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DEFINITION
Vibration is oscillating motion of a particle or body about a fixed reference point. Such motion may be simple harmonic (sinusoidal) or complex (non-sinusoidal).

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QUANTIFYING VIBRATION AMPLITUDE

Peak Level Peak - To Peak Average (Rectified) RMS
PEAK TO PEAK AVERAGE t PEAK LEVEL RMS

Takes into account the time history of vibration. RMS = (1/T)0 x2(t)dt Average = (1/T)0 |x|dt
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1 T

UNITS OF VIBRATION
a) ACCELERATION, measured in g or [m/s2] ; b) VELOCITY, measured in [m/s]; c) DISPLACEMENT, measured in [m].
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CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION
Vibration may be characterized by : a)the frequency in Hz; b) the amplitude of the measured parameter, which may be displacement, velocity, or acceleration. Normally referred to as the vibration amplitude when expressed in units, but vibration level when expressed in decibels.
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DECIBEL NOTATION APPLIED TO VIBRATION MEASUREMENT

Because of the wide range of vibration amplitudes found in engineering, it is convenient to express the measured amplitude in DECIBELS with reference to a fixed value. Reference values which are internationally accepted are as follows: a) for velocity, the reference is 10-3m/s ; b) for acceleration, the reference is 10-5 m/s2.
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Contd.
If Measured amplitude is A1 and Reference amplitude is A0, the vibration level expressed in decibels is : 20log10 A1/A0 dB Eg: If acceleration amplitude of a vibrational body is 2g, acceleration vibration level (2 x 9.81) m/s2 = 20log10 = 125.8 dB
10-5 m/s2
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VIBRATION PARAMETERS

Assuming that the vibration is simple harmonic motion, then displacement x = A sin wt velocity v = Aw cos wt acceleration a = -Aw2 sin wt Where: w = 2 f rad/s f = frequency of vibration in Hz Frequencies are the same in each case, although there is a phase shift. The amplitudes of the above parameters are thus displacement amplitude = A velocity amplitude = Aw acceleration amplitude = Aw2
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CHOOSING PARAMETER
The choice of the best parameter depends on a number factors: a) the frequency and amplitude characteristics of the vibration, b) the mass of the vibrating structure, and c) the type and size of the transducer available.
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Contd.
If the velocity, acceleration, and displacement amplitudes are measured at various frequencies, the resulting graphs of amplitude vs. frequency are referred to as the vibration spectra, and the shape of graphs are referred to as the spectral shapes.

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Contd.
Eg: Each have different average slopes. Their peaks occur at the same frequencies. The amplitude range required to display the velocity spectrum is the smallest and thus occupies the least dynamic range.
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Contd.
All the frequency components on the velocity curve need a smaller relative change before they begin to influence the overall vibration level. The low frequency acceleration and high frequency displacement components need to exhibit much larger changes before they influence the overall vibration level. Display in turn each of the three parameters and choose the one which has the flattest spectrum. This will enable one to detect machine faults, which produce an increase in vibration level, at an early stage.
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EFFECT OF THE TRANSDUCER ON THE VIBRATING STRUCTURE

In general, the larger the mass of the vibration transducer, the greater its sensitivity. Unfortunately, the addition of the transducer's mass (m1) to the mass (m0) of the vibrating structure changes the resonant frequency of the vibrating system as follows:

where f1 = resonant frequency of the structure with the mass added and f0 = resonant frequency of the structure before the transducer is added.
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VIBRATION-MEASURING DEVICES The Non Contact Type Method

Eddy Current Laser Doppler Vibrometer Capacitive

The Seismic-Mass Transducer

Displacement Pick-Up Velocity Pick-Up Acceleration Pick-Up
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The sensor is fixed to the bearing housing. A gap, is produced between the end of the sensor and the shaft. A coil with cable capacitance of the measuring lead is fed to the natural frequency of the tuned circuit by the matching unit. Through the alternating electromagnetic field, eddy current is induced in the metal object being measured, This current becomes greater, the smaller the distance between the coil and the object.
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EDDY PROBE

Contd.
The resultant modulated signal is separated from the high frequency carrier voltage, is linearized and converted by an output amplifier into a load independent voltage proportional to the distance. The level of the direct voltage is a measure of the mean distance between sensor and shaft, while the superimposed alternating value corresponds to the relative shaft vibration. The connecting lead between the sensor and the matching unit affects the measurement. It is therefore permanently connected to the sensor and must not be shorted.
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Laser Doppler Vibrometer

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SEISMIC-MASS TRANSDUCER
The seismic mass is a body of metal, suspended from a resilient support. Deflection of support is proportional to the force applied to it. The inertia of the seismic mass causes it to lag behind the motion of the casing when the casing is accelerated, causing a deflection in the support. This deflection forms the input to a transducer, which produces a proportional output signal.
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SEISMIC-MASS TRANSDUCER

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Contd.
By choosing suitable values for the mass, the stiffness of the support and the damping, and by using an appropriate transducer, the same basic arrangement of seismic pickup can be designed as a displacement pickup, a velocity pickup or an acceleration pickup (accelerometer). The seismic pickup is essentially a damped spring-mass system, and will have a natural frequency of vibration given by:

where wn is the natural angular frequency (rad/s) is the spring stiffness (N/m) n is the mass (kg).
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DISPLACEMENT PICKUPS
Have a relatively large seismic mass and a relatively resilient support. This gives a low value of wn to the spring-mass system. Figure 5 shows the frequency response of such a pickup with various values of damping ratio .

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Contd.
For w/wn >> 1, the displacement of the seismic mass relative to the casing is practically equal to the displacement applied to the casing. Displacements will be nearly 180o out of phase with each other. The casing moves in one direction, the seismic mass moves in the opposite direction relative to it it virtually stands still. = 0.707 gives the least variation of displacement ratio for values of (w/wn) > 1). At this value of we can bring (w/wn) down to about 1.75 before the error in displacement measurement exceeds 5%. So displacement pickups are often designed to have a damping ratio of about 0.7.
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Contd.

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VELOCITY PICKUPS
A signal proportional to velocity may be obtained from a vibration by: 1) differentiating the signal from a displacement pickup by passing it through a differentiating circuit. 2) integrating the signal from an accelerometer by passing it through an integrating circuit. 3) using a seismic velocity pickup.
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Contd.
Integrating from an accelerometer gives much more accurate result than differentiating from a displacement pickup, because differentiation amplifies any errors in the signal, whereas integration diminishes them.
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Contd.
Designed to have a low value of wn operate at angular frequencies well above wn the motion of the seismic mass is virtually the same as that of the casing.

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Contd.
When coupling the seismic sensor to the vibrating structural element, a relative movement is generated between permanent magnet and plunger coil. A voltage is induced in the coil which is proportional to the vibration velocity. e = b.l.v Where e = induced voltage. b = magnetic induction of permanent magnet. l = length of conductors in the plunger coil. v = speed of vibration
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The frequency response of the absolute vibration sensor is shown

v
mV 20

rms

= 1mm/s

rms

02

22

10

14

100

1000hZ

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ACCELERATION PICKUPS (ACCELEROMETERS)

At w/wn << 1 the displacement of the seismic mass relative to the casing tends to zero. The seismic mass is accelerating with the same acceleration as the casing. To give it these accelerations, corresponding forces must be applied by the spring because: force = mass x acceleration.
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Contd.

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Contd.
For < 1.0, seismic accelerometer will give accurate readings of acceleration for w/wn = 0 to 0.2. At = 0.7 accurate measurement up to w/wn = 0.5. Most accelerometers, however, use a piezoelectric crystal as a combined 'spring' and transducer, and for crystal 0. Frequency response of a piezoelectric accelerometer can be assumed to be that shown by the curve for = 0.01
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THE PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER

Relatively robust and reliable so that its characteristics remain stable over a long period of time The piezoelectric accelerometer is self-generating, so that it doesn't need a power supply No moving parts to wear out
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Contd.
Material: Piezoelectric Material, i.e., polarized ferroelectric ceramic. Type: Compression Shear Bending

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COMPRESSION ACCELEROMETER

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SHEAR ACCELEROMETER

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BENDING/TENSION ACCELEROMETER

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ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE

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Contd.

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Contd.

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VIBRATION AND THE HUMAN BODY

EFFECTS: BLURRED VISION LOSS OF BALANCE LOSS OF CONCENTRATION DAMAGE TO INTERNAL ORGANS WHITE FINGER SYNDROME
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VIBRATION SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

A A A

t A White noise A

t A

f An Impulse KNOWLEDGE TEAM C&I

1/T

f A Wide Pulse

1/T

f A Wider Pulse

FFT SIGNAL PROCESSING

Amplitude
Tim e

Amplitude

Amplitude

Tim e

y nc ue eq Fr

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Contd.
Vibration Frequency in Hz/CPS can be expressed in CPM as: CPM = Hertz x 60 Seconds/Minute If a m/c has z RPM and vibration frequency is z CPM then it is called 1X component, i.e., z CPM = 1X m/c RPM Similarly 2z, 3z CPM are 2X, 3X components respectively and so on.

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Contd.
Unbalance => 1X component in horizontal and vertical direction Looseness, misalignment, resonance and reciprocating forces => 2X, 3X and higher multiples. Problems with gears usually result in vibration at frequencies related to the "gear mesh" frequency or the product of the number of teeth on the gear multiplied by the gear RPM. Aerodynamic and hydraulic problems with fans and pumps will normally show vibration frequencies that are the product of the m/c RPM times the number of fan blades or impeller vanes. This is also called Blade Pass Frequency.
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HEALING BEARING
A

t A

Fault Increase => Pulse T increase => Decaying White Noise => No More Frequency to Excite Accelerometer => Healing. But Bearing approaching failure.
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PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Velocity (mm/s)
PEAK 0.40 0.64 1.0 1.58 2.5 4.0 6.4 10.0 15.8 25.0 40.0 64
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Machine Classes
I A

RMS 0.25 0.45 0.71 1.12 1.8 2.8 4.5 7.1 11.2 18.0 28 45

II

III

IV

A
B

A B A B C B C D D C D

C D

MACHINE CLASSES
CLASS I CLASS II
Small Sized Machine (Production electrical motors up to 15 KW) Medium Sized Machine (Electrical motor 1575 KW) without special foundations. Rigidly mounted engines or machines (up to 300 KW) on special foundations with rotating mass mounted on rigid & heavy foundations which are relatively stiff in the direction of Vibration measurement

CLASS III Large Prime movers and other large machine

CLASS IV Large Prime movers and other large machine

with rotating mass mounted on foundations which are relatively soft in the direction of Vibration measurement (Eg: Turbo generator) Reciprocating machines on Soft & Hard foundationsHeavy Grinding Mills, Vibrating Screen, System with unbalanceable Inertia effects

CLASS V

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THANKS
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