Entamoeba Histolytica - Amoebiasis

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite responsible for a disease called amoebiasis. It occurs usually in the large intestine and causes internal inflammation as its name suggests (histo = tissue, lytic = destroying). 50 million people are infected worldwide, mostly in tropical countries in areas of poor sanitation. In industrialized countries most of the infected patients are immigrants, institutionalized people and those who have recently visited developing countries. Inside humans Entamoeba histolytica lives and multiplies as a trophozoite. Trophozoites are oblong and about 1520 m in length. In order to infect other humans they encyst and exit the body. The life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica does not require any intermediate host. Mature cysts (spherical, 1215 m in diameter) are passed in the feces of an infected human. Another human can get infected by ingesting them in fecally contaminated water, food or hands. If the cysts survive the acidic stomach, they transform back into trophozoites in the small intestine. Trophozoites migrate to the large intestine where they live and multiply by binary fission. Both cysts and trophozoites are sometimes present in the feces. Cysts are usually found in firm stool, whereas trophozoites are found in loose stool. Only cysts can survive longer periods (up to many weeks outside the host) and infect other humans. If trophozoites are ingested, they are killed by the gastric acid of the stomach. Occasionally trophozoites might be transmitted during sexual intercourse.

Most Entamoeba histolytica infections are asymptomatic and trophozoites remain in the intestinal lumen feeding on surrounding nutrients. About 1020 % of the infections develop into amoebiasis which causes 70 000 deaths each year. Minor infections(luminal amoebiasis) can cause symptoms that include:

gas (flatulence) intermittent constipation loose stools stomach ache stomach cramping.

Severe infections inflame the mucosa of the large intestine causing amoebic dysentery. The parasites can also penetrate the intestinal wall and travel to organs such as the liver via bloodstream causing extraintestinal amoebiasis. Symptoms of these moresevere infections include:

anemia appendicitis (inflammation of the appendix) bloody diarrhea fatigue fever gas (flatulence)
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genital and skin lesions intermittent constipation liver abscesses (can lead to death, if not treated) malnutrition painful defecation (passage of the stool) peritonitis (inflammation of the peritoneum which is the thin membrane that lines the abdominal wall) pleuropulmonary abscesses stomach ache stomach cramping toxic megacolon (dilated colon) weight loss.

To prevent spreading the infection to others, one should take care of personal hygiene. Always wash your hands with soap and water after using the toilet and before eating or preparing food. Amoebiasis is common in developing countries. Some good practices, when visiting areas of poor sanitation:

Wash your hands often. Avoid eating raw food. Avoid eating raw vegetables or fruit that you did not wash and peel yourself. Avoid consuming milk or other dairy products that have not been pasteurized. Drink only bottled or boiled water or carbonated (bubbly) drinks in cans or bottles.

Natural water can be made safe by filtering it through an "absolute 1 micron or less" filter and dissolving iodine tablets in the filtered water. "Absolute 1 micron" filters are found in outdoor/camping supply stores. Micron = micrometer = 0.001 mm. Amoebiasis is diagnosed by your health care provider under a microscope by finding cysts and (rarely trophozoites) from a stool sample. The results are usually said to be negative, if Entamoeba histolytica is not found in three different stool samples. But it still does not necessarily mean that you are not infected because the microscopic parasite is hard to find and it might not be present the particular samples. A blood test might also be available but is only recommended, if your health care provider believes that the infection could have spread to other parts of the body. Trophozoites can be identified under a microscope from biopsy samples taken during colonoscopy or surgery. Entamoeba histolytica should be differentiated from the nonpathogenic Entamoeba dispar. The two are morphologically identical and differentiation must be based on immunologic or isoenzymatic analysis or molecular methods. They can be distinguished under a microscope, if Entamoeba histolytica has ingested red blood cells. Entamoeba dispar is about 10 times more common. If either one is found, then you are usually treated. If you are experiencing amoebiasis symptoms, you are treated with two antibiotics. The preferred drugs are metronidazole or tinidazole immediately followed with paromomycin, diloxanide furoate or iodoquinol. Asymptomatic
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intestinal amoebiasis is treated with paromomycin, diloxanide furoate or iodoquinol.

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Entamoeba histolytica

Name of the Organism:

This is a single celled parasitic animal, i.e., a protozoa, that infects predominantly humans and other primates. Diverse mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected but usually do not shed cysts (the environmental survival form of the organism) with their feces, thus do not contribute significantly to transmission. The active (trophozoite) stage exists only in the host and in fresh feces; cysts survive outside the host in water and soils and on foods, especially under moist conditions on the latter. When swallowed they cause infections by excysting (to the trophozoite stage) in the digestive tract.

Entamoeba histolytica: Introduction

Entamoeba histolytica: This is a single celled parasitic animal, i.e., a protozoa, that infects predominantly humans and other primates. Diverse mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected but ... more about Entamoeba histolytica.

Entamoeba histolytica: Parasitic digestive infection. More detailed information about thesymptoms, causes, and treatments of Entamoeba histolytica is available below.

Misdiagnosis and Entamoeba histolytica

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Article Excerpts about Entamoeba histolytica

This is a single celled parasitic animal, i.e., a protozoa, that infects predominantly humans and other primates. Diverse mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected but usually do not shed cysts (the environmental survival form of the organism) with their feces, thus do not contribute significantly to transmission. The active (trophozoite) stage exists only in the host and in fresh feces; cysts survive outside the host in water and soils and on foods, especially under moist conditions on the latter. When swallowed they cause infections by excysting (to the trophozoite stage) in the digestive tract.

Definitions of Entamoeba histolytica: A species of parasitic protozoa causing ENTAMOEBIASIS and amebic dysentery (DYSENTERY, AMEBIC). Characteristics include a single nucleus containing a small central karyosome and peripheral chromatin that is finely and regularly beaded. - (Source Diseases Database)

Scientific classification

Domain:

Eukaryota

Phylum:

Amoebozoa

Class:

Archamoebae

Order:

Amoebida

Genus:

Entamoeba

Species:

E. histolytica

Binomial name

Entamoeba histolytica
Schaudinn, 1903

Life-cycle of Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is an anaerobic parasitic protozoan, part of [1] the genus Entamoeba. Predominantly infecting humans and other primates, E. histolytica is estimated to infect about 50 million people worldwide. Previously, it was thought that 10% of the world population was infected, but these figures predate the recognition that at least 90% [2] of these infections were due to a second species, E. dispar. Mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected transiently, but are not thought to contribute significantly to transmission.

Contents
[hide]

1 Transmission 2 Genome 3 Pathogen Interaction 4 Diagnosis 5 Treatment 6 Additional images 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit]Transmission The active (trophozoite) stage exists only in the host and in fresh loose feces; cysts survive outside the host in water, in soils, and on foods, especially under moist conditions on the latter. The cysts are readily killed by heat and by freezing temperatures, and survive for only a [3] few months outside of the host. When cysts are swallowed they cause infections by excysting (releasing the trophozoite stage) in the digestive tract. The pathogenic nature of E. histolytica was first reported by Lsch in 1875, but it was not given its Latin name until Fritz Schaudinn described it in 1903.E. histolytica, as its name suggests (histolytic = tissue destroying), is pathogenic; infection can lead to amoebic dysentery or amoebic liver [1] abscess. Symptoms can include fulminating dysentery, bloody diarrhea, weight loss, fatigue, abdominal pain, and amoeboma. The amoeba can actually 'bore' into the intestinal wall, causing lesions and intestinal symptoms, and it may reach the blood stream. From there, it can reach different vital organs of the human body, usually the liver, but sometimes the lungs, brain, spleen, etc. A common outcome of this invasion of tissues is a liver abscess, which can be fatal if untreated. Ingested red blood cellsare sometimes seen in the amoeba cell cytoplasm.

Etiologic Agent of:

Amoebiasis; Amoebic dysentery; Extraintestinal Amoebiasis, usually Amoebic Liver Abscess = anchovy sauce); Amoeba Cutis; Amoebic Lung Abscess (liver-colored sputum)

*Giardia lamblia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Giardia lamblia

Giardia cell, SEM

Scientific classification

Domain:

Eukaryota

(unranked):

Excavata

Phylum:

Metamonada

Order:

Diplomonadida

Family:

Hexamitidae

Genus:

Giardia

Species:

G. lamblia

Binomial name

Giardia intestinalis

(Lambl, 1859) Kofoid & Christiansen, 1915

Synonyms

Lamblia intestinalis Giardia duodenalis

Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Giardia intestinalis, Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is a flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing giardiasis. The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc, and reproduces viabinary fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream, nor does it spread to other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract, but remains confined to thelumen of the small intestine.
[2] [1]

Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from

the lumen of the small intestine, and are anaerobes. If the organism is split and stained, it has a very characteristic pattern that resembles a familiar "smiley face" symbol. Chief pathways of human infection include ingestion of untreated sewage, a phenomenon particularly common in many developing countries;
[3]

contamination of natural waters also occurs in watersheds

where intensive grazing occurs.

Life cycle

Parasite life cycle.

The life cycle begins with a noninfective cyst being excreted with the feces of an infected individual. The cyst is hardy, providing protection from various degrees of heat and

cold, desiccation, and infection from other organisms. A distinguishing characteristic of the cyst is four nuclei and a retracted cytoplasm. Once ingested by a host, the trophozoite emerges to an active state of feeding and motility. After the feeding stage, the trophozoite undergoes asexual replication through longitudinal binary fission. The resulting trophozoites and cysts then pass through the digestive system in the faeces. While the trophozoites may be found in the faeces, only the cysts are capable of surviving outside of the host. Distinguishing features of the trophozoites are large karyosomes and lack of peripheral chromatin, giving the two nuclei a halo appearance. Cysts are distinguished by a retracted cytoplasm. This protozoan lacks mitochondria, although the discovery of the presence of mitochodrial remnants organellesin one recent study "indicate that Giardia is not primitively amitochondrial and that it has retained a functional organelle derived from the [5] original mitochondrial endosymbiont" This organelle is now termed a mitosome.

History
The trophozoite form of Giardia was first observed in 1681 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in his own diarrhea stools. The organism was again observed and described in greater detail by Vilm Duan Lambl in 1859, who thought the organism belonged to the genus Cercomonas and proposed the name Cercomonas intestinalis. His name is still sometimes attached to the genus or the species infecting humans. Thereafter, some have named the genus after him while others have named the species of the human form after him Giardia lamblia. In 1879, Grassi discovered a rodent parasite now known to be a Giardia species Dimorphus muris apparently unaware of Lambl's earlier description. In 1882 and 1883, Johann Knstler described an organism in tadpoles (possibly Giardia agilis) that he named Giardia, this being the first time Giardia was used as a genus name. The genus was chosen to honour Professor Alfred Mathieu Giard of Paris. Raphal Blanchard, in [25] 1888, proposed the name Lamblia intestinalis, after Lambl. Stiles changed it to Giardia [26] duodenalis in 1902 and to Giardia lamblia in 1915. The same year (1915), Kofoid and Christiansen wrote "The generic name Lamblia Blanchard 1888 should give way [27] to Giardia Kunstler 1882 on ground of priority" (the epithet being intestinalis) and [citation needed] used Giardia enterica in 1920. The naming of the species still causes controversy. While initially species names were based on the host of origin leading to over forty species. In 1922 Simon, using morphologic criteria to distinguish between Giardia lamblia and Giardia muris accepted the name Giardia lamblia for the human species. Filice in 1922 further revised the genus when he published a detailed morphologic description of the genus Giardia and proposed that three species names be used on the basis of the morphology of the median body: Giardia agilis, Giardia [citation needed] duodenalis and Giardia muris. The names for the human parasite Giardia duodenalis, Giardia lamblia and Giardia intestinalis are all in common current use despite the potential for confusion that this has [citation needed] created. Van Leeuwenhoek's observations were recreated, using a single lensed microscope of the kind he used, by British microbiologist Brian J. Ford who showed how clearly one could [28] view Giardiathrough a primitive microscope.

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In 1998, a highly publicised Giardia and Cryptosporidium outbreak was reported in Sydney, Australia, but it was found to be due to mis-measurement of the concentrations of microbes in the water supply. A 2004 outbreak in Bergen (Norway) hastened work on adding UV treatment to the water facilities. In October 2007, Giardia was found in the water supply for parts of Oslo, prompting [29] authorities to advise the public to boil drinking water; but subsequent test showed levels of [30] contamination too low to pose a threat, so this advice has since been cancelled. In 2008, Giardia was identified as one of the causes of [31] the dysentery afflicting Crusaders in Palestine in the 12th and 13th centuries.

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Trichomonas vaginalis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Trichomonas vaginalis

T. vaginalis phase contrast microscopy

Scientific classification

Domain:

Eukarya

Phylum:

Metamonada

Class:

Parabasalia

Order:

Trichomonadida

Genus:

Trichomonas

Species:

T. vaginalis

Binomial name

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Trichomonas vaginalis
(Donn 1836)

Trichomonas vaginalis is an anaerobic, flagellated protozoan, a form of microorganism. The parasitic microorganism is the causative agent oftrichomoniasis, and is the most common pathogenic protozoan infection of humans in industrialized countries.[1] Infection rates between men and women are the same with women showing symptoms while infections in men are usually asymptomatic. Transmission takes place directly because the trophozoite does not have a cyst. The WHO has estimated that 160 million cases of infection are acquired annually worldwide.[2] The estimates for North America alone are between 5 and 8 million new infections each year, with an estimated rate of asymptomatic cases as high as 50%.[3]Usually treatment consists of metronidazole and tinidazole.[4]

Diagnosis
Classically, with a cervical smear, infected women have a transparent "halo" around their superficial cell nucleus. It is unreliably detected by studying a genital discharge or with a cervical smear because of their low sensitivity. T. vaginalis was traditionally diagnosed via a wet mount, in which "corkscrew" motility was observed. Currently, the most common method [10][11] [12] of diagnosis is via overnight culture, with a sensitivity range of 75-95%. Newer methods, such as rapid antigen testing and transcription-mediated amplification, have even [12] greater sensitivity, but are not in widespread use. The presence of T. vaginalis can also be [13][14] diagnosed by PCR, using primers specific for GENBANK/L23861. [edit]Treatment Infection is treated and cured with metronidazole or tinidazole, usually as a single-dose therapy, and should be prescribed to any sexual partner(s) as well because they may be asymptomatic

Morphology
The T. vaginalis trophozoite is oval as well as flagellated, or "pear" shaped as seen on wetmount slide. It is slightly larger than a white blood cell, measuring 9 X 7 m. Five flagella arise near the cytostome; four of these immediately extend outside the cell together, while the fifth flagellum wraps backwards along the surface of the organism. The functionality of the fifth flagellum is not known. In addition, a conspicuous barb-like axostyle projects opposite the four-flagella bundle; the axostyle may be used for attachment to surfaces and may also cause [16] the tissue damage noted in trichomoniasis infections. While T. vaginalis does not have a cyst form, organisms can survive for up to 24 hours in urine, semen, or even water samples. It has an ability to persist on fomites with a moist [citation needed] surface for 1 to 2 hours.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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(Redirected from Protozoan)

Leishmania donovani, (a species of protozoa) in a bone marrow cell

'Protozoa', a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms, many of which are motile. Originally, protozoa had been defined as unicellularprotists with animal-like behavior, e.g., movement. Protozoa were regarded as the partner group of protists to protophyta, which have plant-like behaviour, e.g., photosynthesis.

[1]

Life cycle
Some protozoa have life stages alternating between proliferative stages (e.g., trophozoites) and dormant cysts. As cysts, protozoa can survive harsh conditions, such as exposure to extreme temperatures or harmful chemicals, or long periods without access to nutrients, water, or oxygen for a period of time. Being a cyst enables parasitic species to survive outside of a host, and allows their transmission from one host to another. When protozoa are in the form of trophozoites (Greek, tropho = to nourish), they actively feed. The conversion of a trophozoite to cyst form is known as encystation, while the process of transforming back into a trophozoite is known as excystation. Protozoa can reproduce by binary fission or multiple fission. Some protozoa reproduce sexually, some asexually, while some use a combination, (e.g., Coccidia). An individual protozoan is hermaphroditic. [edit]Classification Protozoa were previously often grouped in the kingdom of Protista, together with the plantlike algae and fungus-like slime molds. As a result of 21st-century systematics, protozoa, along withciliates, mastigophorans, and apicomplexans, are arranged as animal-like protists. With the possible exception of Myxozoa, protozoa are not categorized [6] as Metazoa. Protozoa are unicellular organisms and are often called the animal-like protists because they subsist entirely on other organisms for food. Most protozoa can move about on their own. Amoebas, Paramecia, and Trypanosomes are all examples of animal-like Protists. [edit]Sub-groups The classification of protozoa has been and remains a problematic area of taxonomy. Where they are available DNA sequences are used as the basis for classification but for the majority

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of described protozoa such material is not available. They have been and still are mostly on the basis of the their morphology and for the parasitic species their hosts. Protozoa have been divided traditionally Flagellates (e.g., Giardia lamblia) Amoeboids (e.g., Entamoeba histolytica) Sporozoans (e.g., Plasmodium knowlesi) Apicomplexa Myxozoa Microsporidia
[7] [citation needed]

on the basis of their means of locomotion.

Ciliates (e.g., Balantidium coli) reflecting the means of

As a phylum the Protozoa had been divided into four subphyla locomotion: Subphylum Sarcomastigophora Superclass Mastigophora (includes flagellates) Superclass Sarcodinagdffgferclass Opalinata

Subphylum Sporozoa (includes apicomplexans) Subphylum Cnidospora Class Myxosporidea Class Microsporidea

Subphylum Ciliophora (includes ciliates)

These classification systems are no longer considered to be valid.

Prokaryotes
Main article: Prokaryote Prokaryotes are organisms that lack a cell nucleus and the other membrane bound organelles. They are almost always unicellular, although some species such as myxobacteria can aggregate into complex structures as part of their life cycle. Consisting of two domains, bacteria and archaea, the prokaryotes are the most diverse and abundant group of organisms onEarth and inhabit practically all environments where some liquid water is available and the temperature is below +140 C. They are found in sea water, soil, air, animals' gastrointestinal tracts, hot springs and even deep beneath the Earth's [28] crust inrocks. Practically all surfaces that have not been specially sterilized are covered by prokaryotes. The number of prokaryotes on Earth is estimated to be around five million trillion 30 [29] trillion, or 5 10 , accounting for at least half the biomasson Earth.

Eukaryotes
Main article: Eukaryote

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Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form are eukaryotes, including humans. However, a large number of eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Unlike bacteria andarchaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells. The nucleus is an organelle that houses the DNA that makes up a cell'sgenome. DNA itself is arranged in [39] complex chromosomes. Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as they are the site of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. They evolved from symbiotic bacteria [40] and retain a remnant genome. Like bacteria, plant cells have cell walls, and contain organelles such as chloroplasts in addition to the organelles in other eukaryotes. Chloroplasts [40] produce energy from light by photosynthesis, and were also originally symbiotic bacteria. Unicellular eukaryotes are those eukaryotic organisms that consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This qualification is significant since most multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell called a zygote at the beginning of their life cycles. Microbial eukaryotes can be either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have multiple cell nuclei (see coenocyte). However, not all microorganisms are unicellular as some microscopic eukaryotes are made from multiple cells.

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