Land Reforms: At the time of independence, the land tenure system was characterised by intermediaries (variously called zamindars,

jagirdars etc.) who merely collected rent from the actual tillers of the soil without contributing towards improvements on the farm. The low productivity of the agricultural sector forced India to import food from the United States of America (U.S.A.).

1.Land ceiling was another policy to promote equity in the agricultural sector.

This means fixing the maximum size of land which could be owned by an individual. The surplus land would be taken up by the state and allotted to small propritors or landless labourers. The purpose of land ceiling was to reduce the concentration of land ownership in a few hands. The legislation on the Ceiling on land holdings came into existence during the fifties itself but it varied a great deal from state to state. For example, the Telengana region in Andhara Pradesh, the Marathwada in Maharashtra and Kamataka part of Mysore proposed ceiling on a land holding yielding net income of Rs. 3000 per annum which in terms of size worked out between 18 to 27 acres. In Punjab ceiling was imposed at the level of 30 standard acres (with irrigation facilities) and 60 dry acres. For the displaced persons the limit was of 50 irrigated and 100 dry acres. Kerala imposed ceiling at the level ranging between 15 to 30 acres depending upon the quality of land. In Uttar Pradesh the range of ceiling was between 40 to 80 acres once again based on the variety of land. This position of the ceilings during the fifties was further revised and in most states the level was further reduced. 2.The abolition of intermediaries meant that some 200 lakh tenants came into direct contact with the government they were thus freed from being exploited by the zamindars. The ownership conferred on tenants gave them the incentive to increase output and this contributed to growth in agriculture. 3.Tenancy reforms: tenancy cultivation may be carried out by small proprietors who find that they have insufficient land for cultivation or by landless labours. About 1/5 of the total land was under tenancy in 1994. Steps taken: Regulation of rent: rent should be 1/5 of the total produce. Security of Tenure: resumption of land may be taken up by the owner for personal cultivation only.

Problems with the land reforms:

There were cases where tenants were evicted and the landowners claimed to be selfcultivators (the actual tillers), thus claiming ownership of the land. The big landlords challenged the legislation in the courts, delaying its implementation. Transfer of land among family members, thereby escaping from the legislation. Benami transfer of land, which have not been made through registered document. Compensation and allotment of surplus land had to paid at market price as per the judgemnt of SC.