen. dk/ nyhed/ dansk-elektronikvirksomhed-goer-klar-til-rumeventyr-efter-koeb-af-piezoteknologi) Electronics Business (in Danish), 27 September 2010. Retrieved: 28 September 2010. [25] "Isnt it amazing how one smart idea, one chip and an intelligent material has changed the world of tennis?" (http:/ / www. head. com/ tennis/ technology. php?region=eu& tag=intelligence). HEAD. . Retrieved 2008-02-27. [26] Baltaci V, Ayvaz OU, Unsal E, et al. (May 2009). "The effectiveness of intracytoplasmic sperm injection combined with piezoelectric stimulation in infertile couples with total fertilization failure". Fertil. Steril. 94 (3): 9004. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.03.107. PMID19464000.

Piezoelectricity
[27] Manbachi, A. and Cobbold R.S.C. (November 2011). "Development and Application of Piezoelectric Materials for Ultrasound Generation and Detection" (http:/ / ult. rsmjournals. com/ content/ 19/ 4/ 187. full). Ultrasound 19 (4): 187196. doi:10.1258/ult.2011.011027. . [28] Hoigne DJ, Stubinger S, Von Kaenel O, Shamdasani S, Hasenboehler P. (May 2006). "Piezoelectic osteotomy in hand surgery: first experiences with a new technique." (http:/ / www. biomedcentral. com/ 1471-2474/ 7/ 36/ prepubyours). BMC Musculoskelet Disord 7: 36. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-7-36. . [29] Labanca M, Azzola F, Vinci R, Rodella LF. (2008). "Piezoelectric surgery: twenty years of use." (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ S026643560800003X). Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 46 (4): 2659. doi:10.1016/j.bjoms.2007.12.007. PMID18342999. . [30] Rao S and Sunar M (1994). "Piezoelectricity and Its Use in Disturbance Sensing and Control of Flexible Structures: A Survey" (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=AMREAD000047000004000113000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes& ref=no). Appl. Mech. Rev. 47 (4): 113. Bibcode1994ApMRv..47..113R. doi:10.1115/1.3111074. . [31] Fukuda E (2000). [ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=883516&tag=1 "History and recent progress in piezoelectric polymers"]. Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control, IEEE Transactions on 47 (6): 12771290. doi:10.1109/58.883516. ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=883516&tag=1. [32] Ballato A (1996). "Piezoelectricity: history and new thrusts" (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpls/ abs_all. jsp?arnumber=584046). Ultrasonics Symposium, 1996. Proceedings., 1996 IEEE 1: 575583. doi:10.1109/ULTSYM.1996.584046. . [33] Trainer M (2003). "Kelvin and piezoelectricity" (http:/ / iopscience. iop. org/ 0143-0807/ 24/ 5/ 310). Eur. J. Phys. 24 (5): 535. Bibcode2003EJPh...24..535T. doi:10.1088/0143-0807/24/5/310. .

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International standards
ANSI-IEEE 176 (1987) Standard on Piezoelectricity IEEE 177 (1976) Standard Definitions & Methods of Measurement for Piezoelectric Vibrators IEC 444 (1973) Basic method for the measurement of resonance freq & equiv series resistance of quartz crystal units by zero-phase technique in a pi-network IEC 302 (1969) Standard Definitions & Methods of Measurement for Piezoelectric Vibrators Operating over the Freq Range up to 30MHz

External links
Gautschi, Gustav H., 2002, Piezoelectric Sensorics, Springer, ISBN 3-540-42259-5, Fundamentals of Piezoelectrics (http://www.amazon.com/ Fundamentals-Piezoelectric-Sensorics-Mechanical-Thermodynamical/dp/3540439668/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8& s=books&qid=1275053589&sr=1-2) Piezo motor based microdrive for neural signal recording (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19163430) History of Piezoelectricity (http://www.piezoinstitute.com/about/piezohistory/index.php) Research on new Piezoelectric materials (http://www.scientificblogging.com/news_account/ research_new_piezoelectric_materials) Piezo Equations (http://www.techonline.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=192201162&queryText=22) Piezo in Medical Design (http://medicaldesign.com/motors-motion-control/precision-via-piezo-20100501/) Video demonstration of Piezoelectricity (http://vega.org.uk/video/programme/195) DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package Piezoelectric Materials (http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/ piezoelectrics/index.php) Piezo Motor Types (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piezomotor_type_inchworm.gif)

Permittivity

25

Permittivity
In electromagnetism, absolute permittivity is the measure of the resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a medium. In other words, permittivity is a measure of how an electric field affects, and is affected by, a dielectric medium. The permittivity of a medium describes how much electric field (more correctly, flux) is 'generated' per unit charge. Less electric flux exists in a medium with a high permittivity (per unit charge) due to polarization effects. Permittivity is directly related to electric susceptibility, which is a measure of how easily a dielectric polarizes in response to an electric field. Thus, permittivity relates to a material's ability to transmit (or "permit") an electric field. In SI units, permittivity is measured in farads per meter (F/m); electric susceptibility is dimensionless. They are related to each other through

A dielectric medium showing orientation of charged particles creating polarization effects. Such a medium can have a higher ratio of electric flux to charge (permittivity) than empty space

where r is the relative permittivity of the material, and

= 8.85 1012 F/m is the vacuum permittivity.

Explanation
In electromagnetism, the electric displacement field D represents how an electric field E influences the organization of electrical charges in a given medium, including charge migration and electric dipole reorientation. Its relation to permittivity in the very simple case of linear, homogeneous, isotropic materials with "instantaneous" response to changes in electric field is

where the permittivity is a scalar. If the medium is anisotropic, the permittivity is a second rank tensor. In general, permittivity is not a constant, as it can vary with the position in the medium, the frequency of the field applied, humidity, temperature, and other parameters. In a nonlinear medium, the permittivity can depend on the strength of the electric field. Permittivity as a function of frequency can take on real or complex values. In SI units, permittivity is measured in farads per meter (F/m or A2s4kg1m3). The displacement field D is measured in units of coulombs per square meter (C/m2), while the electric field E is measured in volts per meter (V/m). D and E describe the interaction between charged objects. D is related to the charge densities associated with this interaction, while E is related to the forces and potential differences.

Vacuum permittivity
The vacuum permittivity 0 (also called permittivity of free space or the electric constant) is the ratio D/E in free space. It also appears in the Coulomb force constant 1/40. Its value is[1]

where c0 is the speed of light in free space,[2] 0 is the vacuum permeability.

Permittivity Constants c0 and 0 are defined in SI units to have exact numerical values, shifting responsibility of experiment to the determination of the meter and the ampere.[3] (The approximation in the second value of 0 above stems from being an irrational number.)

26

Relative permittivity
The linear permittivity of a homogeneous material is usually given relative to that of free space, as a relative permittivity r (also called dielectric constant, although this sometimes only refers to the static, zero-frequency relative permittivity). In an anisotropic material, the relative permittivity may be a tensor, causing birefringence. The actual permittivity is then calculated by multiplying the relative permittivity by 0: where (frequently written e) is the electric susceptibility of the material. The susceptibility is defined as the constant of proportionality (which may be a tensor) relating an electric field E to the induced dielectric polarization density P such that

where

is the electric permittivity of free space. by

The susceptibility of a medium is related to its relative permittivity

So in the case of a vacuum,

The susceptibility is also related to the polarizability of individual particles in the medium by the Clausius-Mossotti relation. The electric displacement D is related to the polarization density P by

The permittivity and permeability of a medium together determine the phase velocity v = c/n of electromagnetic radiation through that medium:

Dispersion and causality

In general, a material cannot polarize instantaneously in response to an applied field, and so the more general formulation as a function of time is

That is, the polarization is a convolution of the electric field at previous times with time-dependent susceptibility given by . The upper limit of this integral can be extended to infinity as well if one defines for . An instantaneous response corresponds to Dirac delta function susceptibility . It is more convenient in a linear system to take the Fourier transform and write this relationship as a function of frequency. Due to the convolution theorem, the integral becomes a simple product,

This frequency dependence of the susceptibility leads to frequency dependence of the permittivity. The shape of the susceptibility with respect to frequency characterizes the dispersion properties of the material.

Permittivity Moreover, the fact that the polarization can only depend on the electric field at previous times (i.e. ), a consequence of causality, imposes KramersKronig constraints on the susceptibility . for

27

Complex permittivity
As opposed to the response of a vacuum, the response of normal materials to external fields generally depends on the frequency of the field. This frequency dependence reflects the fact that a material's polarization does not respond instantaneously to an applied field. The response must always be causal (arising after the applied field) which can be represented by a phase difference. For this reason permittivity is often treated as a complex function (since complex numbers allow specification of magnitude and phase) of the (angular) frequency of the applied field , . The definition of permittivity therefore becomes
A dielectric permittivity spectrum over a wide range of frequencies. and denote the real and the imaginary part of the permittivity, respectively. Various processes are labeled on the image: ionic and dipolar relaxation, and atomic and electronic resonances at higher [4] energies.

where

D0 and E0 are the amplitudes of the displacement and electrical fields, respectively, i is the imaginary unit, i 2 = 1. The response of a medium to static electric fields is described by the low-frequency limit of permittivity, also called the static permittivity s (also DC ):

At the high-frequency limit, the complex permittivity is commonly referred to as . At the plasma frequency and above, dielectrics behave as ideal metals, with electron gas behavior. The static permittivity is a good approximation for alternating fields of low frequencies, and as the frequency increases a measurable phase difference emerges between D and E. The frequency at which the phase shift becomes noticeable depends on temperature and the details of the medium. For moderate fields strength (E0), D and E remain proportional, and

Since the response of materials to alternating fields is characterized by a complex permittivity, it is natural to separate its real and imaginary parts, which is done by convention in the following way:

where " is the imaginary part of the permittivity, which is related to the dissipation (or loss) of energy within the medium.

Permittivity ' is the real part of the permittivity, which is related to the stored energy within the medium. It is important to realize that the choice of sign for time-dependence, , dictates the sign convention for

28

the imaginary part of permittivity. The signs used here correspond to those commonly used in physics, whereas for the engineering convention one should reverse all imaginary quantities. The complex permittivity is usually a complicated function of frequency , since it is a superimposed description of dispersion phenomena occurring at multiple frequencies. The dielectric function () must have poles only for frequencies with positive imaginary parts, and therefore satisfies the KramersKronig relations. However, in the narrow frequency ranges that are often studied in practice, the permittivity can be approximated as frequency-independent or by model functions. At a given frequency, the imaginary part of leads to absorption loss if it is positive (in the above sign convention) and gain if it is negative. More generally, the imaginary parts of the eigenvalues of the anisotropic dielectric tensor should be considered. In the case of solids, the complex dielectric function is intimately connected to band structure. The primary quantity that characterizes the electronic structure of any crystalline material is the probability of photon absorption, which is directly related to the imaginary part of the optical dielectric function (). The optical dielectric function is given by the fundamental expression:[5]

In this expression, Wcv(E) represents the product of the Brillouin zone-averaged transition probability at the energy E with the joint density of states,[6][7] Jcv(E); is a broadening function, representing the role of scattering in

smearing out the energy levels.[8] In general, the broadening is intermediate between Lorentzian and Gaussian;[9][10] for an alloy it is somewhat closer to Gaussian because of strong scattering from statistical fluctuations in the local composition on a nanometer scale.

Classification of materials
Materials can be classified according to their permittivity and conductivity, . Materials with a large amount of loss inhibit the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In this case, generally when /(') >> 1, we consider the material to be a good conductor. Dielectrics are associated with lossless or low-loss materials, where /(') << 1. Those that do not fall under either limit are considered to be general media. A perfect dielectric is a material that has no conductivity, thus exhibiting only a displacement current. Therefore it stores and returns electrical energy as if it were an ideal capacitor.

Lossy medium
In the case of lossy medium, i.e. when the conduction current is not negligible, the total current density flowing is:

where is the conductivity of the medium; ' is the real part of the permittivity. is the complex permittivity The size of the displacement current is dependent on the frequency of the applied field E; there is no displacement current in a constant field. In this formalism, the complex permittivity is defined as[11]:

Permittivity In general, the absorption of electromagnetic energy by dielectrics is covered by a few different mechanisms that influence the shape of the permittivity as a function of frequency: First, are the relaxation effects associated with permanent and induced molecular dipoles. At low frequencies the field changes slowly enough to allow dipoles to reach equilibrium before the field has measurably changed. For frequencies at which dipole orientations cannot follow the applied field due to the viscosity of the medium, absorption of the field's energy leads to energy dissipation. The mechanism of dipoles relaxing is called dielectric relaxation and for ideal dipoles is described by classic Debye relaxation. Second are the resonance effects, which arise from the rotations or vibrations of atoms, ions, or electrons. These processes are observed in the neighborhood of their characteristic absorption frequencies. The above effects often combine to cause non-linear effects within capacitors. For example, dielectric absorption refers to the inability of a capacitor that has been charged for a long time to completely discharge when briefly discharged. Although an ideal capacitor would remain at zero volts after being discharged, real capacitors will develop a small voltage, a phenomenon that is also called soakage or battery action. For some dielectrics, such as many polymer films, the resulting voltage may be less than 1-2% of the original voltage. However, it can be as much as 15 - 25% in the case of electrolytic capacitors or supercapacitors.

29

Quantum-mechanical interpretation
In terms of quantum mechanics, permittivity is explained by atomic and molecular interactions. At low frequencies, molecules in polar dielectrics are polarized by an applied electric field, which induces periodic rotations. For example, at the microwave frequency, the microwave field causes the periodic rotation of water molecules, sufficient to break hydrogen bonds. The field does work against the bonds and the energy is absorbed by the material as heat. This is why microwave ovens work very well for materials containing water. There are two maxima of the imaginary component (the absorptive index) of water, one at the microwave frequency, and the other at far ultraviolet (UV) frequency. Both of these resonances are at higher frequencies than the operating frequency of microwave ovens. At moderate frequencies, the energy is too high to cause rotation, yet too low to affect electrons directly, and is absorbed in the form of resonant molecular vibrations. In water, this is where the absorptive index starts to drop sharply, and the minimum of the imaginary permittivity is at the frequency of blue light (optical regime). At high frequencies (such as UV and above), molecules cannot relax, and the energy is purely absorbed by atoms, exciting electron energy levels. Thus, these frequencies are classified as ionizing radiation. While carrying out a complete ab initio (that is, first-principles) modelling is now computationally possible, it has not been widely applied yet. Thus, a phenomenological model is accepted as being an adequate method of capturing experimental behaviors. The Debye model and the Lorentz model use a 1st-order and 2nd-order (respectively) lumped system parameter linear representation (such as an RC and an LRC resonant circuit).

Measurement
The dielectric constant of a material can be found by a variety of static electrical measurements. The complex permittivity is evaluated over a wide range of frequencies by using different variants of dielectric spectroscopy, covering nearly 21 orders of magnitude from 106 to 1015 Hz. Also, by using cryostats and ovens, the dielectric properties of a medium can be characterized over an array of temperatures. In order to study systems for such diverse excitation fields, a number of measurement setups are used, each adequate for a special frequency range. Various microwave measurement techniques are outlined in Chen et al..[12] Typical errors for the Hakki-Coleman method employing a puck of material between conducting planes are about 0.3%.[13] Low-frequency time domain measurements (106-103 Hz) Low-frequency frequency domain measurements (105-106 Hz)

Permittivity Reflective coaxial methods (106-1010 Hz) Transmission coaxial method (108-1011 Hz) Quasi-optical methods (109-1010 Hz) Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (1011-1013 Hz) Fourier-transform methods (1011-1015 Hz)

30

At infrared and optical frequencies, a common technique is ellipsometry. Dual polarisation interferometry is also used to measure the complex refractive index for very thin films at optical frequencies.

References
[1] electric constant (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?ep0) [2] Current practice of standards organizations such as NIST and BIPM is to use c0, rather than c, to denote the speed of light in vacuum according to ISO 31. In the original Recommendation of 1983, the symbol c was used for this purpose. See NIST Special Publication 330, Appendix 2, p. 45 (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP330/ sp330. pdf). [3] Latest (2006) values of the constants (NIST) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Constants/ index. html) [4] Dielectric Spectroscopy (http:/ / www. psrc. usm. edu/ mauritz/ dilect. html) [5] Peter Y. Yu, Manuel Cardona (2001). Fundamentals of Semiconductors: Physics and Materials Properties (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=W9pdJZoAeyEC& pg=PA261). Berlin: Springer. p.261. ISBN3540254706. . [6] Jos Garca Sol, Jose Sol, Luisa Bausa, (2001). An introduction to the optical spectroscopy of inorganic solids (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=c6pkqC50QMgC& pg=PA263). Wiley. Appendix A1, pp, 263. ISBN0470868856. . [7] John H. Moore, Nicholas D. Spencer (2001). Encyclopedia of chemical physics and physical chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Pn2edky6uJ8C& pg=PA108). Taylor and Francis. p.105. ISBN0750307986. . [8] Sol, Jos Garca; Baus, Louisa E; Jaque, Daniel (2005-03-22). Sol and Bausa (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=c6pkqC50QMgC& pg=PA10). p.10. ISBN3540254706. . [9] Hartmut Haug, Stephan W. Koch (1994). Quantum Theory of the Optical and Electronic Properties of Semiconductors (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Ab2WnFyGwhcC& pg=PA196). World Scientific. p.196. ISBN9810218648. . [10] Manijeh Razeghi (2006). Fundamentals of Solid State Engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=6x07E9PSzr8C& pg=PA383). Birkhauser. p.383. ISBN0387281525. . [11] John S. Seybold (2005) Introduction to RF propagation. 330 pp, eq.(2.6), p.22. [12] Linfeng Chen, V. V. Varadan, C. K. Ong, Chye Poh Neo (2004). "Microwave theory and techniques for materials characterization" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=2oA3po4coUoC& pg=PA37). Microwave electronics. Wiley. p.37. ISBN0470844922. . [13] Mailadil T. Sebastian (2008). Dielectric Materials foress Communication (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=eShDR4_YyM8C& pg=PA19). Elsevier. p.19. ISBN0080453309. .

Further reading
Theory of Electric Polarization: Dielectric Polarization, C.J.F. Bttcher, ISBN 0-444-41579-3 Dielectrics and Waves edited by von Hippel, Arthur R., ISBN 0-89006-803-8 Dielectric Materials and Applications edited by Arthur von Hippel, ISBN 0-89006-805-4.

External links
Electromagnetism (http://lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html), a chapter from an online textbook What's all this trapped charge stuff . . . (http://keith-snook.info/capacitor-soakage.html), A different approach to some capacitor problems

Electric susceptibility

31

Electric susceptibility
In electromagnetism, the electric susceptibility (latin: susceptibilis receptiveness) is a dimensionless proportionality constant that indicates the degree of polarization of a dielectric material in response to an applied electric field. The greater the electric susceptibility, the greater the ability of a material to polarize in response to the field, and thereby reduce the total electric field inside the material (and store energy). It is in this way that the electric susceptibility influences the electric permittivity of the material and thus influences many other phenomena in that medium, from the capacitance of capacitors to the speed of light.[1][2]

Definition of Volume Susceptibility

Electric susceptibility is defined as the constant of proportionality (which may be a tensor) relating an electric field E to the induced dielectric polarization density P such that:

Where: is the Polarization Density is the Electric Permittivity of Free Space is the Electric Susceptibility is the Electric Field

The susceptibility is also related to the polarizability of individual particles in the medium by the Clausius-Mossotti relation. The susceptibility is related to its relative permittivity by:

So in the case of a vacuum:

At the same time, the electric displacement D is related to the polarization density P by:

Molecular Polarizability
A similar parameter exists to relate the magnitude of the induced dipole moment p of an individual molecule to the local electric field E that induced the dipole. This parameter is the molecular polarizability and the dipole moment resulting from the local electric field is given by:

This introduces a complication however, as locally the field can differ significantly from the overall applied field. We have:

where P is the polarization per unit volume, and N is the number of molecules per unit volume contributing to the polarization. Thus, if the local electric field is parallel to the ambient electric field, we have:

Thus only if the local field equals the ambient field can we write:

Electric susceptibility

32

Dispersion and causality

In general, a material cannot polarize instantaneously in response to an applied field, and so the more general formulation as a function of time is

That is, the polarization is a convolution of the electric field at previous times with time-dependent susceptibility given by . The upper limit of this integral can be extended to infinity as well if one defines for . An instantaneous response corresponds to Dirac delta function susceptibility . It is more convenient in a linear system to take the Fourier transform and write this relationship as a function of frequency. Due to the convolution theorem, the integral becomes a simple product,

This frequency dependence of the susceptibility leads to frequency dependence of the permittivity. The shape of the susceptibility with respect to frequency characterizes the dispersion properties of the material. Moreover, the fact that the polarization can only depend on the electric field at previous times (i.e. ), a consequence of causality, imposes KramersKronig constraints on the susceptibility . for

References
[1] "Electric susceptibility". Encyclopdia Britannica. [2] Cardarelli, Franois (2000, 2008). Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PvU-qbQJq7IC& pg=PA524& dq=Electric+ susceptibility#v=onepage& q=Electric susceptibility& f=false) (2nd ed.). London: Springer-Verlag. pp.524 (Section 8.1.16). doi:10.1007/978-1-84628-669-8. ISBN9781846286681. .

Relative permittivity
Relative static permittivities of some materials at room temperature under 1 kHz Material Vacuum Air r 1 (by definition) 1.00058986 0.00000050 [2] (at STP, for 0.9MHz), 2.1 2.25 3.4 2.22.36 2.42.7 2.6 3.85 212 3.9 [3] [1] (corresponds to light with wavelength of 300 km)

PTFE/Teflon Polyethylene Polyimide Polypropylene Polystyrene Carbon disulfide Paper Electroactive polymers Silicon dioxide Concrete Pyrex (Glass)

4.5 4.7 (3.710)

Relative permittivity

33
Rubber Diamond Salt Graphite Silicon Ammonia 7 5.510 315 1015 11.68 26, 22, 20, 17 (80, 40, 0, 20 C) 30 37 42.0 41.2, 47, 42.5 (0, 20, 25 C) 88, 80.1, 55.3, 34.5 (0, 20, 100, 200 C) for visible light: 1.77 83.6 (0 C) 84.0 (20 C) 84100 (2025 C) 128 aq60 (3025 C) 158.02.3 (021 C) 86173 310 500 125010,000 (20120 C) 5006000 1.8-6 up to 100,000 >250,000 [5] [4]

Methanol Ethylene Glycol Furfural Glycerol

Water

Hydrofluoric acid Formamide Sulfuric acid

Hydrogen peroxide

Hydrocyanic acid

Titanium dioxide Strontium titanate Barium strontium titanate Barium titanate

Lead zirconate titanate Conjugated polymers Calcium copper titanate

The relative permittivity of a material under given conditions reflects the extent to which it concentrates electrostatic lines of flux. In technical terms, it is the ratio of the amount of electrical energy stored in a material by an applied voltage, relative to that stored in a vacuum. Likewise, it is also the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using that material as a dielectric, compared to a similar capacitor that has a vacuum as its dielectric.

Temperature dependence of the relative static permittivity of water

Relative permittivity

34

Terminology
The relative permittivity of a material for a frequency of zero is known as its static relative permittivity or as its dielectric constant. Other terms used for the zero frequency relative permittivity include relative dielectric constant and static dielectric constant. While they remain very common, these terms are ambiguous and have been deprecated by some standards organizations.[6][7] The reason for the potential ambiguity is twofold. First, some older authors used "dielectric constant" or "absolute dielectric constant" for the absolute permittivity rather than the relative permittivity.[8] Second, while in most modern usage "dielectric constant" refers to a relative permittivity,[7][9] it may be either the static or the frequency-dependent relative permittivity, depending on context. Relative permittivity is typically denoted as r() (sometimes or K) and is defined as

where () is the complex frequency-dependent absolute permittivity of the material, and 0 is the vacuum permittivity. Relative permittivity is a dimensionless number that is in general complex. The imaginary portion of the permittivity corresponds to a phase shift of the polarization P relative to E and leads to the attenuation of electromagnetic waves passing through the medium. By definition, the linear relative permittivity of vacuum is equal to 1,[9] that is =0, although there are theoretical nonlinear quantum effects in vacuum that have been predicted at high field strengths (but not yet observed).[10] The relative permittivity of a medium is related to its electric susceptibility, e, as r() = 1 + e.

Measurement
The relative static permittivity, r, can be measured for static electric fields as follows: first the capacitance of a test capacitor, C0, is measured with vacuum between its plates. Then, using the same capacitor and distance between its plates the capacitance Cx with a dielectric between the plates is measured. The relative dielectric constant can be then calculated as

For time-variant electromagnetic fields, this quantity becomes frequency-dependent and in general is called relative permittivity.

Practical relevance
The dielectric constant is an essential piece of information when designing capacitors, and in other circumstances where a material might be expected to introduce capacitance into a circuit. If a material with a high dielectric constant is placed in an electric field, the magnitude of that field will be measurably reduced within the volume of the dielectric. This fact is commonly used to increase the capacitance of a particular capacitor design. The layers beneath etched conductors in printed circuit boards (PCBs) also act as dielectrics. Dielectrics are used in RF transmission lines. In a coaxial cable, polyethylene can be used between the center conductor and outside shield. It can also be placed inside waveguides to form filters. Optical fibers are examples of dielectric waveguides. They consist of dielectric materials that are purposely doped with impurities so as to control the precise value of r within the cross-section. This controls the refractive index of the material and therefore also the optical modes of transmission. However, in these cases it is technically the relative permittivity that matters, as they are not operated in the electrostatic limit.

Relative permittivity

35

Chemical applications
The relative static permittivity of a solvent is a relative measure of its polarity. For example, water (very polar) has a dielectric constant of 80.10 at 20 C while n-hexane (very non-polar) has a dielectric constant of 1.89 at 20 C.[11] This information is of great value when designing separation, sample preparation and chromatography techniques in analytical chemistry. The correlation should, however, be treated with caution. For instance, dichloromethane has a value of r of 9.08 (20 C) and is rather poorly soluble in water (13 g/L or 9.8 mL/L at 20 C); at the same time, tetrahydrofurane has its r = 7.52 at 22 C, but is completely miscible with the water.

Complex permittivity
Similar as for absolute permittivity, relative permittivity can be decomposed into real and imaginary parts:[12] .

Lossy medium
Again, similar as for absolute permittivity, relative permittivity for lossy materials can be formulated as:

in terms of a "dielectric conductivity" (units S/m, siemens per meter), which "sums over all the dissipative effects of the material; it may represent an actual [electrical] conductivity caused by migrating charge carriers and it may also refer to an energy loss associated with the dispersion of ' [the real-valued permittivity]" (,[12] p.8). Expanding the angular frequency = 2c/ and the electric constant 0 = 1/(0c2), it reduces to: where is the wavelength, c is the speed of light in vacuum and = 0c/2 60.0 S1 is a newly-introduced constant (units reciprocal of siemens, such that = r" remains unitless).

Metals
Although permittivity is typically associated with dielectric materials, we may still speak of an effective permittivity of a metal, with real relative permittivity equal to one (,[13] eq.(4.6), p.121). In the low-frequency region (which extends from radiofrequencies to the far infrared region), the plasma frequency of the electron gas is much greater than the electromagnetic propagation frequency, so the complex permittivity of a metal is practically a purely imaginary number, expressed in terms of the imaginary unit and a real-valued electrical conductivity (,[13] eq.(4.8)-(4.9), p.122).

References
[1] Dielectric Constants of Materials (http:/ / www. clippercontrols. com/ pages/ Dielectric-Constant-Values. html) (2007). Clipper Controls. [2] L. G. Hector and H. L. Schultz (1936). The Dielectric Constant of Air at Radiofrequencies. 7. 133136. doi:10.1063/1.1745374. [3] Paul R. Gray, Paul J. Hurst, Stephen H. Lewis, Robert G. Meyer (2009). Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits (Fifth ed.). New York: Wiley. p.40. ISBN978-0-470-24599-6. [4] Pohl, Herbert A. (1986). "Giant polarization in high polymers". Journal of Electronic Materials 15: 201. Bibcode1986JEMat..15..201P. doi:10.1007/BF02659632. [5] http:/ / www. shef. ac. uk/ ccl/ research/ ccto. html [6] Braslavsky, S.E. (2007). "Glossary of terms used in photochemistry ([[IUPAC (http:/ / iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 2007/ pdf/ 7903x0293. pdf)] recommendations 2006)"]. Pure and Applied Chemistry 79: 293465. doi:10.1351/pac200779030293. . [7] IEEE Standards Board (1997). "IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Radio Wave Propagation" (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ servlet/ opac?punumber=5697). p.6. . [8] King, Ronold W. P. (1963). Fundamental Electromagnetic Theory. New York: Dover. p.139.

Relative permittivity
[9] John David Jackson (1998). Classical Electrodynamics (Third ed.). New York: Wiley. p.154. ISBN047130932X. [10] Mourou, Gerard A. (2006). "Optics in the relativistic regime". Reviews of Modern Physics 78: 309. Bibcode2006RvMP...78..309M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.309. [11] Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN0-8493-0486-5. [12] Linfeng Chen and Vijay K. Varadan (2004). Microwave electronics: measurement and materials characterization (http:/ / books. google. co. jp/ books?id=2oA3po4coUoC& pg=PA8). John Wiley and Sons. p.8, eq.(1.15). doi:10.1002/0470020466. ISBN0470844922. . [13] Lourtioz, J.-M. et al. (2005). Photonic Crystals: Towards Nanoscale Photonic Devices (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vSszZ2WuG_IC& pg=PA121). Springer. ISBN354024431X. .

36

Permeability (electromagnetism)
In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself. In other words, it is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is typically represented by the Greek letter . The term was coined in September, 1885 by Oliver Heaviside. The reciprocal of magnetic permeability is magnetic reluctivity. We can simplify it by saying, the more conductive a material is to a magnetic field, the higher its permeability.

In SI units, permeability is measured in the henries per meter (Hm1), ferromagnets (f), paramagnets(p), free space(0) and diamagnets (d) or newtons per ampere squared (NA2). The permeability constant (0), also known as the magnetic constant or the permeability of free space, is a measure of the amount of resistance encountered when forming a magnetic field in a classical vacuum. The magnetic constant has the exact (defined)[1] value 0 = 4107 1.2566370614106Hm1 or NA2).

Simplified comparison of permeabilities for:

Explanation
In electromagnetism, the auxiliary magnetic field H represents how a magnetic field B influences the organization of magnetic dipoles in a given medium, including dipole migration and magnetic dipole reorientation. Its relation to permeability is

where the permeability is a scalar if the medium is isotropic or a second rank tensor for an anisotropic medium. In general, permeability is not a constant, as it can vary with the position in the medium, the frequency of the field applied, humidity, temperature, and other parameters. In a nonlinear medium, the permeability can depend on the strength of the magnetic field. Permeability as a function of frequency can take on real or complex values. In ferromagnetic materials, the relationship between B and H exhibits both non-linearity and hysteresis: B is not a single-valued function of H,[2] but depends also on the history of the material. For these materials it is sometimes useful to consider the incremental permeability defined as . This definition is useful in local linearizations of non-linear material behavior, for example in a Newton-Raphson iterative solution scheme that computes the changing saturation of a magnetic circuit. Permeability is the inductance per unit length. In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per metre (Hm1= J/(A2m)= N A2). The auxiliary magnetic field H has dimensions current per unit length and is measured in units of amperes per metre (A m1). The product H thus has dimensions inductance times current per unit area (HA/m2). But inductance is magnetic flux per unit current, so the product has dimensions magnetic flux per unit area. This is

Permeability (electromagnetism) just the magnetic field B, which is measured in webers (volt-seconds) per square-metre (Vs/m2), or teslas (T). B is related to the Lorentz force on a moving charge q: . The charge q is given in coulombs (C), the velocity v in m/s, so that the force F is in newtons (N):

37

H is related to the magnetic dipole density. A magnetic dipole is a closed circulation of electric current. The dipole moment has dimensions current times area, units ampere square-metre (Am2), and magnitude equal to the current around the loop times the area of the loop.[3] The H field at a distance from a dipole has magnitude proportional to the dipole moment divided by distance cubed,[4] which has dimensions current per unit length.

Relative permeability
Relative permeability, sometimes denoted by the symbol r, is the ratio of the permeability of a specific medium to the permeability of free space given by the magnetic constant . In terms of relative permeability, the magnetic susceptibility is: . m, a dimensionless quantity, is sometimes called volumetric or bulk susceptibility, to distinguish it from p (magnetic mass or specific susceptibility) and M (molar or molar mass susceptibility). :

Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition of an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect. Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the magnetic dipole moment in the direction opposing the external field. Diamagnets are materials with a magnetic permeability less than (a relative permeability less than 1). Consequently, diamagnetism is a form of magnetism that a substance exhibits only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. It is generally a quite weak effect in most materials, although superconductors exhibit a strong effect.

Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism which occurs only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials are attracted to magnetic fields, hence have a relative magnetic permeability greater than one (or, equivalently, a positive magnetic susceptibility). The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect. Unlike ferromagnets, paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externally applied magnetic field, because thermal motion causes the spins to become randomly oriented without it. Thus the total magnetization will drop to zero when the applied field is removed. Even in the presence of the field there is only a small induced magnetization because only a small fraction of the spins will be oriented by the field. This fraction is proportional to the field strength and this explains the linear dependency. The attraction experienced by ferromagnets is non-linear and much stronger, so that it is easily observed, for instance, in magnets on one's refrigerator.

Permeability (electromagnetism)

38

Values for some common materials

The following table should be used with caution as the permeability of ferromagnetic materials varies greatly with field strength. For example 4% Si steel has an initial relative permeability (at or near 0T) of 2,000 and a maximum of 35,000[5] and, indeed, the relative permeability of any material at a sufficiently high field strength tends to 1.

Magnetic susceptibility and permeability data for selected materials

Medium Susceptibility m Permeability [H/m] Relative Permeability /0 Magnetic field Frequency max. (volumetric SI) 1.25101 10102 2.5102 1000000 80000 20000 50000 1.0102 5.0103 8000 4000 [6] at 0.5 T at 0.5 T at 0.002 T 100kHz 10kHz

Metglas Nanoperm Mu-metal Mu-metal Permalloy Electrical steel Ferrite (nickel zinc) Ferrite (manganese zinc) Steel Nickel Neodymium magnet Platinum Aluminum Wood Air Concrete Vacuum Hydrogen Teflon Sapphire Copper 2.1107 0 2.2109 [11] 2.22105 [11]

[7] [8] [9]

[8] [8]

at 0.002 T at 0.002 T 100kHz ~ 1MHz 100kHz ~ 1MHz at 0.002 T

2.0105 8.0104 16640 >8.0104 8.75104 1.25104 640 (or more) 100 100 [8] [8] 600

at 0.002 T

1.05 1.2569701106 1.2566650106

[10]

1.000265 1.000022 1.00000043 1.00000037 1 [13] [14] [11] [12]

1.2566371106 (0) 1.2566371106 1.2567106 [8]

1.0000000 1.0000 0.99999976 0.999994

1.2566368106

6.4106 1.2566290106 6[11] or 9.210 8.0106 1.66104 1 0 1.2566270106

Water Bismuth Superconductors

0.999992 0.999834 0

Permeability (electromagnetism) A good magnetic core material must have high permeability.[15] For passive magnetic levitation a relative permeability below 1 is needed (corresponding to a negative susceptibility). Permeability varies with magnetic field. Values shown above are approximate and valid only at the magnetic fields shown. Moreover, they are given for a zero frequency; in practice, the permeability is generally a function of the frequency. When frequency is considered the permeability can be complex, corresponding to the in phase and out of phase response. Note that the magnetic constant has an exact value in SI units (that

39

Magnetisation curve for ferromagnets (and ferrimagnets) and corresponding permeability

is, there is no uncertainty in its value), because the definition of the ampere fixes its value to 4107H/m exactly.

Complex permeability
A useful tool for dealing with high frequency magnetic effects is the complex permeability. While at low frequencies in a linear material the magnetic field and the auxiliary magnetic field are simply proportional to each other through some scalar permeability, at high frequencies these quantities will react to each other with some lag time.[16] These fields can be written as phasors, such that

where

is the phase delay of

from

. Understanding permeability as the ratio of the magnetic field to the

auxiliary magnetic field, the ratio of the phasors can be written and simplified as , so that the permeability becomes a complex number. By Euler's formula, the complex permeability can be translated from polar to rectangular form, . The ratio of the imaginary to the real part of the complex permeability is called the loss tangent, , which provides a measure of how much power is lost in a material versus how much is stored.

References
[1] "The NIST reference on fundamental physical constants" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Units/ ampere. html). Physics.nist.gov. . Retrieved 2011-11-08. [2] Jackson (1975), p. 190 [3] Jackson, John David (1975). Classical Electrodynamics (2nd ed. ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN0-471-43132-X. p. 182 eqn. (5.57) [4] Jackson (1975) p. 182 eqn. (5.56) [5] G.W.C. Kaye & T.H. Laby, Table of Physical and Chemical Constants, 14th ed, Longman [6] ""Metglas Magnetic Alloy 2714A", ''Metglas''" (http:/ / www. metglas. com/ products/ page5_1_2_6. htm). Metglas.com. . Retrieved 2011-11-08. [7] ""Typical material properties of NANOPERM", ''Magnetec''" (http:/ / www. magnetec. de/ eng/ pdf/ werkstoffkennlinien_nano_e. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-11-08. [8] ""Relative Permeability", ''Hyperphysics''" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ solids/ ferro. html). Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. . Retrieved 2011-11-08. [9] "Nickel Alloys-Stainless Steels, Nickel Copper Alloys, Nickel Chromium Alloys, Low Expansion Alloys" (http:/ / www. nickel-alloys. net/ nickelalloys. html). Nickel-alloys.net. . Retrieved 2011-11-08.

Permeability (electromagnetism)
[10] Juha Pyrhnen, Tapani Jokinen, Valria Hrabovcov (2009). Design of Rotating Electrical Machines (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=_y3LSh1XTJYC& pg=PT232). John Wiley and Sons. p.232. ISBN0470695161. . [11] Richard A. Clarke. "Clarke, R. ''Magnetic properties of materials'', surrey.ac.uk" (http:/ / www. ee. surrey. ac. uk/ Workshop/ advice/ coils/ mu/ ). Ee.surrey.ac.uk. . Retrieved 2011-11-08. [12] B. D. Cullity and C. D. Graham (2008), Introduction to Magnetic Materials, 2nd edition, 568 pp., p.16 [13] NDT.net. "Determination of dielectric properties of insitu concrete at radar frequencies" (http:/ / www. ndt. net/ article/ ndtce03/ papers/ v078/ v078. htm). Ndt.net. . Retrieved 2011-11-08. [14] exactly, by definition [15] Dixon, L H (2001). "Magnetics Design 2 - Magnetic Core Characteristics" (http:/ / www. ti. com/ lit/ ml/ slup124/ slup124. pdf). Texas Instruments. . [16] M. Getzlaff, Fundamentals of magnetism, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2008.

40

External links
Electromagnetism (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html) - a chapter from an online textbook Relative Permeability (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/ferro.html) Soil Permeability Test (http://www.denichsoiltest.com) Magnetic Properties of Materials (http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/mu/)

Sintering
Sintering is a method used to create objects from powders. It is based on atomic diffusion. Diffusion occurs in any material above absolute zero, but it occurs much faster at higher temperatures. In most sintering processes, the powdered material is held in a mold and then heated to a temperature below the melting point. The atoms in the powder particles diffuse across the boundaries of the particles, fusing the particles together and creating one solid piece. Because the sintering temperature does not have to reach the melting point of the material, sintering is often chosen as the shaping process for materials with extremely high melting-points such as tungsten and molybdenum. Sintering is traditionally used for manufacturing ceramic objects, but finds applications in almost all field of industry. The study of sintering and of powder-related processes is known as powder metallurgy. A simple, intuitive example of sintering can be observed when ice cubes in a glass of water adhere to each other. The word "sinter" comes from the Middle High German Sinter, a cognate of English "cinder".

Advantages
Particular advantages of the powder technology include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Very high levels of purity and uniformity in starting materials Preservation of purity, due to the simpler subsequent fabrication process (fewer steps) that it makes possible Stabilization of the details of repetitive operations, by control of grain size during the input stages Absence of binding contact between segregated powder particles or "inclusions" (called stringering) as often occurs in melt processes No deformation needed to produce directional elongation of grains Capability to produce materials of controlled, uniform porosity. Capability to produce near net shape objects. Capability to produce materials which cannot be produced by any other technology.

The literature contains many references on sintering dissimilar materials to produce solid/solid-phase compounds or solid/melt mixtures at the processing stage. Almost any substance can be obtained in powder form, through either chemical, mechanical or physical processes, so basically any material can be obtained through sintering. When pure elements are sintered, the leftover powder is still pure, so it can be recycled.

Sintering

41

General sintering
Sintering is effective when the process reduces the porosity and enhances properties such as strength, electrical conductivity, translucency and thermal conductivity; yet, in other cases, it may be useful to increase its strength but keep its gas absorbency constant as in filters or catalysts. During the firing process, atomic diffusion drives powder surface elimination in different stages, starting from the formation of necks between powders to final elimination of small pores at the end of the process. The driving force for densification is the change in free energy from the decrease in surface area and lowering of the surface free energy by the replacement of solid-vapor interfaces. It forms new but lower-energy solid-solid interfaces with a total decrease in free energy occurring on sintering 1-micrometre particles a 1 cal/g decrease. On a microscopic scale, material transfer is affected by the change in pressure and differences in free energy across the curved surface. If the size of the particle is small (or if the radius of curvature is large), these effects become very large in magnitude. The change in energy is much higher when the radius of curvature is less than a few micrometres, which is one of the main reasons why much ceramic technology is based on the use of fine-particle materials.[1] For properties such as strength and conductivity, the bond area in relation to the particle size is the determining factor. The variables that can be controlled for any given material are the temperature and the initial grain size, because the vapor pressure depends upon temperature. Through time, the particle radius and the vapor pressure are proportional to (p0)2/3 and to (p0)1/3, respectively.[1] The source of power for solid-state processes is the change in free or chemical potential energy between the neck and the surface of the particle. This energy creates a transfer of material though the fastest means possible; if transfer were to take place from the particle volume or the grain boundary between particles, then there would be particle reduction and pore destruction. The pore elimination occurs faster for a trial with many pores of uniform size and higher porosity where the boundary diffusion distance is smaller. For the latter portions of the process, boundary and lattice diffusion from the boundary become important.[1] Control of temperature is very important to the sintering process, since grain-boundary diffusion and volume diffusion rely heavily upon temperature, the size and distribution of particles of the material, the materials composition, and often the sintering environment to be controlled.[1]

Ceramic sintering
Sintering is part of the firing process used in the manufacture of pottery and other ceramic objects. Some ceramic raw materials have a lower affinity for water and a lower plasticity index than clay, requiring organic additives in the stages before sintering. The general procedure of creating ceramic objects via sintering of powders includes: Mixing water, binder, deflocculant, and unfired ceramic powder to form a slurry; Spray-drying the slurry; Putting the spray dried powder into a mold and pressing it to form a green body (an unsintered ceramic item); Heating the green body at low temperature to burn off the binder; Sintering at a high temperature to fuse the ceramic particles together.

All the characteristic temperatures associated to phases transformation, glass transitions and melting points, occurring during a sinterisation cycle of a particular ceramics formulation (i.e. tails and frits) can be easily obtained by observing the expansion-temperature curves during optical dilatometer thermal analysis. In fact, sinterisation is associated to a remarkable shrinkage of the material because glass phases flow, once their transition temperature is reached, and start consolidating the powdery structure and considerably reducing the porosity of the material. There are two types of sintering: with pressure (also known as hot pressing), and without pressure. Pressureless sintering is possible with graded metal-ceramic composites, with a nanoparticle sintering aid and bulk molding technology. A variant used for 3D shapes is called hot isostatic pressing.

Sintering To allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and prevent parts sticking together, many manufacturers separate ware using Ceramic Powder Separator Sheets. These sheets are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are also available in fine medium and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to the ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing furnace loading.

42

Sintering of metallic powders

Most, if not all, metals can be sintered. This applies especially to pure metals produced in vacuum which suffer no surface contamination. Sintering under atmospheric pressure requires the usage of a protective gas, quite often endothermic gas.[2] Many nonmetallic substances also sinter, such as glass, alumina, zirconia, silica, magnesia, lime, ice, beryllium oxide, ferric oxide, and various organic polymers. Sintering, with subsequent reworking, can produce a great range of material properties. Changes in density, alloying, or heat treatments can alter the physical characteristics of various products. For instance, the Young's Modulus En of sintered iron powders remains insensitive to sintering time, alloying, or particle size in the original powder, but depends upon the density of the final product:

where D is the density, E is Young's modulus and d is the maximum density of iron. Sintering is static when a metal powder under certain external conditions may exhibit coalescence, and yet reverts to its normal behavior when such conditions are removed. In most cases, the density of a collection of grains increases as material flows into voids, causing a decrease in overall volume. Mass movements that occur during sintering consist of the reduction of total porosity by repacking, followed by material transport due to evaporation and condensation from diffusion. In the final stages, metal atoms move along crystal boundaries to the walls of internal pores, redistributing mass from the internal bulk of the object and smoothing pore walls. Surface tension is the driving force for this movement. A special form of sintering, still considered part of powder metallurgy, is liquid-state sintering. In liquid-state sintering, at least one but not all elements are in a liquid state. Liquid-state sintering is required for making cemented carbide or tungsten carbide. Sintered bronze in particular is frequently used as a material for bearings, since its porosity allows lubricants to flow through it or remain captured within it. For materials that have high melting points such as molybdenum, tungsten, rhenium, tantalum, osmium and carbon, sintering is one of the few viable manufacturing processes. In these cases, very low porosity is desirable and can often be achieved. Sintered bronze and stainless steel are used as filter materials in applications requiring high temperature resistance while retaining the ability to regenerate the filter element. For example, sintered stainless steel elements are used for filtering steam in food and pharmaceutical applications. Sintering of powders containing precious metals such as silver and gold is used to make small jewellery items.

Plastics sintering
Plastic materials are formed by sintering for applications that require materials of specific porosity. Sintered plastic porous components are used in filtration and to control fluid and gas flows. Sintered plastics are used in applications requiring wicking properties, such as marking pen nibs. Sintered ultra high molecular weight polyethylene materials are used as ski and snowboard base materials. The porous texture allows wax to be retained within the structure of the base material, thus providing a more durable wax coating.

Sintering

43

Liquid phase sintering

For materials which are hard to sinter a process called liquid phase sintering is commonly used. Materials for which liquid phase sintering is common are Si3N4, WC, SiC, and more. Liquid phase sintering is the process of adding an additive to the powder which will melt before the matrix phase. The process of liquid phase sintering has three stages: Rearrangement As the liquid melts capillary action will pull the liquid into pores and also cause grains to rearrange into a more favorable packing arrangement. Solution-Precipitation In areas where capillary pressures are high (particles are close together) atoms will preferentially go into solution and then precipitate in areas of lower chemical potential where particles are non close or in contact. This is called "contact flattening" This densifies the system in a way similar to grain boundary diffusion in solid state sintering. Ostwald ripening will also occur where smaller particles will go into solution preferentially and precipitate on larger particles leading to densification. Final Densification densification of solid skeletal network, liquid movement from efficiently packed regions into pores. For liquid phase sintering to be practical the major phase should be at least slightly soluble in the liquid phase and the additive should melt before any major sintering of the solid particulate network occurs, otherwise rearrangement of grains will not occur.

Electric current assisted sintering

These techniques employ electric currents to drive or enhance sintering.[3] English engineer A. G. Bloxam registered in 1906 the first patent on sintering powders using direct current in vacuum. The primary purpose of his inventions was the industrial scale production of filaments for incandescent lamps by compacting tungsten or molybdenum particles. The applied current was particularly effective in reducing surface oxides that increased the emissivity of the filaments.[4] In 1913, Weintraub and Rush patented a modified sintering method which combined electric current with pressure. The benefits of this method were proved for the sintering of refractory metals as well as conductive carbide or nitride powders. The starting boroncarbon or siliconcarbon powders were placed in an electrically insulating tube and compressed by two rods which also served as electrodes for the current. The estimated sintering temperature was 2000 C.[4] In the US, sintering was first patented by Duval dAdrian in 1922. His three-step process aimed at producing heat-resistant blocks from such oxide materials as zirconia, thoria or tantalia. The steps were: (i) molding the powder; (ii) annealing it at about 2500 C to make it conducting; (iii) applying current-pressure sintering as in the method by Weintraub and Rush.[4] Sintering which uses an arc produced via a capacitance discharge to eliminate oxides before direct current heating, was patented by G. F. Taylor in 1932. This originated sintering methods employing pulsed or alternating current, eventually superimposed to a direct current. Those techniques have been developed over many decades and summarized in more than 640 patents.[4] Of these technologies the most well known is resistance sintering (also called hot pressing) and spark plasma sintering, while capacitor discharge sintering is the latest advancement in this field.

Sintering

44

Spark plasma sintering

Spark plasma sintering (SPS) is a form of sintering where both external pressure and an electric field are applied simultaneously to enhance the densification of the metallic/ceramic powder compacts. This densification uses lower temperatures and shorter amount of time than typical sintering.[5] The theory behind it is that there is a high-temperature or high-energy plasma that is generated between the gaps of the powder materials; materials can be metals, inter-metallic, ceramics, composites and polymers. Using a DC pulse as the electrical current, spark plasma, spark impact pressure, joule heating, and an electrical field diffusion effect would be created.[6] Certain ceramic materials have low density, chemical inertness, high strength, hardness and temperature capability; nanocrystalline ceramics have even greater strength and higher superplasticity.[6] Many microcrystalline ceramics that were treated and had gained facture toughness lost their strength and hardness, with this many have created ceramic composites to offset the deterioration while increasing strength and hardness to that of nanocrystalline materials. Through various experiments it has been found that in order to design the mechanical properties of new material, controlling the grain size and its distribution, amount of distribution and other is pinnacle.[6]

Pressureless sintering
Pressureless sintering is the sintering of a powder compact (sometimes at very high temperatures, depending on the powder) without applied pressure. This avoids density variations in the final component, which occurs with more traditional hot pressing methods. The powder compact (if a ceramic) can be created by slip casting into a plaster mould, then the final green compact can be machined if necessary to final shape before being heated to sinter.

Densification, vitrification and grain growth

Sintering in practice is the control of both densification and grain growth. Densification is the act of reducing porosity in a sample thereby making it more dense. Grain growth is the process of grain boundary motion and Ostwald ripening to increase the average grain size. Many properties (mechanical strength, electrical breakdown strength, etc.) benefit from both a high relative density and a small grain size. Therefore, being able to control these properties during processing is of high technical importance. Since densification of powders requires high temperatures, grain growth naturally occurs during sintering. Reduction of this process is key for many engineering ceramics. For densification to occur at a quick pace it is essential to have (1) an amount of liquid phase that is large in size, (2) a near complete solubility of the solid in the liquid, and (3) wetting of the solid by the liquid. The power behind the densification is derived from the capillary pressure of the liquid phase located between the fine solid particles. When the liquid phase wets the solid particles, each space between the particles becomes a capillary in which a substantial capillary pressure is developed. For submicrometre particle sizes, capillaries with diameters in the range of 0.1 to 1 micrometres develop pressures in the range of 175 pounds per square inch (unknown operator: u'strong'kPa) to 1750 pounds per square inch (unknown operator: u'strong'kPa) for silicate liquids and in the range of 975 pounds per square inch (unknown operator: u'strong'kPa) to 9750 pounds per square inch (unknown operator: u'strong' kPa) for a metal such as liquid cobalt.[1] Densification requires constant capillary pressure where just solution-precipitation material transfer would not produce densification. For further densification, additional particle movement while the particle undergoes grain-growth and grain-shape changes occurs. Shrinkage would result when the liquid slips between particles and increase pressure at points of contact causing the material to move away from the contact areas forcing particle centers to draw near each other.[1]

Sintering The sintering of liquid-phase materials involve a fine-grained solid phase to create the needed capillary pressures proportional to its diameter and the liquid concentration must also create the required capillary pressure within range, else the process ceases. The vitrification rate is dependent upon the pore size, the viscosity and amount of liquid phase present leading to the viscosity of the overall composition, and the surface tension. Temperature dependence for densification controls the process because at higher temperatures viscosity decreases and increases liquid content. Therefore, when changes to the composition and processing are made, it will affect the vitrification process.[1]

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Sintering mechanisms
Sintering occurs by diffusion of atoms through the microstructure. This diffusion is caused by a gradient of chemical potential atoms move from an area of higher chemical potential to an area of lower chemical potential. The different paths the atoms take to get from one spot to another are the sintering mechanisms. The six common mechanisms are: Surface diffusion Diffusion of atoms along the surface of a particle Vapor transport Evaporation of atoms which condense on a different surface Lattice diffusion from surface atoms from surface diffuse through lattice Lattice diffusion from grain boundary atom from grain boundary diffuses through lattice Grain boundary diffusion atoms diffuse along ground boundary

Plastic deformation dislocation motion causes flow of matter Also one must distinguish between densifying and non-densifying mechanisms. 13 above are non-densifying they take atoms from the surface and rearrange them onto another surface or part of the same surface. These mechanisms simply rearrange matter inside of porosity and do not cause pores to shrink. Mechanisms 46 are densifying mechanisms atoms are moved from the bulk to the surface of pores thereby eliminating porosity and increasing the density of the sample.

Grain growth
Grain growth happens due to motion of atoms across a grain boundary. Convex surfaces have a higher chemical potential than concave surfaces therefore grain boundaries will move toward their center of curvature. As smaller particles tend to have a higher radius of curvature and this results in smaller grains losing atoms to larger grains and shrinking. This is a process called Ostwald ripening. Large grains grow at the expense of small grains. Grain growth in a simple model is found to follow:

Here G is final average grain size, G0 is the initial average grain size, t is time, m is a factor between 2 and 4, and K is a factor given by:

Here Q is the molar activation energy, R is the ideal gas constant, T is absolute temperature, and K0 is a material dependent factor.

Reducing grain growth

Solute ions If a dopant is added to the material (example: Nd in BaTiO3) the impurity will tend to stick to the grain boundaries. As the grain boundary tries to move (as atoms jump from the convex to concave surface) the change in concentration of the dopant at the grain boundary will impose a drag on the boundary. The original concentration of solute around the grain boundary will be asymmetrical in most cases. As the grain boundary tries to move the concentration on the side opposite of motion will have a higher concentration and therefore have a higher chemical potential. This increased chemical potential will act as a backforce to the original chemical potential gradient that is the reason for

Sintering grain boundary movement. This decrease in net chemical potential will decrease the grain boundary velocity and therefore grain growth. Fine second phase particles If particles of a second phase which are insoluble in the matrix phase are added to the powder in the form of a much finer powder than this will decrease grain boundary movement. When the grain boundary tries to move past the inclusion diffusion of atoms from one grain to the other will be hindered by the insoluble particle. More complicated interactions which slow grain boundary motion include interactions of the surface energies of the two grains and the inclusion and are discussed in detail by C.S. Smith[reference].

46

Natural sintering in geology

In geology a natural sintering occurs when a mineral spring brings about a deposition of chemical sediment or crust, for example as of porous silica[7] A sinter is a mineral deposit that presents a porous or vesicular texture; Its structure shows small cavities. Two types of deposits are referenced : siliceous deposits, and calcareous deposits[8]. Siliceous sinter is a deposit of opaline or amorphous silica, that shows as incrustations near hot springs and geysers. It sometimes forms conical mounds, called geyser cones, but can also shape as a terrace. The main agents responsible for the deposition of siliceous sinter are algae and other vegetation in the water. Altering of wall rocks can also form sinters near fumaroles and in the deeper channels of hot springs. Examples of siliceous sinter are geyserite and fiorite. They can be found in many places, including Iceland, New Zealand, U.S.A. (Yellowstone National Park - Wyo., Steamboat Springs - Colo.),... Calcareous sinter is also called tufa, calcareous tufa, or calc-tufa. It is a deposit of calcium carbonate, as with travertine. Called Petrifying spring in Rotier near Mont-Dauphin, petrifying springs, they are quite common in limestone districts. France Their calcareous waters deposit a sintery incrustation on surrounding objects. The precipitation being assisted with mosses and other vegetable structures, thus leaving cavities in the calcareous sinter after they have decayed.[8] Petrifying spring at Pamukkale, Turkey :

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47

References
[1] Kingery, W. David; Bowen, H. K.; Uhlmann, Donald R. (April 1976). Introduction to Ceramics (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Academic Press. ISBN0-4714-7860-1. [2] "endo gas" (http:/ / www. crystec. com/ kllendoe. htm). . [3] "Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports : Consolidation/synthesis of materials by electric current activated/assisted sintering" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ S0927796X08000995). ScienceDirect. . Retrieved 2011-09-30. [4] Salvatore Grasso et al. (2009). "Electric current activated/assisted sintering (ECAS): a review of patents 19062008" (free download pdf). Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 10 (5): 053001. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/10/5/053001. [5] Tuan, W.H.; Guo, J.K. (2004). Multiphased ceramic materials: processing and potential. Springer. ISBN354040516X. [6] Palmer, R.E.; Wilde, G. (December 22, 2008). Mechanical Properties of Nanocomposite Materials. EBL Database: Elsevier Ltd.. ISBN978-0-08-044965-4. [7] Sinter (http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ sinter) in thefreedictionary.com. [8] sinter (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 546308/ sinter) in Encyclopedia Britanica.

Further reading
Chiang, Yet-Ming; Birnie, Dunbar P.; Kingery, W. David (May 1996). Physical Ceramics: Principles for Ceramic Science and Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN0-4715-9873-9. Green, D.J.; Hannink, R.; Swain, M.V. (1989). Transformation Toughening of Ceramics. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN0-8493-6594-5. German, R.M. (1996). Sintering Theory and Practice. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN0-471-05786-X. Kang, Suk-Joong L. (2005). Sintering (1st ed.). Oxford: Elsevier, Butterworth Heinemann. ISBN0-7506-6385-5.

External links
Particle-Particle-Sintering a 3D lattice kinetic Monte Carlo simulation (http://www.roentzsch.org/SintPP/ index.html) Sphere-Plate-Sintering a 3D lattice kinetic Monte Carlo simulation (http://www.roentzsch.org/SintSP/index. html) Thick Film Technologies- A Manufacturer of Ceramic Sintering Separator Sheets (http://www.thickfilmtech. com)

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Image:BaTiO3ceramics.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BaTiO3ceramics.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Materialscientist (talk). Original uploader was Materialscientist at en.wikipedia File:Yes check.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yes_check.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie Image:X mark.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:X_mark.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Gmaxwell Image:Perovskite.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perovskite.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Cadmium at en.wikipedia Image:Tausonite.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tausonite.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Materialscientist (talk). Original uploader was Materialscientist at en.wikipedia Image:Stohrem.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stohrem.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: by Materialscientist Image:Stocrystal.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stocrystal.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Materialscientist (talk) File:Ferromagnetic ordering.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferromagnetic_ordering.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Michael Schmid File:Paramagnetic probe without magnetic field.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paramagnetic_probe_without_magnetic_field.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jens Bning (Jensel) File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Mirithing, Myself488, Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 18 anonymous edits Image:SchemaPiezo.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SchemaPiezo.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Mael Guennou - Titzeff File:Piezo bending principle.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Piezo_bending_principle.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Sonitron Support Image:Capacitor schematic with dielectric.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Capacitor_schematic_with_dielectric.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Papa November Image:Perovskite.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perovskite.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pinin Image:Piezoelectric pickup1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Piezoelectric_pickup1.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Georg Feitscher File:RPG-7 detached.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RPG-7_detached.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Michal Maas (User:Snek01) Image:2007-07-24 Piezoelectric buzzer.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2007-07-24_Piezoelectric_buzzer.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Gophi File:Slip-stick actuator operation.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slip-stick_actuator_operation.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Inductiveload File:Diel.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diel.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: hyperphysics Image:Dielectric responses.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dielectric_responses.svg License: Attribution Contributors: Original uploader was Archimerged at en.wikipedia File:Water relative static permittivity.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_relative_static_permittivity.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Stan J Klimas File:Permeability by Zureks.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Permeability_by_Zureks.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zureks File:Permeability of ferromagnet by Zureks.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Permeability_of_ferromagnet_by_Zureks.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zureks Image:Source ptrifiante.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Source_ptrifiante.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Saphon Image:Pamukkale1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pamukkale1.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Horvat, Traroth

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