'Rules of Mixtures' are mathematical expressions which give some property of the composite in terms of the properties, quantity

and arrangement of its constituents. They may be based on a number of simplifying assumptions, and their use in design should tempered with extreme caution!

For a general composite, total volume V, containing masses of constituents Ma, Mb, Mc,... the composite density is

Ma + Mb + Mc + ... Ma M b r= = + + ... V V V
In terms of the densities and volumes of the constituents:

v a ra v b r b v c rc r= + + + ... V V V

But va / V = Va is the volume fraction of the constituent a, hence:

r = Va ra + Vb r b + Vc rc + ...
For the special case of a fibre-reinforced matrix:

r = Vf rf +Vmrm = Vf rf + (1-Vf )rm = Vf ( rf - rm ) + rm

since Vf + Vm = 1

3000 2500 2000 kg/m 3 1500 1000 500 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 fibre volume fraction

rf rm

Unidirectional fibres are the simplest arrangement of fibres to analyse. They provide maximum properties in the fibre direction, but minimum properties in the transverse direction.
fibre direction

transverse direction

We expect the unidirectional composite to have different tensile moduli in different directions. These properties may be labelled in several different ways:
E1, E||

E2, E

By convention, the principal axes of the ply are labelled 1, 2, 3. This is used to denote the fact that ply may be aligned differently from the cartesian axes x, y, z.

1 2

We make the following assumptions in developing a rule of mixtures:

Fibres are uniform, parallel and continuous. Perfect bonding between fibre and matrix. Longitudinal load produces equal strain in fibre and matrix.

 A load applied in the fibre direction is shared between fibre and matrix: F1 = Ff + Fm The stresses depend on the crosssectional areas of fibre and matrix: s1A = sfAf + smAm where A (= Af + Am) is the total crosssectional area of the ply

 Applying Hookes law: E1e1 A = Efef Af + Emem Am

where Poisson contraction has been ignored

But the strain in fibre, matrix and composite are the same, so e1 = ef = em, and: E1 A = Ef Af + Em Am

Dividing through by area A: E1 = Ef (Af / A) + Em (Am / A) But for the unidirectional ply, (Af / A) and (Am / A) are the same as volume fractions Vf and Vm = 1-Vf. Hence: E1 = Ef Vf + Em (1-Vf)

E1 = Ef Vf + Em ( 1-Vf ) Note the similarity to the rules of mixture expression for density. In polymer composites, Ef >> Em, so E1 Ef Vf

Rule of mixtures tensile modulus (glass fibre/polyester)

tensile modulus (GPa) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.2 0.4 fibre volume fraction 0.6 0.8 UD biaxial CSM

Rule of mixtures tensile modulus (T300 carbon fibre)

tensile modulus (GPa) 200 150 UD 100 50 0 0 0.2 0.4 fibre volume fraction 0.6 0.8 biaxial quasi-isotropic

(source: Hull, Introduction to Composite Materials, CUP)

For the transverse stiffness, a load is applied at right angles to the fibres. The model is very much simplified, and the fibres are lumped together:
matrix
L2

fibre
Lm Lf

s2

s2

It is assumed that the stress is the same in each component (s2 = sf = sm). Poisson contraction effects are ignored.

s2
Lm Lf

s2

The total extension is d2 = df + dm, so the strain is given by: e2L2 = efLf + emLm so that e2 = ef (Lf / L2) + em (Lm / L2)

s2
Lm Lf

s2

But Lf / L2 = Vf and Lm / L2 = Vm = 1-Vf So and e2 = ef Vf + em (1-Vf) s2 / E2 = sf Vf / Ef + sm (1-Vf) / Em

s2
Lm Lf

s2

But s2 = sf = sm, so that:

1 Vf (1 - Vf ) = + E 2 Ef Em

or

Ef E m E2 = EmVf + Ef (1 - Vf )

Rule of mixtures - transverse modulus (glass/epoxy)

16 14 E2 (GPa) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 fibre volume fraction

If Ef >> Em, E2 Em / (1-Vf)

Note that E2 is not particularly sensitive to Vf. If Ef >> Em, E2 is almost independent of fibre property:

Rule of mixtures - transverse modulus

16 14 12 E2 (GPa) 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 fibre volume fraction

carbon/epoxy

glass/epoxy

The transverse modulus is dominated by the matrix, and is virtually independent of the reinforcement.

The transverse rule of mixtures is not particularly accurate, due to the simplifications made - Poisson effects are not negligible, and the strain distribution is not uniform:
(source: Hull, Introduction to Composite Materials, CUP)

Many theoretical studies have been undertaken to develop better micromechanical models (eg the semiempirical Halpin-Tsai equations). A simple improvement for transverse modulus is
Ef E m E2 = EmVf + Ef (1 - Vf ) Em where Em = 2 1-nm

E = hL ho Ef Vf + Em (1-Vf )
hL is a length correction factor. Typically, hL 1 for fibres longer than about 10 mm. ho corrects for non-unidirectional reinforcement:
unidirectional biaxial biaxial at 45 o random (in-plane) random (3D) ho 1.0 0.5 0.25 0.375 0.2

tanh(bL / 2) hL = 1 (bL / 2)
1 0.9 length correction factor 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0

8Gm b= E f D2 ln(2R D)

Theoretical length correction factor for glass fibre/epoxy, assuming inter-fibre separation of 20 D.

0.5

1 fibre length (mm)

1.5

For aligned short fibre composites (difficult to achieve in polymers!), the rule of mixtures for modulus in the fibre direction is:

E = LEfVf + Em( 1 - Vf )
The length correction factor (hL) can be derived theoretically. Provided L > 1 mm, hL > 0.9 For composites in which fibres are not perfectly aligned the full rule of mixtures expression is used, incorporating both hL and ho.

In short fibre-reinforced thermosetting polymer composites, it is reasonable to assume that the fibres are always well above their critical length, and that the elastic properties are determined primarily by orientation effects. The following equations give reasonably accurate estimates for the isotropic in-plane elastic constants:

E = 3 E1 + 5 E 2 8 8
G = E1 + E 2
1 8 1 4

n=

where E1 and E2 are the UD values calculated earlier

Rule of mixtures tensile modulus (glass fibre/polyester)

tensile modulus (GPa) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.2 0.4 fibre volume fraction 0.6 0.8 UD biaxial CSM

Rule of mixtures tensile modulus (T300 carbon fibre)

tensile modulus (GPa) 200 150 UD 100 50 0 0 0.2 0.4 fibre volume fraction 0.6 0.8 biaxial quasi-isotropic

Larsson & Eliasson, Principles of Yacht Design

Larsson & Eliasson, Principles of Yacht Design

 Shear modulus:

1 Vf (1 - Vf ) = + G12 Gf Gm
n 12 = n fVf + n m (1 - Vf )

Poissons ratio: Thermal expansion:

1 a1 = (a f EfVf + a mEm [1 - Vf ]) E1 a 2 = a fVf (1 + n f ) + a m (1 - Vf )(1 + n m ) - a1n 12