1. The History of Audiovisual Translation.

The dawn of audiovisual translation, according to OConnell (2007: 121-122), was in the early years of the 20th century when silent movies were produced. Those films used intertitles which may be viewed as the direct forerunners of subtitles (OConnell, 2007:122) if there was something a character had to say, the screen went blank and sentences appeared conveying characters utterance. This way of expressing actors words was very convenient as intertitles could easily be translated or removed. (Ivarsson, 1992: 15). Hovewer, such solution was only a mere substitute for narration and dialogue. To give the audience a better glimpse at emotional states of characters and more complex action occuring in a movie, cinemas tended to provide a commentator whose task was to guide the audience through intricate patterns of a movie plot (DreyerSfard, 1965: 1034). Dubbing and subtitling became popular in Europe after the World War I. The United States had been scarcely involved in the fightings, when compared to European countries, and therefore saved more money that could be spent on audiovisual productions. Those events were accompanied by the emergence of the talkies movies in which voices of actors were heard. The new type of movie gradually replaced silent movies in cinemas and was a direct cause of launching audiovisual translation. It also triggered the decline in movies productions in smaller and poorer countries that could not afford to produce many talkies as it was more profitable to them to import the Hollywood ones. (OConnell, 2007: 122). There were two ways of translating American movies. The first one, dubbing, was employed by wealthier European countries, while the other one, subtitling, was used by their less abundant neighbours. This situation may serve as the explanation of national screen translation preferences that still hold today (OConnell, 2007: 122). 1.1 Audiovisual Translation Today Jorge Diaz Cintas and Gunilla Anderman write in the Introduction to Audiovisual Translation: Language Transfer on Screen that in the 21st century, we are exposed to the media to a much greater extent than ever before. The rapid development of the media has largely contributed to the increased need for audiovisual translation. New television

channels appear on a daily basis offering more and more diversified range of programms to meet the needs of the audience. The cinema has returned to its days of glory and once again attracts a significant number of movie amateurs. Combining those two factors with the arrival of DVD and the Internet deeply rooted in the society, it is more than clear why the demand for audiovisual translation has expanded. There are also less popular forms of entertainment such as the opera, the theatre and a number of other live events that may require implementing translation in the form of surtitles (translation of the words of a foreign opera (or choral work) projected on a screen above the stage). People with sensory impairments have broader access to audiovisual productions as well by subtitling or audio description. Along with the increasing number of TV channels, the number of TV programms that need to be translated has also grown larger. Subjects range from cookery, travel, DIY, fashion, interviews, gardening and award ceremonies to political speeches. (J. D. Cintas, G. Anderman, 2009: 3). The rising demand for audiovisual translation resulted in its sharp development at academic level. It has become a very thriving discipline requiring constant research. Times when a translator learnt their skills only at work have been forgotten and now there is several courses in audiovisual translation. 1.2 The Notion of Subtitling Subtitling is one of the most common methods used in translating audiovisual productions. Leonardo Jordo Coelh, in his article Subtitling and Dubbing: Restrictions and Priorities, published in the Internet on http://www.translationdirectory.com/article326.htm, defines subtitles as the process of providing synchronised captions for film and television dialogue (and more recently for live opera). The definition might be elaborated on the basis of Subtitling by Henrik Gottlieb in Routledge Encyklopedia of Translation Studies (M. Baker, 2001: 244-249) that characterizes subtitling on the basis of semiotic composition and time and duration. As far as the first criterion is concerned, subtitling is regarded as a diasemiotic type of translation since in movies there are four channels of perception that overlap and appear simultaneously. The channels include:
a) the verbal auditory channel, including dialogue, background voices, and sometimes lyrics b) the non-verbal auditory channel, including music, natural sound and sound effects

c) the verbal visual channel, including superimposed titles and written signs on the screen d) the non-verbal visual channel: picture composition and flow. M. Baker (2001: 245)

The time factor includes time in which a text is produced and presented to the TL audience. It is perceived as a point in the continuum from the past to the present (M. Baker 2001: 245). The notion of duration is reserved for so-called continous time time that can be described as a line rather than a point. Henrik Gottlieb enumerates three points in time that play a role of definers in the field of audiovisual translation:
a) T1, time for production of the original b) T2, time for presentation of the original (at least its visual side) c) T3, time for presentation of the translation M. Baker (2001: 245)

Subtitling is said to be synchronous, which means that T1 is occuring first and T2 and T3 are identical with eachother. There is one exceptions to this rule in case of subtitling when the process becomes non synchronous: T1 and T2 are the same and T3 is different from T2. This type of subtitling is referred to as the simultaneous one. This mode is used mainly in news broadcasts and is designed for deaf people (M. Baker, 2001: 246) (Full typology of translation is available at the end of this paper). Subtitling might be also categorised in the following ways: From a linguistic point of view this audiovisual translation method might be divided into intralingual and interlingual. The former works within a scope of one language when a translation for the deaf or hard of hearing is required. It may also include subtitling foreign programmes for learning purposes. Intralingual subtitling is described as vertical since it changes modes from speech to writing but everything is done within a field of one language. Contrary to intralingual subtitling, the interlingual one involves changing speech in a source language (SL) into a written form in a target language (TL) and is referred to as the diagonal type of subtitling (M. Baker, 2001: 247). The last division can be made on a clearly technical basis. Subtitles can be segregated into open (not optional) that include cinema subtitles and interlingual television subtitles. Open subtitles are transmited terrestrially and cannot be removed from a screen by a viewer. The other type of subtitles - closed (optional, teletext) consists of subtitles for the deaf that may be chosen and removed by a viewer at any time and interlingual

television subtitles that are transmitted via satellite and enable various speech communities to listen to altered versions of one programme at the same time (M. Baker, 2001: 247). 1.3 Process of Creating Subtitles Due to the fact that subtitling is a type of audiovisual production, translators role is not limited solely to preparing TL subtitles. Tomaszkiewicz (2008:115) divides the process of creating subtitles into several stages. The starting point of production of subtitles is gathering information about a film or programm to be translated. The data includes such things as the title, date, name of the distributor/ producer, etc. After the first stage is completed, the compliance of the original with the dialogue list or screenplay should be verified. If the verification is not possible, translators duty is to prepare a dialogue transcription. Next task of a translator is to draw up a copy of the script with annotations concerning the context of utterances as well as its intonation. After this, comes a phase of describing a dialogue list with information about time in which each utterance should appear and the length of its appearance on the screen. The following stage is referred to by Tomaszkiewicz (2008:115) as the phase of adaptation and, translation and subtitles composition [my translation]: A translator starts with an intralingual translation from oral to written mode to finally arrive at TL translation and adjust the newly created version to the technical constraints analysed in section 1.3. Completion of this phase marks the time when movie technicians are employed to adjust the timing of display subtitles on the screen. Before presenting the translated movie or program to the employer, final visualisation and correction is necessary to eliminate the mistakes that might have been overlooked in the previous stages. Two last stages proposed by Tomaszkiewicz (2008:115) are the acceptance of the product by the customer and launching mass production.

1.4 Technical Restraints in Subtitling Since subtitling deals with movies and all other programms displayed on TV, it is obvious that there are certain limitations a translator is exposed to. The first one concerns the speed with which a viewer is able to read a subtitle. Katia Spanakaki (2007) in her

article

Translating

Humor

for

Subtitling

published

in

the

Internet

on

http://accurapid.com/journal/40humor.htm quotes H.Gottlieb (1992:164) who proposed that the average time of reading two lines of subtitles consisting of up to 35 characters for each line including punctuation and spaces ranges from 5 to 6 seconds. The constraints mentioned above are further confirmed by Tomaszkiewicz in Przekad audiowizualny (2008: 113) by quoting Luyken and others (1991: 44) who categorised subtitling technical restraints dividing them into space on the screen subtitles may occupy it is said that the maximum length of a subtitle should not extend two lines with number of characters for each line ranging from 32 to 40; time in which subtitles may appear it has been estimated that a subttitle should not appear on the screen for longer than 6 seconds since a viewer displays a tendency to read it twice but, at the same time, a subtitle has to be visible for no less than 1.5 second so that a viewer was able to notice it; sequences in which subtitles appear and dissolve there is a rule that a subtitle should appear on the screen 0.25 second before it is actually uttered and should disappear when there is a change of the screen so that a viewer do not have the impression of reading one subtitle twice; graphic aspect of subtitles. Speaking of the latter, there are certain rules according to which subtitles are highlighted (M. Garcarz: 2008): a) two seperated sentence, i.e. Original: All right, all right. Calm down. Look, it's not that bad. Subtitles: Ju dobrze, uspokj si. / Nie jest tak le. b) superordinate and subordinate clause, i.e., Original: Oh, I understand. Like you said, Who could love a hideous, ugly beast?. Subtitles: Rozumiem. Tak jak powiedziaa,/ kto by pokocha paskudn besti
c)

negation and verb i.e.,

Original: But I thought that wouldnt matter to you. Subtitles: Mylaam, e tobie to/ nie przeszkadza.
d)

preposition and noun i.e.,

Original: I just know before this is over, Im gonna need a whole lot of serious therapy. Subtitles: Skocz przez nich/ w wariatkowie.

e)

two coordinate sentences i.e.,

Original: You are mean to me. You insult me and you don't appreciate anything that I do! Subtitles: Jeste niedobry. Obraasz mnie i/ nie doceniasz moich stara. Apart from the above, subtitles undergo several modifications in order to possess the feature of readability. Those adjustments concern appearance of subtitles and include the position of line breaks, the number and length of lines, the use of punctuation marks, the color and size of the font, typeface, and timing (Katia Spanakaki, 2007). Achieving readability is also the cause of quantitative and qualitative changes.The former include simplified vocabulary and syntax, joining short dialogues into one as well as deletions, while the latter consist of neutralisation of the language filled with expressions characteristic of certain group of people or reflecting different character traits and states of mind to the more standard one, which may result in the audience having difficulties to recognize real personal features of a character appearing in a movie. Furthermore, being a type of linguistic transfer, subtitling undergoes several synchronisation constraints. K.Spakanaki recalls Mailhac (2000: 129-131) to enumerate the following list of problems to be encountered in the process of subtitling:
a) the medium changes from oral to written, that is "video and television subtitling normally require larger fonts and therefore allow fewer characters b) the linguistic transfer is constrained by the length and structure of utterances c) link to visuals d) frame changes "since they can divert the attention of the viewer away from the subtitles" e) the viewers' reading speed, which varies according to their degree of literacy and according to whether it is a cinema audience or a television/video one, which carries implications in terms of the age range Katia Spanakaki (2007)

Last but no least constraint to be mentioned is the prohibition of using translators note or footnotes in subtitltles. It might make the whole process much more complicated especially when there are elements of source language (SL) lacking direct equivalents in target language (TL). One of such elements might be the so-called Extralinguistic Culture Bound References (ECR). These include all the expressions refering to people,

customs, institutions, places etc., that may impair the understanding of a movie by a viewer. To avoid this, a subtitler has to bridge the gap between source text (ST) and target text (TT) audience. Jan Pedersen (2008: 102-104) lists the strategies that are very helpful while tackling cultural differences in subtitling. The strategies include: minimum change, which is divided into three smaller constituents, namely:
a) Official Equivalent. Either through common usage or by some administrative decision, a Source Culture ECR may have an Official TL Equivalent. In these cases, the obvious strategy is to use this equivalent b) Retention. Here the ST ECR is retained unchanged, or slightly adapted to meet TL requirements, in the subtitle. c) Direct Translation. With this strategy, the only feature that gets changed is the language; no semantic alteration is made. Proper nouns are rarely translated, but direct translation may be used e.g. for names of government agencies. J. Pedersen (2008: 103)

and interventional strategies consisting of three different types:

a) Specification. More information is added, making the subtitled ECR more specific than the ST ECR. This is done by completing a name or an acronym (Completion) or by adding more semantic content, such as adding someones occupation or an evaluative adjective (Addition). b) Generalization. This strategy makes the subtitle less specific than the ST ECR. It can be done either by using a Hypernym, a Holonym or a Paraphrase. c) Substitution. The ST ECR is replaced by another ECR, either from the Source Culture or the Target Culture. Alternatively, the ST ECR can be replaced with something totally different that fits the situation. J. Pedersen (2008: 104)

Above strategies are complemented by omission that aims at leaving out all the elements that are impossible or difficult to translate. (The chart version of Pedersens strategies is available at the end of this paper) There are many other distinctions of strategies employed by subtitlers made by scholars, i.e., Susana Jaskanen recalls Henry Gottlieb (1992) who formulated the following strategies: expansion, paraphrase, transfer, imitation, transcription, dislocation, condensation, decimation, deletion and resignation. However, the postulates made by Gottlieb are criticized by Jaskanen who is of opinion that, when carefully investigated,

the strategies overlap and are not fully objective. According to Jaskanen (1999: 11), Gottliebs points might serve as an interesting starting-point for assessing the transfer and loss of information in subtitling rather than a possible solution for subtitlers. 1.5 The Notion of Dubbing. Dubbing is another type of audiovisual translation that, along with subtitling, has proved to be the most popular and widespread. It it the process involving replacing the original soundtrack containing actors dialogue with a target language (TL) recording that reproduces the original message, while at the same time ensuring that the TL sounds and actors lip movements are more or less synchronised (J.D. Cintas, 2003 :195) Mona Baker and Brano Hochel, following House (1981), state that dubbing is an instance of overt translation, which entails that a dubbed production is always viewed as a translation. Dubbing might also be described as an isosemiotic translation since it uses the channels of perception identical with the one employed by the original and as a synchronous translation for the reasons given in the section 1.2 (Full typology of translation is available at the end of this paper). 1.6 Process of Creating Dubbing Similar to the case of subtitles, dubbing creating process is also complex and requires several stages to be followed before the end product is thrown on the market. Tomaszkiewicz (2008: 106) recalls the stages invented and developed by Luyken and others (1991). According to them, the process of creating dubbing is divided into: recording most essential information about a movie or programm to be dubbed; verification of the original movie with the dialogue list; recording of pre-version(?) containing the time code; marking the beginning and the ending of each utterance on the dialogue list; the adaptation of the first translation version; selection of the actors with regard of their timbre of voice, intonation, etc.; recording of actors voices; preliminary mixing and editing of the soundtrack; final mixing of the soundtrack including voices, music and other sounds; the acceptance of the product by the costumer and launching mass production [My translation].

1.7 Technical Constraints in Dubbing The issue that is bound to cause problems when approaching a dubbing translation is undoubtedly the question of synchronisation. Frederic Chaume Varela (2004) perceives it as a factor of utmost importance with regard to the study of audiovisual translation that has an unavoidable and direct influence on the process itself as well as on its final product. A translator is obliged to use his creative skills to maximum in order to achieve a desirable goal, which is a movie translation which sounds more like an adaptation. As the audiovisual translation study develops, several approaches to dubbing and synchronisation enumerated by Chaume Varela (2004: 1-4) has been proposed: a) Professional approach This approach results from earlier years when there was no audiovisual translation study as such. All knowledge was limited to experience of people working in this field. According to this approach, good synchronisation is achieved when dialogues heard on the screen do not give the audience the impression of being a translation but, conversely, all the target language elements appear to be uttered by actors starring in a movie. Key aspects of the professional approach are lip synchrony (correspondence both to the screen characters movements of the lips chaume varela) and isosynchrony (correspondence to the duration of the screen characters utterance, from the instant his or her mouth opens to speak to the instant it shuts Chaume Varela, 2004: 1). The professional angle is lacking in theory, which is quite understandable as it is primarily concerned with satisfying the clients needs, which gives it more pragmatic and functional value. It stresses the role of the dialogue writers and the dubbing directors, painting them as people responsible for synchronisation process. b) Functional approach Chaume Varela (2004: 3) claims that the functional approach presupposes that the prime aim and function of the audiovisual text translation is mainly to entertain the audience. To achieve this, it is essential to make the audience not to be distracted from a movie by any technical flaws of the production. Similar to the professional approach, the functional one favours synchronisation as the tool to achieving the

ultimate goal of audiovisual translation. The main difference between the two methods is that whereas professionals depend completely on their experience, functionalists put the whole issue of dubbing and synchronisation under scrutiny. It was Fodor (1976), the representative of this school, who developped the so-called visual phonetics and analysed and described different types of synchronisation. Although the validity of some of his finding in practice may be quuestioned, he is recognized as a pioneer of audiovisual translation studies. c) Polysystemic approach As Chaume Varela (2004: 4) states, in this method, synchronisation is considered to be a dubbing technique acting in response to certain economic and socio-political realities. Polysystemic researchers are concerned with the customs present in the target cultures rather than the function of the translation itself. Dubbing is seen as the process of adaptation, which is achieved with help of visual synchrony. Polysystemic approach does not deal with the quality of synchronisation or potential obstacles a translator may encounter along the way. It does explain the function of synchronisation in the target polysystem as well as the reasons and time when its employment is essential to the future success of the translation. As it might be seen, the whole aspect of dubbing and synchronisation is very complex and there a many different method of solving the conundrum. Similarly, the division of types of synchronisation also varies as diffrent scholars have different views on that matter. Frederic Chaume Varela (2004: 5) distinguishes three basic types of synchronisation including lip synchronisation (or lip sync), which deals with adjusting the translation to moves of actors lips; kinetic synchrony, which deals with characters body language and the translation (negations, assents might need to be orally reflected on the screen); isochrony, which is responsible for the adjustment of the time of the utterances. Whitman-Linsen (1992: 57) further divided lip synchronisation into presynchronisation using prerecorded elements on the movie soundtrack, direct synchronisation simultaneous recording of voice and picture and postsynchronisation involving the recording/addition of sound after visual images have been shot (E. OConnell 2007: 124). Fodors (1976:10) division of lip-sync includes phonetic synchrony concerned with sounds and lip movements; character synchrony matching the dubbing voice (timbre,

tempo, etc.) and the original actor's physique and manner and gestures (E. OConnell 2007: 130) and content synchrony matching the semantic content of the original and dubbed script versions closely (E. OConnell 2007: 130). Whitman-Linsen (1992: 19) typology of dubbing synchrony splits into visual/optical synchrony, which consists of lip synchrony, syllable synchrony and kinetic synchrony; audio/ acoustic synchrony, which includes prosodic elements, idiosyncratic vocal type as well as cultural specifics; content synchrony, which refers to all the potential obstacles to be encountered in the dubbing process (E. OConnell 2007: 130). As it is clearly noticeable, dubbing synchrony may be categorised in various ways. However, the division that is today regarded as binding is the one proposed by Frederic Chaume Varela (2004: 5).

2. Language Changes of the Original Text So far, technical aspects of dubbing and subtitling have been discussed. Now it is time to see how all the rules and constraints mentioned in Chapter 1 work in practice. Selected extracts from movies entitled Shrek and Ice Age have been taken to present the differences and similarities between dubbing and subtitling.

It should be kept in mind that audiovisual translation, must not be limited to the solutions used in other translation types, as in movies or TV programms, there are much more semiotic elements cooperating with each other than just a text (including sound, picture, and music). It is also important that a translator would not neglect other information appearing on the screen in the form of writing (e.g. city names, dates, etc.) (Tomaszkiewicz: 2006: 126). All the elements mentioned above have to be taken into consideration by a translator whose task is to decide which of those can be omitted or altered. A translator uses his common knowledge in order to dispose of the parts which are redundant or without which understanding of a movie would not be too complicated. 2.1 Redundancy of Specific Elements Tomaszkiewicz (2006: 127) defines redundancy as a surplus of information formulated in a particular language code. The length of a redundant code influences the length of an utterance making it easier to be understood by the audience since it enables a translator to elaborate and adjust language elements to the requirements of TL. A typical example when a translator may ommit a redundant element might be a sentence I feel good. There is no need to translate the pronoun I since Polish verbs are inflected for person, therefore the Polish equivalent would be Czuj si dobrze. However, as Tomaszkiewicz (2006: 127) warns any potential translator, redundancy is fundamental in successful communication, for there are numerous possible obstacles to be encountered while communicating (e.g. distracted attention of the receiver, poor audibility, too hig speed of utterances, etc.) The obstacle requiring special care from a translator is different cognitive knowledge of the receivers what is obvious for someone might be a total mystery for somebody else. It is essential that a translator should not overused the omittion of redundant elements since it may cause the audience to feel at a loss while watching a movie. Tomaszkiewicz (2006: 128) stresses the fact that in audiovisual translation the basic unit of the text is a word exchange consisting of an utterance and response rather than a sentence as in other traslation genres. This exchange is called adjacency pair, as coined by Sacks and others (1974). Instances of adjacency pair include greeting greeting, question answer, offer acceptance, apology acceptance, etc. The characteristic feature of adjacency pair is that it is very common throughout society and therefore it

sometimes might be redundant to translate the two elements of it. Instead, a translator my join the pair into one utterance, which is often employed in the case of subtitling when the space for transfering the message is limited. The rest of this subchapter shall be devoted to examples of application of redundancy in practice. a) Redundancy in questions Ex. 1 Original: - Now why dont you go celebrate your freedom with your own friends? Hmm? Subtitles: - Wic id uczci swoj wolno/ z wasnymi przyjacimi. Dubbing: - To moe id si ni cieszy w gronie przyjaci. In this example both translators decided that using a question is redundant. However when the sentence in subtitles is clearly declarative, the one in dubbing might be transformed into interrogative one with proper use of intonation. Ex. 2 Original: - Oh, no, no, no. Dead broad off the table.
-

Where are we supposed to put her? The beds taken.

Subtitles: - Nie, nie Zabiera mi tego trupa! - W ku nie ma ju miejsca. Dubbing: - O nie, nie, nie, denatk jazda mi ze stou. - To gdzie j mamy pooy? ko ju zajte. The difference illustrated in this example results from the limited amount of space subtitles may occupy. In some cases translators have to join a question and the following part into one declarative spaces. On the other hand, dubbing fully reflects what is said in the original. Other instances of redundancy of question include the possibility of omitting the answer when it is obvious when the context is known or the question is purely rhetorical: Ex. 3 Original: -Now? Subtitles: -Teraz -Now --------

Dubbing: -Teraz? Ex. 4 Original: -Wow, really? Subtitles: -Powanie? D: -Serio?

-Teraz.

-No -----Nie.

In the examples above, the subtitles version is lacking the answer to the question since it can easily be guessed by a viewer. On the other hand the dubbing translation includes the answers as it would be strange when the characters lips move and produce no utterance at all. This would seem artificial and unnatural and could distract attention from the movie. As there is no question tags as such in Polish, it is also possible that when one is used in the original in a rhetorical way the Polish version simply does not include it and the whole sentence is transformed into the declarative one. Ex. 5 Original: -You dont know much about tracking, do you? Subtitles: -Nie znacie si na tropieniu. Dubbing: -Nic nie wiecie o tropieniu. b) Conflicts As the movie plot unveils, there might be some conflicts or misunderstanding between the characters. The disagreement might be expressed simply by just saying no as in the first example or by using more complex sentences connected with the proper intonation representing disagreement as in the second example. When there is a single sign of a potential conflict between the characters, the most common solution applied by the translators seems to be just to omit the no part as it is clear from the rest of the sentence that the characters are in disagreement Ex. 1 Original: -That pink thing is mine -No. Actually, that pink thing belongs to us. Subtitles: -To rowiutkie jest moje.

-To rowiutkie naley do nas. Dubbing: -To rowe jest moje. -Konkretnie, to rowe jest nasze. When the disagreement is expressed in a more complex way, there is no other way to show it than translating it with possible paraphrase of sentences, if there is such necessity: Ex. 2 Original: -Shrek I... I wanna go with you. -I told you, didnt I? Youre not coming home with me. I live alone! Subtitles: -Chc i z tob. -Ju mwiem, id sam. Mieszkam sam. Original: -Ale Shrek, ja...ja chc i z tob. -Mwiem ci co prawda? Nie pjdziesz na moje bagno! Ja mieszkam sam! The subtitle version contains a paraphrase of the two sentences of the original employed in order not to extend the space on the screen available for subtitles. There is no exclamation mark indicating that thr conversation is rather heaten, however, it might be heard from the intonation of the characters, even though they are formulating their ideas in a foreign language. In dubbing, the conflict is faithfully reflected and all the sentences are translated due to the aspect of synchrony. The intonation pattern is also preserved. c) Repetition of interlocutors own words It is possible that in the process of formulating an utterance a sender repeats some elements giving an impression of lacking the right word or hesitating about what to say: Ex.1 Original: -Oh, oh hes just a - - Hes just a little nervous. Subtitles: -Jest tylko troch poddenerwowany. Dubbing: -Och, on si zawstydza majestatu. Ex. 2 Original: -Hey, wait. Wait up, Shrek!

Napisy: -Zaczekaj na mnie, Shrek! Dubbing: -Hej, czekaj, czekaj, ale jak to? The examples above show two approaches to dealing with such repetitions. In subtitling, omitting the part that is repeated does not violate the understanding of the message, thus it makes it not indispensable. Apart from that, the hesitation of the speaker might be heard from his intonation pattern. In dubbing hesitation is only partially reflected since there is only och in the translation. The phrase hes just is not underlined in any way, but still it does not make the reception of the movie more difficult. d) Repetition of other characters words. During conversations certain elements are often repeated in order to maintain the link between interlocutors. In translation however, repeated sentences and phrases are often not the most crucial thing to consider and therefore they can be excluded from the target language final version.

Ex.1 Original: -What have you got? -This little wooden puppet. -Im not a puppet. Im a real boy. Subtitles: -Co tam masz? -Drewnian kukiek. -Jestem prawdziwym chopcem. Dubbing : -Co tam masz? -T ma, drewnian kukiek. -Nie jestem kukiek, jestem zwykym chopcem. Ex. 2 Original: -You are a monster. -Im not the monster here. You are. Subtitles: -Jeste potworem.

- Ty nim jeste. Dubbing: - Ty potworze.

-

Nie ja tu jestem potworem lecz ty.

The conclusion that can be drawn from the above examples is the dichotomy of approaches to dealing with this aspect employed by subtitling and dubbing translators. The former one decides simply not to include the repeated phraces in the translation since, as it has been said, they are not key to understanding the meaning of the utterances. It is also the result of the limited amount of space that subtitles may occupy. In dubbing, however, ommision of the highlighted sentences could prove to be an extremely difficult process since this mode of audiovisual translation is dependent on the notion of isochrony. The time of the utterances of the characters has to be identical in both version, which forces dubbing translators to include the phrases that are redundant in subtitling. e) Paraphrase. The notion of paraphrase is crucial in any type of translation. It is often difficult to express exactly what is said in SL and in such situation paraphrasing is employed by translators. In audiovisual translation paraphrasing is even more essential since in subtitling the space for transferring the original message is limited and in dubbing all the utterances have to be properly synchronised. Ex. 1 Original: - Oh, well. I guess thats cool. I mean, I dont know you, and you dont know me, so I guess outside is best, you know. Subtitles: -Nie ma sprawy./ Nie znamy si za dobrze,/ wic to chyba/ najlepsze wyjcie. Dubbing: -A tak... a tak, jasne. Ja ci nie znam, ty nie znasz mnie, wic chyba tak chyba bdzie najlepiej. The example above illustrates a typical instance of transformation made within the field of a SL text. In subtitles, the first sentence does not carry any important information and is omitted. The last sentence would be too long to traslate literally and therefore was

paraphrased into a shorter one that expresses the same message. In dubbing there was no need to use any paraphrase and everything was translated as literally as it was possible. Ex. 2 Original: -They thought they was all of that. Then you showed up, and bam! They was trippin over themselves like babes in the woods. That really made me feel good to see that Subtitles: -Myleli, e s tacy wani./ A przewracali si o wasne nogi! To byo pikne. Dubbing: -Wszdzie peno byo stray, prawie mnie mieli, a ty nagle... z baki! Kolesie pryskali we wszystkich kierunkach. Tak, tak naprawd mi si podobao. This example changes from the previous one in way. Unlike in the first one, dubbing translation is a paraphrase of the SL text. Comparing to the original, it may be noted that even the number of sentences has been changed, however the meaning is preserved and this paraphrase fullfils its role. In subtitling, the translation is similar to the one in the first example the message is expressed by means of shorter sentences. f) Omissions in the nominal group. A nominal group often consists with various expressions describing nouns or saying more about adjectives by using adverbs. These elements ussually does not play any essential role in conveying the meaning, which allows translator to omit any additions in the nominal group, if need be. Ex. 1 Original: -So, just sit back and relax, my lord, because its time for you to meet todays eligible bachelorettes. Subtitles: -Usid wygodnie, milordzie,/ nadszed czas na poznanie/ dzisiejszych kandydatek. Dubbing: -Tak, wic po prostu usid i patrz, wasza wysoko. A teraz nasz przyszy krl pozna nasze pikne kandydatki.

In this example the nominal group todays eligible bachelorettes consists of a noun and two adjectives describing it. Translators implemented two different solutions to deal with this phrase. In subtitling, the limited amount of space caused the translator to omit one element of the nominal group, while in dubbing there was no such necessity and the whole group is reflected in the TL version. Ex. 2 Original: -But with my little stick and my highly evolved brain, I shall create fire. Subtitles: -Ale przy pomocy tego patyka i mojego rozwinitego mzgu rozpal ogie. Dubbing: Tak, ale wiesz z p patykiem i niezwykle kumatym mzgiem skombinuj ogie. Here, the nominal group is my highly evolved brain. It consists of a noun, two adjectives and one adverb describing the adjective evolved. In subtitling one element of the phrase is once again not included in the TL translation. In dubbing there is also one omission, which indicates that there are cases that also the dubbing translation has to be reduced since the differences between Polish and English are too vast and this forces the translator to make some modifications. g) Adverbials or adverbial sentences Tomaszkiewicz (2006: 147) recalls Leeman (1990), according to whom, adverbials and adverbial sentances are optional since they do not condition the existence of a sentence. The role of adverbials is merely to provide the receiver with information about the context of the action. However it is not feasible to reduce sentences only to its nucleus. In the case of audiovisual translation, there are numerous adverbials defining the context and conditions in which the action takes place. Uncontrolled disposal of this information is not possible in this mode of translation, but still, as the research reveals, if there is a necessity, adverbials and adverbial sentences undergo the process of reduction in some cases [My Translation]. Ex. 1 Original: -What I mean is, youre not a king yet. But you can become one. All you have to do is marry a princess.

Subtitles: - Nie jeste jeszcze krlem./ Ale moesz nim zosta./ Musisz si/ jedynie oeni z ksiniczk. Dubbing: -Miaem na myli, e nie jeste jeszcze. Ale przecie moesz zosta. Musisz tylko polubi krlewn. In the above example, there is an adverbial phrase What I mean is which in the dubbing version is translated literally and there is no reduction in any kind. However, in subtitles reduction do take place as the phrase itself does not carry any information without which the whole utterance looses its sense. Ex. 2 Original: -For your information, theres a lot more to ogres than people think. Subtitles: -Ogry nie s jedynie/ bezdusznymi ludojadami. Dubbing: -Tak si skada, e ogry maj mnstwo cech o ktrych nikt nie wie. The second example is similar to the previous one, except that there is a typical instance of an adverbial instead of an adverbial sentence. The approach taken by translators of both subtitlers and dubbing are the same as in the first example, which indicates that it does not really matter if there is an adverbial or adverbial sentence to deal with as the solution for both cases is very similar. h) Main sentences modalizing an utterance The reduction of main sentences modalizing an utterance depends on the fact that although some elements are not redundant their meaningful weight are not as high as other elements that are present in a sentence or their omission does not disrupt the reception of the whole utterance (Tomaszkiewicz: 2006: 146). Ex. 1 Original: -Look. I really dont think this is a good idea. Subtitles: -To nie najlepszy pomys. Dubbing: Suchaj. To naprawd nie jest najlepszy pomys. The conclusion that can be drawn from this example is that, by omitting the main sentences, the meaning of an utterance itself might be slightly altered. Absence of the phrase I really dont think implies a shift from a hesitation to complete certainty that

the idea is bad. This change of meaning is observable in both dubbing and subtitles but it does not violate the proper understanding and reception of the movie since, as it has been already said, the main sentence is not so important that it cannot be omitted. i) Place and time context. This term describes all reductions that can be made in respect to the time and place of action of a movie. The place of action, which is visible on the screen, is not usually the topic of a conversation, however, it happenst that certain places or items present on the screen are mentioned by characters. Ex.1 Original: -Really, its rude enough being alive when no one wants you, but showing up uninvited to a wedding... Subtitles: -Nie do, e yjesz cho nikt ci nie chce, to jeszcze zjawiasz si tu bez zaproszenia... Dubbing: -Doprawdy, sam fakt e yjesz jest dostatecznym nietaktem, ale eby nieproszonym zwala si na wesele? In this example, the action takes place during a wedding ceremony, which is clearly visible on the screen. In subtitling, wedding is replaced with a deictic reference tu since it is not obligatory to use the Polish equivalent as the audience knows what tu refers to. This helps to save so precious space for subtitles, especially that the whole phrase is quite long and space-consuming. The dubbing version does not resort to using a deictic reference and employed the Polish direct equivalent instead, which has its reasons as well when the notions of lip synchrony and isochrony are taken into consideration. There are also certain relationships concerning time and action that does not necessarily have to be included in translation. The most common instance of that kind are the deictic time expressions which draw viewers attention directly to what happens on the screen. Ex. 1 Original: -Now you hold still, and Ill yank this thing out. Subtitles: -Nie ruszaj si, to j wycign. Dubbing: -Teraz si nie ruszaj, a ja usun strza.

The deictic time reference now is not included in the subtitles since it is not so relevant, for the viewer does not have a problem in figuring out that the action is taking place at the moment. In dubbing, the reference is included for synchrony reasons. The intersting thing might be the ending of the dubbing version, when compared with the original one. As it might be seen, the deictic reference is replaced by the object it refers to and which is visible on the screen. The conclusion to be drawn from that is that in dubbing a translator has significantly more freedom than in subtitling. Moreover, flexibility of dubbing translators is even recognized as the feature of professionalism as it enables a translator to adjust his work to the requirements of the potential audience. j) Characters As Tomaszkiewicz (2006: 141) claims, omission of the names, nicknames or other ways of addresing a chracter appearing in a movie is, to a high extent, dependent on the functions that have in an utterance. Names of characters should not be omitted at the beginning of the movie or when they are introduced to the audience and their names are uttered for the first time.Once the audience is familiar with a character, a translator can omit names when it is possible to do without violating the understanding of the movie. Ex.1 Original: -Princess, I was sent to rescue you by Lord Farquaad, okay? He is the one who wants to marry you. Subtitles: -Przyszedem ci ocali na polecenie lorda Farquaada. On chce si z tob oeni. Dubbing: -Krlewno, ja tu dziaam wycznie z ramienia lorda Farquaada, jasne? To on zamierza si z tob swata. In this example it is not necessary to include princess in the translation as the audience knows who the character is. Omission used in subtitles is clearly understandable. However, it is obiously not prohibited, especially when synchronisation is at stake and for this reason, princess is translated as krlewna in the dubbing version. However, in dubbing not all names mentioned in the text have to be translated. When there is too many of them, a translator also might resort to omission:

Ex. 2 Original: -Shrek? Well, you know, what I like abot you, Shrek? You got that kind of I-dont-care-what-you-think-of-me thing. I like that. I respect that, Shrek. Youre all right. Subtitles: -Shrek? Wiesz, co w tobie lubi najbardziej? To, e nie dbasz o to co inni o tobie myl. Podziwiam to i szanuj. Jeste w porzdku. Dubbing: -Shrek? Ej, a wiesz za co ci lubi? Podoba mi si, e masz spoko podejcie do ycia, wiesz? Dokadnie, tak trzymaj Shrek. Lubi ci. k) Others There are cases when some of the processes described above appear together within one sentence, i.e. It is possible when both the time context and a phrase containing a reference to a character to dispose of both of the elements as it has been done in the subtitling version of the following example. It would be a hard task in dubbing as the utterance could become to short and proper synchronisation could be impaired. Ex. 1 Original: Now, get away from me. Subtitles: Odczep si. Dubbing: Odczep si ode mnie. The dubbing version often differs vastly from the subtitling one in semantic terms. The difference stems from the lip-synchronisation which is the factor that conditions dubbing translation to a highest extent. Ex. 2 Original: Field mouse Subtitles:Mysz polna Dubbing: Ropucha In this example, the original could be directly translated into Polish in the dubbing version. The reason for this lies in phonetics. Mysz polna, as the directs equivalent goes, starts with bilabial nasal m, implies that lips are closed while uttering the sound.

English f is a labiodental fricative, which denotes that the mouth is open while producing the phoneme. To conclude, replacing the labiodental with the bilabial would be strange since the character would sound like a ventriloquist, which is not the case. Obviously, subtitles are not oral as dubbing and phonetic synchrony does not concern a translator while choosing the Polish equivalent of a field mouse.