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t
p
t
b
1
m
t
where m
t
is the percentage mark-up in period t.
Because of the linear relationship between the crude oil price and the pre-tax price of petrol (1), the
mark-up varies over time. While there is considerable variation from month to month, there has
been a general decline over the past twenty years (see Figure A2) with the mark-up for premium
unleaded petrol falling from around 150% to around 40%. This is reflected in an increase in the
short run elasticity over that period from 0.36 to 0.62.
0
20
40
60
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
6
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
6
Fitted Actual
21
Figure A2 Percentage mark-up: pre-tax petrol price of premium unleaded petrol versus crude oil price
The relationship between the pre-tax price and the retail price of petrol is given by:
r
t
= (1 + v
t
) [ p
t
+ d
t
] (2)
where r is the retail petrol price (pence per litre)
p is the pre-tax petrol price (pence per litre)
v is the VAT %
d is the fuel duty rate (pence per litre)
Assuming that the fuel duty rate is set independently of the price of crude oil then the short-run and
long-run impacts on the retail price of petrol of a change to the crude oil price are respectively:
dr
t
d
t
1 v
t
dp
t
d
t
1 v
t
b
dr
d
b
1 c
Thus, the impacts on the retail price are equal to the impacts on the pre-tax price, grossed up for
VAT.
The short run elasticity of the retail price of petrol with respect to the crude oil price is:
d
t
d
t
t
r
t
b
1
m
t
1
t
where o
t
= d
t
/ p
t
is the value of fuel duty as a proportion of the pre-tax petrol price (i.e. the fuel
duty mark-up.
Thus, the fuel duty acts to dampen the effect of the changes in the price of crude oil. Again, the
value of o
t
varies over time since the fuel duty only changes periodically while the pre-tax petrol
price changes continuously (see Figure A2). Over the 1990s it increased from just over 100% to 500%
as fuel duty increased under the escalator. Following the removal of the escalator, it declined
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
6
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
6
Mark-up
22
sharply and has averaged around 150% in recent years. Consequently, the short run elasticity of the
retail petrol price declined from 0.18 to 0.06 in 1999, before rising to its current value of 0.26.
Figure A3 Fuel duty and pre-tax petrol price (pence per litre)
0%
100%
200%
300%
400%
500%
600%
0
20
40
60
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
6
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
6
Petrol pre-tax Fuel Duty Mark-up % (LHS)
23
Annex B Long run trend for crude oil price
The price of crude oil at time t is assumed to be given by:
q
t
= q
t
+ c
t
q
t
= o + | t + _ t
2
(3)
where
q is the long-run trend price of crude oil (pence per litre)
c is the short-run deviation from the trend price, c ~ N[0,]
The parameters are estimated econometrically using monthly price data published in the June 2010
edition of Quarterly Energy Prices (DECC). The resultant parameter estimates are shown in Table B1,
along with their respective t-statistics and p-values, and the R
2
value for the equation. While the
residuals around the fitted values (e
t
= q
t
t
) exhibit significant autocorrelation (see Figure B1), the
estimated parameter values are unbiased and consistent.
13
Consequently, the estimated trend price
values calculated using these estimates are also unbiased and consistent.
Table B1 Parameter estimates
Variable Parameter Estimate t-statistic p-value
Constant o 8.655 13.58 < 0.001
Time in months (Jan 1991 = 0) | -1.101 -7.26 < 0.001
Time squared _ 0.120 15.90 < 0.001
R
2
= 0.85
Figure B1 Residuals (pence per litre)
13
Autocorrelation causes the R
2
value and the t-statistics for the estimates to be overstated (and hence
the p-values to be understated).
-20
-10
0
10
20
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
6
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
6
24
It is assumed that the autocorrelation of the residual term (i.e. the deviation) is AR(3), i.e.
e
t
=
1
e
t-1
+
2
e
t-2
+
3
e
t-3
+ =
t
where = ~ N[0,] (4)
The values of the parameters are estimated econometrically using the residuals from the estimation
of the trend equation (3). The resultant parameter estimates are shown in Table B2, along with their
respective t-statistics and p-values and the R
2
value for the equation. All of the coefficients are
significant and the equation explains almost 90% of the variation in the residuals.
Table B1 Parameter estimates
Variable Parameter Estimate t-statistic p-value
e
t-1
1
1.260 19.19 < 0.001
e
t-2
2
-0.257 -2.45 0.015
e
t-3
3
-0.132 -2.00 0.047
R
2
= 0.88
The values of the parameters in the trend price equation (3) have remained relatively stable over
time, with very little difference between the long term trend lines calculated using the data up to
the end of 2005 and using the data up to June 2010 (see Figure B2).
Figure B2 Stability of long run trend price of crude oil
Denoting the percentage deviation from the fitted trend price (
t
) by g
t
then:
E(g
t
) = E[ ( q
t
t
)
t
] = E( q
t
t
) 1
Noting that the value of q
t
is fixed in repeated sampling and that the inverse function is strictly
convex, then by Jensens ineuality:
0
10
20
30
40
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
6
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
6
Trend 1991-2005 Trend 1991-2010
25
E(g
t
) > q
t
E (
t
) 1 = q
t
/ q
t
) 1 = 0
Thus, the expected value of the percentage deviation at a particular point in time is greater than
zero. Of course, in any particular sample, it may be positive or negative. Furthermore, the mean
value across time periods is not generally equal to zero; unlike the mean value of the absolute
deviation (e), which is always equal to zero by construction under OLS. .
26
Annex C Calculating fuel demand under assumption of
continued duty escalator
The demand for fuel at time t is typically assumed to be given by:
ln(Q
t
) = ln(a) + b ln(p
t
) + c ln(Y
t
) + d ln(Q
t-1
) + u
t
(5)
where Q is the total quantity of fuel consumed (million litres)
p is the real retail price of fuel (pence per litre)
Y is the level of economic activity / income (i.e. real GDP)
u represents other unidentified factors influencing demand ~ N[0,]
a, b, c, d are parameters
The short-run price elasticity of demand is given by the parameter b; while the long-run elasticity is
given by b / (1 d).
Denoting the actual variable values by the superscript * and the values under the continued fuel
duty escalator (from time t = T) by the superscript # then, assuming that the continuation of the
escalator would not have had any impact on the level of economic activity (or any other unidentified
factors influencing demand), it follows that:
Q
t
*/ Q
t
#
= (p
t
*/ p
t
#
)
b
(Q
t-1
*/ Q
t-1
#
)
d
t T, T1, T2, (6)
Consequently, the percentage impact on demand in each time period can be calculated iteratively,
noting that the value of Q
T-1
*/ Q
T-1
#
= 1 by definition.
The values of the parameters b and d are derived from the values provided in the review of price
elasticities undertaken for the Department of Transport by Goodwin et al (2004). Short term and
long term price elasticities for fuel consumption averaged -0.25 and -0.64 respectively (see Table C1),
implying that b = -0.25 and d = 0.61 (i.e. 1 0.25 / 0.64). However, these values relate to annual
data (i.e. the short term elasticity gives the impact after one year) and need to be converted to
equivalent quarterly values as follows:
d
Q
= d
0.25
= 0.884 b
Q
= b ( 1 d
0.25
) / ( 1 d ) = 0.075
Table C1 Price elasticity of fuel consumption
Short term Long term
Mean elasticity - 0.25 - 0.64
Maximum - 0.57 - 1.81
Minimum - 0.01 - 0.00
Number of estimates 46 51
Source: Goodwin et al (2004)
27
Annex D Design of fuel price stabiliser
a) Retrospective stabiliser
Combining equations (1) and (3) and substituting the parameters with their respective estimated
values gives:
p
t
= b ( q
t
+ e
t
) p
t-1
d t
t
+ w
t
(7)
where p is the pre-tax petrol price (pence per litre)
q is the fitted long-run trend price of crude oil (pence per litre)
t is a time trend
e is the short-run deviation from the fitted trend price
w represents other unidentified factors influencing pre-tax price
, b, , d are the estimated parameter values
But noting that p
t-1
= b ( q
t-1
+ e
t
) p
t-2
d t
t-1
+ w
t-1
etc., it follows that
p
t
= ( a* d t*
t
) b q*
t
b e*
t
+ w*
t
(8)
where a* = [ 1 + c + c
2
+ c
3
]
q*
t
= q
t
q
t-1
2
q
t-2
3
q
t-3
+
t*
t
= t
t
t
t-1
2
t
t-2
3
t
t-3
+
e*
t
= e
t
e
t-1
2
e
t-2
3
e
t-3
+
w*
t
= w
t
w
t-1
2
w
t-2
3
w
t-3
+
Thus, the pre-tax price of petrol can be decomposed into a time-varying constant term (A
t
) and three
terms representing the smoothed
14
influence of:
the long run crude oil price (B
t
= b q*
t
)
short term deviations in the crude oil price (C
t
= b e*
t
)
other unidentified factors ( D
t
= w*
t
)
The estimated value of the smoothing parameter is 0.311 (see Table A1). Consequently, the
weighting factors quickly fall close to zero and hence, in practice, the smoothed values can be
calculated as finite summations over the last twelve months.
The influence of the short term deviations in the crude oil price can therefore be removed by
introducing a stabiliser:
s
t
= b e*
t
~ b [ e
t
e
t-1
2
e
t-2
N
e
t-N
] (9)
14
They are equal to the exponentially weighted moving averages multiplied by 1 / (1 c).
28
Thus, the value of the stabiliser depends not only on the deviation from the trend price in the
current period, but also the deviations in previous periods. It is positive (i.e. equivalent to a tax)
when the (smoothed) deviation from the long term crude oil trend price is negative (i.e. c*
t
< 0). It is
negative (i.e. equivalent to a subsidy) when the deviation is positive (i.e. c*
t
> 0).
Noting that E(e) = E(c) = 0, the expected value (mean) and variance of the stabiliser are respectively:
E(s
t
) = b E(e*
t
) = b [ E(e
t
) E(e
t-1
)
2
E(e
t-2
)
N
E(e
t-N
) ] = 0
Var(s
t
) = b
2
[ V
e
]
where = ( 1, ,
2
, ,
N
)
V
e
=
cove
t
,e
t
cove
t
,e
t-
cove
t-
,e
t
cove
t-
,e
t-
Furthermore, since the component residuals are serially correlated (see Annex B), it follows that the
stabiliser values are also serially correlated with the same AR(3) form i.e.
s
t
= b [ e
t
e
t-1
2
e
t-2
N
e
t-N
]
= b [ (
1
e
t-1
+
2
e
t-2
+
3
e
t-3
+ v
t
) (
1
e
t-2
+
2
e
t-3
+
3
e
t-4
+ v
t-1
)
2
(
1
e
t-3
+
2
e
t-4
+
3
e
t-5
+ v
t-2
)
N
(
1
e
t-N-1
+
2
e
t-N-2
+
3
e
t-N-3
+ v
t-N
) ]
= b [
1
( e
t-1
e
t-2
2
e
t-3
N
e
t-N-1
) +
2
( e
t-2
e
t-3
2
e
t-4
N
e
t-N-2
)
+
3
( e
t-3
e
t-4
2
e
t-5
N
e
t-N-3
) + ( v
t
v
t-1
2
v
t-2
N
v
t-N
) ]
=
1
s
t-1
+
2
s
t-2
+
3
s
t-3
b v*
t
(10_
Thus, the stabiliser follows the same cyclical pattern as the deviations from trend crude oil price.
The M-period moving average value of the stabiliser is given by:
s
t
= [ e
t
+ e
t-1
+ e
t-2
e
t-M+1
] / M (11)
It follows directly that the expected value of the moving average is zero and the variance is given by:
ar(s
t
) = [ i V
s
i ] / M
2
where i = ( 1, 1 , 1, , 1 )
V
s
=
covs
t
,s
t
covs
t
,s
t-
covs
t-
,s
t
covs
t-
,s
t-
29
Thus, the variance of the moving average is equal to the average covariance across all MM
combinations of the lagged stabiliser values. Table C1 shows the values of the variance for the
stabiliser and for the moving average values over 3, 5 and 8 years together with the average,
minimum and maximum values. The variation in the moving average falls quickly as the length of
the averaging period increases; with the magnitude of the five-year average fluctuating by less than
three pence around zero.
Table C1 Variance of stabiliser and moving average values (pence per litre)
Stabiliser
Moving Average
3 Years 5 Years 8 Years
Mean -0.07 -0.09 0.11 0.18
Variance 13.57 1.30 0.71 0.50
Minimum -17.02 -3.33 -1.38 -0.65
Maximum 10.40 2.41 1.19 1.06
Spread 27.42 5.74 2.57 1.71
b) Prospective stabiliser
In practice, the value of the stabiliser for any period must be set in advance, before the deviations (e)
for the latest periods are known. Given the delay in obtaining price data and the lead-times
required for implementation, it is likely that the latest available data will be three months old (i.e.
will relate to period t-3). However, it is possible to use the use the serial correlation of the
deviations (as defined by equation (4) in Annex B) to construct forecast values (made at time t-3) for
the last three periods, i.e.
t-2
=
1
e
t-3
+
2
e
t-4
+
3
e
t-5
t-1
=
1
t-2
+
2
e
t-3
+
3
e
t-4
t
=
1
t-1
+
2
t-2
+
3
e
t-3
While the forecasts become successively less accurate, the final forecast (for period t) still provides a
reasonably good fit to the actual deviations in most periods (see Figure D1 below) with a
correlation coefficient for the two time series of 0.70.
Using these forecast values for the deviations, a prospective stabiliser can be calculated as
15
:
t
= b [
t
t-1
2
t-2
3
e
t-3
N
e
t-N
] (12)
15
It is also possible to use the serial correlation of the stabiliser values (as defined by equation 10) to
forecast the stabiliser values directly. However, using the forecast deviations is slightly more accurate
and requires minimal additional computation.
30
Figure D1 Comparison of actual deviations with forecast values made three months earlier
(pence per litre)
Figure D2 compares the prospective stabiliser values with the corresponding retrospective values
over the period April 1994 June 2010. There is a reasonably strong relationship between the two
values for the majority of the period the correlation between the two time series is 0.74. However,
the prospective stabiliser has the incorrect sign in 31 of the 195 constituent months (i.e. 16%)
exacerbating the deviations rather than attenuating them as intended. In most cases, the
magnitude of the difference was less than 2 pence (e.g. the retrospective stabilizer value is plus 1
pence rather than minus 1 pence, etc.). However, in some cases it is significant. In particular, in
November and December 2008, the prospective stabiliser failed to reflect the unprecedented
decline in crude oil prices (the deviation value falling from plus 16 pence in June to minus 10 pence
in December) and hence remained significantly positive rather than changing sign as required.
Figure D2 Comparison of retrospective and prospective stabiliser values (pence per litre)
(a)
(Correlation = 0.74)
(a) Retrospective value on vertical axis, prospective value on horizontal axis
-20
-10
0
10
20
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
6
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
6
Actual Forecast (-3)
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Dec 08
Nov 08
31
The effectiveness of the prospective stabiliser in removing the volatility in the pre-tax petrol price
due the deviations in the crude oil price from its long run trend can be measured by:
s
t
b
e
t
e
t
By definition, o = 0 in the absence of any stabiliser, while o = 1 for the retrospective stabiliser (since
s
t
b e*
t
= 0). For the prospective stabiliser, o = 0.6. That is, it removes 60% of the volatility due to
the fluctuations in the crude oil price.