FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID MECHANICS Chapter 11 Analysis of Compressible Flow

Jyh-Cherng Shieh
Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering National Taiwan University 1

MAIN TOPICS
Ideal Gas Relationships Mach Number and Speed of Sound Categories of Compressible Flow Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas Nonisentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow

Ideal Gas Relationships

Introduction
Fluid compressibility is a very important consideration in numerous engineering applications of fluid mechanics. For example, The measurement of high-speed flow velocities requires compressible flow theory. The flows in gas turbine engine components are generally compressible. Many aircraft fly fast enough to involve a compressible flow field. In this study of compressibility effects, we mainly consider the steady, one-dimensional, constant (including zero) viscosity, compressible flow of an ideal gas.
4

Ideal Gas relationships 1/2

Before to develop compressible flow equation, we need to become more familiar with the fluid. The equation of state for an ideal gas

p = RT

(1)

R is gas constant

The gas constant, R, represents a constant for each distinct ideal gas or mixture of ideal gases

R= M gas

(2) is the universal gas constant. Mgas is the molecular weight of the ideal gas or gas mixture.

Ideal Gas relationships 2/2

For an ideal gas, internal energy is a function of temperature only. Thus, the ideal gas specific heat at constant volume

( ( du u cv = = T v dT

(3)

is function of temperature only

Where the subscript v on the partial derivative refers to differentiation at constant specific volume, v=1/.

( ( ( du = c v dT u 2 u1 = c v (T2 T1 )
T2 ( ( u 2 u1 = cvdT T1

(5)

(4)
6

Enthalpy 1/2
The fluid property enthalpy
( ( p h=u+
(6)

For ideal gas u = u() From the equation of state

( ( h = u + RT

p = RT ( ( h = h()

The ideal gas specific heat at constant pressure ( ( ( ( h dh (8) h 2 h1 = c P dT (7) cP = =

T p dT
( ( h 2 h1 = c P (T2 T1 )

(9)

Enthalpy 2/2
( ( (10) h = u + RT ( ( ( dh du ( dh = du + RdT = + R (11) dT dT
( ( h dh cP = = T p dT

( ( du u cv = = T v dT

cp cv = R

(12)

The specific heat ratio, k, is defined as

cP k= cv
(12) + (13)

(13)

k cP = R k 1

(14)

1 cV = R k 1

(15)
8

Example 11.1 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Density for an Ideal Gas
Air flows steadily between two sections in a long straight portion of 4-in.-diameter pipe as is indicated in Figure E11.1. The uniformly distributed temperature and pressure at each section are T1=540R, p1=100 psia, and T2=453R, p2=18.4 psia. Calculate the (a) change in internal energy between sections (1) and (2), (b) change in enthalpy between sections (1) and (2), and (c) change in density between sections (1) and (2).

Example 11.1 Solution1/2

The change in internal energy between sections (1) and (2)

( ( u 2 u1 = c v (T2 T1 )
cV = R 1 (15) k 1
k = 1.4 R = 1716(ft lb ) /(slug R ) = 53.3(ft lb ) /(lbm R )

From Table 1.7

( ( u 2 u1 = c v (T2 T1 ) = 133(ft lb) /(lbm R ) ( 453R 540R ) = 11,600ft lb / lbm

( ( h 2 h1 = c P (T2 T1 )
(9)

cP k= cv

(13)
10

Example 11.1 Solution2/2

c P = kc v = ... = 186(ft lb) /(lbm R )
( ( h 2 h1 = c P (T2 T1 ) = ... = 16,200ft lb / lbm

p = RT

(1)

p2 p1 1 p 2 p1 2 1 = = RT2 RT1 R T2 T1 = ... = 0.389lbm / ft 3

11

Entropy 1/3
For any pure substance including ideal gases, the first T ds equation is
1 ( (16) Tds = du + pd T is absolute temperature ( 1 1 ( dh = du + pd + dp (17)
(16)+(17)

( 1 Tds = dh dp

(18)

second T ds equation

dT R 1 (1)+(3)+(16) ds = c v + d T y
(1)+(7)+(18) ds = c P

(19) (20)
12

dp dT R P T

Entropy 2/3
If cp and cv are assumed to be constant for a given gas
(19)

1 T2 s 2 s1 = c v ln + R ln T1 2

(21)

(20)

p2 T2 s 2 s1 = c P ln R ln T1 p1

(22)

13

Entropy 3/3
For the adiabatic and frictionless flow
ds = 0, c v ln s1 = s 2
Constant entropy flow T2 T p + R ln 1 = c P ln 2 R ln 2 = 0 (23) or isentropic flow T1 2 T1 p1
k / k 1 k

T2 T 1

p2 2 = = p 1 1
(25)

(24)

p = cons tan t k

14

Example 11.2 Entropy for an Ideal Gas

For the air flow of Example 11.1, calculate the change in entropy, s2-s1, between sections (1) and (2).

15

Example 11.2 Solution

1 T2 s 2 s1 = c v ln + R ln T1 2
(21)

T2 p2 s 2 s1 = c P ln R ln T1 p1

(22)

1 p1 T2 100 psia 453R = = = 4.56 2 T1 p 2 540R 18.4 psia

p1 T2 T2 s 2 s1 = c v ln + R ln T p = ... = 57.5(ft lb ) /(lbm R ) T1 1 2

T2 p2 s 2 s1 = c P ln R ln = ... = 57.5(ft lb) /(lbm R ) T1 p1

16

Mach Number and Sonic Speed

17

Mach Number
The Mach number, Ma, was a dimensionless measure of compressibility in a fluid flow. The Mach number is defined as the ratio of the value of the local flow velocity, V, to the local speed of sound, c.

V Ma = c
What we perceive as sound generally consists of weak pressure pulse that move through air. When our ear drums respond to a succession of moving pulse, we hear sounds.

18

Speed of Sound 1/6

To better understand the notion of speed of sound, we analyze the one-dimensional fluid mechanics of an infinitesimally thin, weak pressure pulse moving at the speed of sound through a fluid at rest. Select an infinitesimally thin control volume that move with the pressure pulse. Ahead of the The speed of the weak pressure pulse pressure pulse is considered constant and in one direction only; Behind the thus, out control volume pressure pulse is inertial.
19

Speed of Sound 2/6

For an observer moving with this control volume, it appears as if fluid is entering the control volume through surface area A with speed c at pressure p and densityand leaving the control volume with speed.
Entering CV

Leaving CV

20

Speed of Sound 3/6

Apply the continuity equation to the flow through this control volume

Ac = ( + ) A(c V )

(26)

c = c V ()(V)

small
(27)

V = c

(28)

21

Speed of Sound 4/6

Apply the linear momentum equation to the flow through this control volume

ccA + (c V )( + )(c V ) A = A ( p + p) A
ccA + (c V )Ac = pA
(26)+(29)

(29)

p V = c

(30)

(28)+(30)

c2 =

c=

(31)

This expression for the speed of sound results from application of the conservation of mass and conservation of linear momentum principles to the flow through the control volume.

22

Speed of Sound 5/6

Apply the conservation of energy principle to the flow through this control volume
p V 2 + 2 + gz = (loss)

(32)

(V )2 << cV

gz0 (loss)= 0 (28)+(33)

p (c V ) 2 c 2 + =0 2 2
2

p (33) V = c

p c =

p c=

(31)

This expression for the speed of sound results from application of the conservation of mass and conservation of energy principles to the flow through the control volume.

23

Speed of Sound 6/6

c= p
Further assume that the frictionless flow through the control volume is adiabatic, then the flow is isentropic.

p p 0
(25)

p c= s

(34)

For isentropic flow of an ideal gas

p = (cons tan t )( k )

Used to designate that partial differentiation occurs at constant entropy.

p p p = (cons tan t ) k k 1 = k k k 1 = k = RTk s

(35)

c = RTk

(36)

c = RTk =
Ev =

Ev

(38) (37)
24

Bulk modulus of elasticity for any fluid

p dp = d / s

Example 11.3 Speed of Sound / Solution

Verify the speed of sound for air at 0 listed in Table B.4. In Table B.4, we find the speed of sound of air at 0 given as 331.4 m/s.

c = RTk
k = 1.4 R = 286.9J /( kg K )

c = RTk = [286.9J /( kg K )]( 273.15K )(1.401) = 331.4( J / kg )1 / 2 = 331.4m / s

25

Categories of Compressible Flow

26

Compressibility and Mach Number 1/2

The effects of compressibility become more significant as the Mach number increase. The incompressible flows can only occur at low Mach number. The compressibility has a large influence on other important flow variables.

27

Compressibility and Mach Number 2/2

Experience has demonstrated that compressibility can have a large influence on other important flow variables. For example. The variation of the drag coefficient of a sphere with Reynolds number and Mach number. Compressibility effects can be of considerable importance.

28

To illustrate some curious features of compressible flow

Emission of weak pressure pluses from a point source

29

Emission of Pressure Pulse 1/5

Image the emission of weak pressure pulse from a point source. These pressure wave are spherical and expand radially outward from the point source at the speed of sound, c. For a stationary point source, the wave pattern is symmetrical. When the point source moves to the left with a constant velocity, V, the wave pattern is no longer symmetrical. If instead of moving the point source to the left, we held the point source stationary and moved the fluid to the right with velocity V.

30

Pressure Wave Pattern 1/2

(a) Pressure waves at t = 3s, V = 0; (b) pressure waves at t = 3s, V< c.

31

Pressure Wave Pattern 2/2

(c) pressure waves at t = 3s, V = c.

(d) pressure waves at t = 3s, V > c.

32

Emission of Pressure Pulse 2/5

When the point source and the fluid are stationary, the pressure wave pattern is symmetrical and an observer anywhere in the pressure field would hear the same sound frequency from the point source. When the velocity of the point source (or the fluid) is very small in comparison with the speed of sound, the pressure wave pattern will still be nearly symmetrical. When the point source moves in fluid at rest (or when fluid moves past a stationary point source), the pressure wave patterns vary in asymmetry, with the extent of asymmetry depending on V/c.

33

Emission of Pressure Pulse 3/5

When V/c < 1, the flow is considered subsonic and compressible. A stationary observer will hear a different sound frequency coming from the point source depending on where the observer is relative to the source because the wave pattern is asymmetrical. This

phenomenon is called the Doppler effect.

The pressure information can still travel unrestricted throughout the flow field, but not symmetrically or instantaneously.
34

Emission of Pressure Pulse 4/5

When V/c =1, pressure wave are not present ahead of the moving point source. The flow is sonic. If you were positioned to the left of the moving point source, you would not hear the point source until it was coincident with your location.

Mach wave

The pressure waves are all tangent to a plane that is perpendicular to the flow and that passes through the point source. This plane is called a Mach wave. The communication of pressure information is restricted to the region of flow downstream of the Mach wave.

35

Emission of Pressure Pulse 5/5

When V/c >1, the flow is supersonic. A cone (Mach cone) that is tangent to the pressure wave can be constructed to represent the Mach wave that separates the zone of silence from the zone of action. The angle of Mach cone

c 1 sin = = V Ma

(39)

36

Compressible Flow Visualization

An abrupt density change can be visualized in a flow field by using special optics. Flow visualization methods include the schlieren, shadowgraph , and interferometer techniques.

The schlieren visualization of flow (supersonic to subsonic) through a row of compressor airfoils.
37

Categories of Fluid Flow

Incompressible flow: Ma 0.3. Unrestricted, nearly symmetrical and instantaneous pressure communication. Compressible subsonic flow: 0.3 < Ma < 1.0. Unrestricted but noticeably asymmetrical pressure communication. Compressible supersonic flow: Ma 1.0. Formulation of Mach wave; pressure communication restricted to zone of action.

Transonic flow: 0.9 Ma 1.2. Hypersonic flow: Ma > 5.

38

Example 11.4 Mach Cone

An aircraft cruising at 1000-m elevation, z, above you moves past in a flyby. How many seconds after the plane passes overhead do you expect to wait before you hear the aircraft if it is moving with a Mach number equal to 1.5 and the ambient temperature is 20?

39

Example 11.4 Solution

The angle is related to the elevation of the plane, z, and the ground distance, x

z 1 1000 = tan = tan Vt x

1

1 sin = Ma
The speed of the aircraft V = Ma c

Ma =

1 sin[tan 1 (1000 / Vt )]

From Table B.4 (20), c=343.3m/s. Using Ma=1.5

1.5 = 1 1 1000 sin tan (1.5)(343.3m / s) t t = 2.17s
40

Isentropic Flow Through Converging-Diverging Duct

41

Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas

Consider the steady, one-dimensional, isentropic flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heat values (cp and cv). Shaft work cannot be involved. Consider flows through finite control volume with uniformly distributed velocities and fluid properties at each section of flow. An isentropic flow is not achievable with actual fluids because of friction. Nonetheless, the study of isentropic flow trends is useful because it helps us to gain an understanding of actual compressible flow phenomena.

42

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 1/10

When fluid flows steadily through a conduit that has a flow crosssectional area that varies with axial distance, the conservation of mass (continuity) equation

& m = AV = cons tan t

(40)

In chapter 3, Newtons second law was applied to the inviscid (frictionless) and steady flow of a fluid particle. For either compressible or incompressible flow along the streamwise direction,

1 dp + d( V 2 ) + dz = 0 2

(41)

Can be dropped because of its small size in comparison to the other terms

43

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 2/10

An appropriate equation of motion in the streamwise direction for the steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic (adiabatic and frictionless) flow of an ideal gas is obtained from Eqs. (41).
1 dp + d ( V 2 ) + dz = 0 V 2 2
dp dV = V 2 V
(42) (43)

& m = AV = cons tan t ln + ln A + ln V = cons tan t

(43)

d dA dV + + =0 A V

dV d dA = + V A
(45)

(44)

(42)+(44)

dp V 2 dA 1 = 2 V dp / d A

44

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 3/10

Mach number definition Ma =
(34)+(45)+(46)

V c

(46)

p c= s
(47)

(34)

dp dA 2 (1 Ma ) = 2 V A
dV dA 1 = V A (1 Ma 2 )
(48)

(42)+(47)

(44)+(48)

d dA Ma 2 = A (1 Ma 2 )

(49)

45

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 4/10

dV dA 1 = V A (1 Ma 2 )
(48)

When the flow is subsonic (Ma<1), velocity and section area changes are in opposite directions. When the flow is supersonic (Ma>1), velocity and area changes in the same direction.
(a) A diverging duct. (b) A converging duct.
46

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 5/10

A diverging duct will accelerate a supersonic flow. A converging duct will decelerate a supersonic flow. Subsonic flow through a converging duct involves an increase of velocity. Subsonic flow through a diverging duct is accompanied by a velocity decrease.

(a) A diverging duct. (b) A converging duct.

47

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 6/10

d dA Ma 2 = A (1 Ma 2 )
(49)

For subsonic flow (Ma<1), density and area changes are in the same direction. For supersonic flow (Ma>1), density and area changes are in the opposite direction.

48

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 7/10

dV dA 1 dA A = = (1 Ma 2 ) V A (1 Ma 2 ) dV V
(50)

For Ma =1, this equation requires that dA/dV=0. This means that the area associated with Ma=1 is either a minimum or a maximum amount. If the flow enter converging-diverging duct were subsonic, the fluid velocity would increase in the converging portion of the duct, and achievement of a sonic condition (Ma=1) at the minimum area location appears possible.

49

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 8/10

If the flow enter converging-diverging duct were supersonic, the fluid velocity would decrease in the converging portion of the duct and the sonic condition at the minimum area is possible. If the flow enter diverging-converging duct were subsonic, the fluid velocity would decrease in the diverging portion of the duct and the sonic condition could not be attained at the maximum area.
50

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 9/10

If the flow enter diverging-converging duct were supersonic, the fluid velocity would increase in the diverging portion of the duct and the sonic condition could not be attained at the maximum area.

51

Conclusion 10/10
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sonic condition (Ma=1) can be attained in a converging-diverging duct at the minimum area location. This minimum area location is often called the throat of the converging-diverging duct. To achieve supersonic flow from a subsonic state in a duct, a converging-diverging area variations is necessary. A converging-diverging duct is referred as a converging-diverging nozzle. A converging-diverging duct can also decrease a supersonic flow to subsonic conditions. A converging-diverging duct can be a nozzle or a diffuser depending on whether the flow in the converging portion of the duct is subsonic or supersonic.
52

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 1/11

To develop equations that help us determine how other important flow properties vary in the steady isentropic flow of an ideal gas through a variable area duct.
The atmospheric pressure and temperature would represent the stagnation state of the flowing fluid.

(a) A converging-diverging duct. (b) A diverging-converging duct.

53

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 2/11

For the isentropic flow of an ideal gas Stagnation state

p p0 = cons tan t = k k 0

(25)

It is convenient to use the stagnation state of the fluid as a reference state for compressible flow calculations.

The streamwise equation of motion for steady and frictionless flow can be expressed for an ideal gas
(41)

V2 dp =0 + d 2

(51)

Note: The stagnation state is can also be achieved by isentropically decelerating a flow to zero velocity.

Incorporating (25) into (51)

V2 p1 / k dp 0 + d 1/ k 2 =0 o p

(52)
54

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 3/11

Integrating (52) between the common stagnation state of the flowing fluid to the state of gas at any location in the converging-diverging duct
(53)+(1) (14)+(54)

k p0 p V 2 2 = 0 k 1 0

(53)

kR V2 (To T ) = 0 k 1 2
V2 c P (To T ) =0 2
(14)
( ( h 2 h1 = c P (T2 T1 )

(54)

k cP = R k 1

( ( V2 = 0 (55) ho h + 2 Stagnation enthalpy

55

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 4/11

c = RTk
Ma = V c

(36) (46) (46)+(36)+(54) (54)

kR V2 (To T ) = 0 k 1 2

T 1 = 2 To 1 + k 1 M a 2

(56)

Pressure variation ?

With this equation we can calculate the temperature of an ideal gas anywhere in the converging-diverging duct if the flow is steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic, provided we know the value of the local Mach number and the stagnation temperature.

56

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 5/11

Develop an equation for pressure and density variation
p = RT
(57)+(25)

p o T = po To
T p = T po o

(57)
k / k 1

p p0 = cons tan t = k (25) k 0

(58)

(58)+(56)

p = po 1 +

1
k 1 2

Ma

k / k 1

(59)
1 / k 1

(56)+(57)+(59)

= o 1 +

1
k 1 2

Ma

(60)
57

T-s Diagram For Isentropic Flow

A useful means of keeping track of the state of an isentropic flow of an ideal gas involves a temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram. An isentropic flow is confined to a vertical line on a T-s diagram. The vertical line is representative of flow between the stagnation state and any state within the convergingdiverging nozzle.

58

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 6/11

T = To 1 + 1
k 1 Ma 2 2

(56)

Fluid temperature decreases with T an increase in Mach number.

Ma

p = po 1 +

1 2 k 1 Ma 2

k / k 1

(59)

Fluid pressure decreases with an increase in Mach number. p

Ma

Lower fluid temperature and pressures are associated with higher Mach number in an isentropic converging-diverging duct.
59

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 7/11

One way to produce flow through a converging-diverging duct is to connect the downstream end of the converging-diverging duct to a vacuum pump. When the pressure at the downstream end of the duct (the back pressure) is decreased slightly, air will flow from the atmosphere through the duct and vacuum pump.
T = T0 1 + 1
k 1 Ma 2 2

p = p0 1 +

1
k 1 2

Ma

k / k 1

= 0 1 +

1
k 1 2

Ma

1 / k 1

Used to describe steady + T-s diagram flow through the converging-diverging duct.
60

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 8/11

If the pressure in the duct is only slightly less than atmospheric pressure, the Mach number levels in the duct will be low Eqs. (59) and the variation of density in the duct is also small Eqs. (60). There is a small amount of fluid flow acceleration in the converging portion of the duct followed by flow deceleration in the diverging portion of the duct. Eqs. (40) The T-s diagram for Venturi meter flow
61

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 9/11

When the back pressure is lower further, the fluid flow from the rest upstream of the converging portion may be accelerated to a maximum Mach number 1 at the nozzle throat. When Ma=1 at the throat of the converging-diverging duct, we have a condition called choked flow. Use the stagnation state for which Ma=0 as a reference condition. Use the state associated with Ma=1 as another reference condition called critical state, denoted ( )*.
p = po 1 + 1
k 1 2

Ma

(59)

k / k 1

Ma=1

p* 2 = po k + 1

k / k 1

(61)
62

Critical pressure ratio

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 10/11

T = To 1 + 1
k 1 Ma 2 2
1 k 1

Ma=1

T* 2 = To k + 1
(65)

(63)

* p* To 2 = * = Po T k + 1 o

The relationship between the stagnation and critical states.

63

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 11/11

For k=1.4, the nominal value of k for air

* p k =1.4 * Tk =1.4 * =1.4 k

= 0.528p atm = 0.833Tatm = 0.634 atm

(62) (64) (66)

64

Example 11.5 Isentropic Flow in a Converging Duct

A converging duct passes air steadily from standard atmospheric conditions to a receiver pipe as illustrated in Figure E11.5a. The throat (minimum) flow cross-sectional area of the converging ducts is 110-4 m2. Determine the mass flowrate through the duct if the receiver pressure is (a) 80 kPa (abs), (b) 40 kPa (abs). Sketch temperature-entropy diagrams for situations (a) and (b)

65

Example 11.5 Solution1/6

To determine the mass flowrate through the converging duct we use (40)

& m = AV = cons tan t (40)

& m = th A th Vth
(60) (11.5.1)
1 / k 1

Stagnation density

0 = 1.23kg / m 3

k = 1 .4

th = o 1 +

1
k 1 2

Ma

2 th

(11.5.2)

(59)

p th = po 1 +

1
k 1 2

Ma

2 th

k / k 1

(11.5.3)

(62)

p* =1.4 = 0.528 p0 = 0.528 p atm = 53.3kPa(abs) k

66

Example 11.5 Solution2/6

If the receiver pressure, pre is greater than or equal to p*, then pth=pre. If pre<p*, the pth=p* and the flow is choked. With pth, p0, and k known, Math can be obtained from Eqs. (11.5.3) and pth can be obtained from Eqs. (11.5.2). The flow velocity at the throat
(36)+(46)

Vth = Ma th c th = Ma th RTth k

(11.5.4)

The value of temperature at the throat Tth

(56)

Tth 1 = To 1 + k2 1 Ma 2 th

(11.5.5)

67

Example 11.5 Solution3/6

For pre=80 kPa (abs) > 53.3 kPa (abs) = p*, we have pth=80 kPa. Then from Eq. (11.5.3) k / k 1 p th 1 Ma th = 0.587 = (11.5.3) 2 k 1 po 1 + 2 Ma th From Eq. (11.5.2)
th = o 1 + 1
k 1 2
1 / k 1

Ma

2 th

(11.5.2)

th = 1.04kg / m3

From Eq. (11.5.5)

Tth 1 = To 1 + k2 1 Ma 2 th

(11.5.5)

Tth = 269 K
68

Example 11.5 Solution4/6

From Eq. (11.5.4)
Vth = Ma th c th = Ma th RTth k
(11.5.4)

Vth = 193( J / kg)1 / 2 = 193m / s

From Eq. (11.5.1)

& m = th A th Vth

(11.5.1)

& m = 0.0201kg / s

69

Example 11.5 Solution5/6

For pre=40 kPa (abs) < 53.3 kPa (abs) = p*, we have pth=p*=53.3kPa (abs) and Math=1. The converging duct is chocked. Then from Eq. (11.5.2)
th = o 1 + 1
k 1 2

Ma

2 th

1 / k 1

(11.5.2)

th = 0.780kg / m3

From Eq. (11.5.5)

Tth 1 = To 1 + k2 1 Ma 2 th
Vth = 310( J / kg)1 / 2 = 310m / s

(11.5.5)

Tth = 240K

& m = 0.0242kg / s
70

Example 11.5 Solution6/6

71

Example 11.6 Use of Compressible Flow Graphs in Solving Problems

Solve Example 11.5 using Figure D.1 of Appendix D.

72

Example 11.6 Solution1/3

Need the density and velocity of the air at the converging duct throat to solve for mass flowrate from

& m = th A th Vth

(11.6.1)

Since the receiver pressure, pre=80 kPa (abs) > 53.3 kPa (abs) = p*, we have pth= pre.
p th 80 kPa = = 0 . 792 po 101 kPa

From Figure D.1, for p/p0=0.792, we get from the graph

Ma th = 0.59

Tth = 0.94 (11.6.2) T0

th = 0.85 (11.6.3)

73

Example 11.6 Solution2/3

From (11.6.2) (11.6.3)

Tth = (0.94)( 288K ) = 271K

(36)+(46)

th = (0.85)(1.23kg / m 3 ) = 1.04 kg / m 3

Vth = Ma th c th = Ma th RTth k = ... = 194m / s

& m = th A th Vth = (1.04 kg / m 3 )... = 0.0202 kg / s

For the receiver pressure, pre=40 kPa (abs) < 53.3 kPa (abs) = p*, we have pth= 53.3 kPa (abs).. From Figure D.1, for Ma=1, we get from the graph th Tth (11.6.4) = 0.83 = 0.64 (11.6.5) T0

74

Example 11.6 Solution3/3

From (11.6.4) (11.6.5)

Tth = (0.83)( 288K ) = 240 K

(36)+(46)

th = (0.64)(1.23kg / m 3 ) = 0.79 kg / m 3

Vth = Ma thc th = Ma th RTth k = ... = 310m / s

& m = th A th Vth = (1.04 kg / m 3 )... = 0.024 kg / s

75

Example 11.7 Static to Stagnation Pressure Ratio

The static pressure to stagnation pressure ratio at a point in a flow stream is measured with a Pitot-static tube (Figure 3.6) as being equal to 0.82. The stagnation temperature of the fluid is 68F. Determine the flow velocity if the fluid is (a) air, (b) helium.

Figure 3.6 The Pitot-static tube

76

Example 11.7 Solution 1/2

To determine the flow velocity
(36)+(46)

V = Ma RTk

For air, p/p0=0.82; thus from Figure D.1

Ma = 0.54 T = 0.94 T0

k = 1.4

T = (0.94)[(68 + 460)R] = 496R

V = Ma RTk = (0.54)... = 104(ft lb / lbm)1 / 2 = 590ft / s

77

Example 11.7 Solution 2/2

For helium, p/p0=0.82 and k = 1.66
p = po 1 + 1
k 1 2 2

Ma

k / k 1

(59)

Ma = 0.499

T = To 1 +

1
k 1 Ma 2 2

(56)

1 T= [(68 + 460)R] = 488R 2 1 + [(1.66 1) / 2](0.499)

V = Ma RTk = (0.499)... = 279(ft lb / lbm)1 / 2 = 1580ft / s

78

Choked Flow 1/2

When Ma=1 at the throat of the converging-diverging duct, we have a condition called choked flow. For choked flow through the converging-diverging duct, the conservation of mass equation yield
(40)

AV = A V
* *

* V * = A * V A
(68)

(67)

(36)+(46)

V* = RT*k
A

V = Ma RTk
T * / T0 T/T 0

(69)

(67)+(68)+(69)

1 * = A* Ma o

(70)
79

Choked Flow 2/2

The variation of area ratio with Mach number
(56)+(60)+ (63)+(65)+(70)

A 1 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma = * A Ma 1 + ( k 1) / 2
2

( k +1) / 2 ( k 1)

(71)

For isentropic flow of an ideal gas (k=1.4)

The variation of area ratio with Mach number for isentropic flow of an ideal gas (k = 1.4, linear coordinate scales).
80

Figure D.1
Value of p/p0, T/T0, /0, and A/A* are graphed in Figure D.1 as a function of Mach number for air (k=1.4).
T = To 1 + 1
k 1 Ma 2 2

(56)
k / k 1

= o 1 +
(59)
( k +1) / 2 ( k 1)

1
k 1 2

Ma

1 / k 1

(60)

p = po 1 +

k 1 Ma 2 2 1

A 1 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma = * A Ma 1 + ( k 1) / 2
2

(71)

81

Example 11.8 Isentropic Choked Flow in a Converging-Diverging Duct with Subsonic Entry
Air enters subsonically from standard atmosphere and flows isentropically through a choked converging-diverging duct having a circular cross-sectional area, A, that varies with axial distance from the throat, x, according to the formula A=0.1+x2 where A is in square meters and x is in meters. The duct extends from x = -0.5 m to x = +0.5 m. For this flow situation, sketch the side view of the duct and graph the variation of Mach number, static temperature to stagnation temperature ratio, T/T0, and static pressure to stagnation pressure ratio, p/p0, through the duct from x = -0.5 m to x = +0.5 m. Also show the possible fluid states at x = -0.5 m, 0 m, and +0.5 m using temperature entropy coordinates.
82

Example 11.8 Solution1/6

The side view of the converging-diverging duct is a graph of radius r from the duct axis as a function of axial distance. For a circular flow cross section we have
A = r 2 where A = 0.1 + x 2
2 1/2

0.1 + x r=

(11.8.3)

83

Example 11.8 Solution2/6

Since the converging-diverging duct is chocked, the throat area is the critical area, A*
A 0.1 + x 2 A* = 0.1m 2 = A* 0.1
(11.8.5)

Values of A/A* can be used in Eq. (71) to calculate corresponding values of Mach number, Ma.

A 1 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma = * A Ma 1 + ( k 1) / 2
2

( k +1) / 2 ( k 1)

(71)

84

Example 11.8 Solution3/6

For air with k=1.4, we could enter Figure D.1 with values of A/A* and read off values of Mach number. With values of Mach number ascertained, we could use Eqs. 56 and 59 to calculate related value of T/T0 and p/p0.
T = To 1 + 1
k 1 Ma 2 2

(56)

For k=1.4 and value of A/A*; thus from Figure D.1 Ma

p = po 1 +

2 k 1 Ma 2 1

k / k 1

T/T0 p/p0

(59)
85

Example 11.8 Solution4/6

0.1 + x 2 r=
1/2

A 0.1 + x 2 = A* 0.1

Figure D.1

86

Example 11.8 Solution5/6

With the air entering the chocked converging-diverging duct subsonically, only one isentropic solution exits for the converging portion of the duct. Two isentropic flow solutions are possible for the diverging portion of the duct one subsonic, the other supersonic. If the pressure ratio, p/p0, is set at 0.98 at x = +0.5 m, the subsonic flow will occur. Alternatively. if p/p0 is set at 0.04 at x = +0.5 m, the supersonic flow field will exist.

87

Example 11.8 Solution6/6

The solution values for the entire duct

88

Example 11.9 Isentropic Choked Flow in a

Converging-Diverging Duct with Supersonic Entry
Air enters supersonically with T0 and p0 equal to standard atmosphere values and flows isentropically through the chocked converging-diverging duct described in Example 11.8. Graph the variation of Mach number, Ma, static temperature to stagnation temperature ratio, T/T0, and static pressure to stagnation pressure ratio, p/p0, through the duct from x = -0.5 m to x = +0.5 m. Also show the possible fluid states at x = -0.5 m, 0 m, and +0.5 m using temperature entropy coordinates.

89

Example 11.9 Solution1/3

With the air entering the converging-diverging duct of Example 11.8 supersonically instead of subsonically, a unique isentropic flow solution is obtained for the converging portion of the duct. Now, however, the flow decelerates to the sonic condition at the throat. The two solutions obtained previously in Example 11.8 for the diverging portion are still valid. Since the area variation in the duct is symmetrical with respect to the duct throat, we can use the supersonic flow values obtained from Example 11.8 for the supersonic flow in the converging portion of the duct.
90

Example 11.9 Solution2/3

The supersonic flow solution for the converging passage

91

Example 11.9 Solution3/3

92

Example 11.10 Isentropic Unchoked Flow

in a Converging-Diverging Duct
Air enters subsonically and isentropically through the convergingdiverging duct described in Example 11.8. Graph the variation of Mach number, Ma, static temperature to stagnation temperature ratio, T/T0, and static pressure to stagnation pressure ratio, p/p0, through the duct from x = -0.5 m to x = +0.5 m for Ma=0.48. Show the corresponding temperature entropy coordinates.

93

Example 11.10 Solution1/3

Since for this example, Ma=0.48 at x=0m, the isentropic low through the converging-diverging duct will be entirely subsonic and not chocked. For air (k=1.4) flowing isentropically through the duct, we can use Figure D.1 for flow field quantities. Entering Figure D.1 with Ma=0.48 we read off p/p0=0.85, T/T0=0.96, and A/A*=1.4. Even though the duct flow is not chocked in this example and A* does not therefore exist physically, it still represents a valid reference. For given isentropic flow, p0, T0, and A* are constants.
94

Example 11.10 Solution2/3

At x=0 m A = 0.1 + x = 0.10m
2 2

A A* = = 0.07 m 2 ( A / A*)

With known values of duct area at different axial locations, we can calculate corresponding area ratios, A/A*, knowing A*=0.07m2. With values of area ratio A/A*, we can use Figure D.1 and obtain related values of Ma, T/T0, and p/p0.
95

Example 11.10 Solution3/3

96

Area Ratio vs. Mach Number 1/3

The isentropic flow behavior for the converging-diverging duct is summarized in the area ratio Mach number graphs. The points a, b, and c represent states at axial distance x=-0.5m, 0m, and +0.5m.

(a) Subsonic to subsonic isentropic flow (not choked). (b) Subsonic to subsonic isentropic flow (Choked).

97

Area Ratio vs. Mach Number 2/3

(c) Subsonic to supersonic isentropic flow (choked), (d) Supersonic to supersonic isentropic flow (choked).
98

Area Ratio vs. Mach Number 3/3

(e) Supersonic to subsonic isentropic flow (choked). (f) Supersonic to subsonic isentropic flow (not choked).
99

Solution 1/3
For a given stagnation state (i.e., T0 and p0 fixed), ideal gas (k=constant), and converging-diverging duct geometry, an infinite number of isentropic subsonic to subsonic (not choked) and supersonic to supersonic (not choked) flow solutions exist. In contrast, the isentropic subsonic to supersonic (choked), subsonic to subsonic (choked), supersonic to subsonic (choked), and supersonic to supersonic (choked) from solutions are each unique. Given stagnation state (i.e., T0 and p0 fixed), ideal gas (k=constant), and converging-diverging duct geometry.

Solution?
100

Solution 2/3
When the pressure at x=+0.5 (exit) is greater than or equal to pI, isentropic flows are possible. When the pressure at x=+0.5 (exit) is less than or equal to pII, isentropic flows are possible. When the exit pressure is less than pI and greater than pII,

isentropic flows are no longer possible.

101

Solution 3/3
(a) The variation of duct radius with axial distance. (b) The variation of Mach number with axial distance. (c) The variation of temperature with axial distance. (d) The variation of pressure with axial distance.
102

Normal Shock Wave 1/2

When the exit pressure is less than pI and greater than pII, nonisentropic chocked flows are possible. Each abrupt pressure rise within and at the exit of the flow passage occurs across a very thin discontinuity in the flow called a normal shock wave. Except for flow across the normal shock wave, the flow is isentropic.

103

Normal Shock Wave 2/2

The less abrupt pressure rise or drop that occurs after the flow leaves the duct is nonisentropic and attributable to three-dimensional oblique shock waves or expansion wave. If the pressure rises downstream of the duct exit, the flow is considered overexpanded. If the pressure drops downstream of the duct exit, the flow is called underexpanded.

104

Nonisentropic Flow

105

Nonisentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas

Actual fluid flows are generally nonisentropic. Examples of nonisentropic flow:

Fanno flow: adiabatic flow with friction. Rayleigh flow: Flows with heat transfer (diabatic flows) without friction.

106

Fanno Flow
Adiabatic flow with friction

107

Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 1/6

Consider the steady, one-dimensional, and adiabatic flow of an ideal gas through the constant area duct. For the indicated control volume, the energy equation
Flow is steady & V V & & + g(z 2 z1 ) = Q net in + WShaft net in m h L h1 + 2 (72) Flow is adiabatic 2 ( V ( h+ = h o = cons tan t 2
2 2 2 1

Small

the stagnation enthalpy

A=constant Adiabatic constant area flow.

108

Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 2/6

For an ideal gas (9)
(72)+(73)

( ( h h 0 = c P (T T0 )

(73) (74)

(V) 2 V2 = T0 = cons tan t T+ = T0 = cons tan t T + 2 2c P 2c P

(V ) 2 T 2 T+ = T0 = cons tan t 2 2 2c P ( p / R )
(75)

Substituting (1) into (74)

For particular Fanno flow, the stagnation temperature T0 is fixed Used to calculate values of fluid (V) 2 T 2 T+ = T0 = cons tan t (75) temperature corresponding to 2c P ( p 2 / R 2 ) value of pressure in the Fanno flow. 109
Determined until later

AV = cons tan t V = cons tan t

T-s Diagram for Fanno Flow1/7

From the second Tds relationship, an expression for entropy variation was already derived.

p2 T2 s 2 s1 = c P ln R ln T1 p1

(22)

If the temperature, T1, and entropy s1, at the entrance of the Fanno flow duct as reference values
(22)

T p s s1 = c P ln R ln T1 p1

(76)

110

T-s Diagram for Fanno Flow2/7

T p s s1 = c P ln R ln T1 p1
T+ (V ) 2 T 2 2c P ( p / R )
2 2

(76)

Taken together result in a curve with T-s coordinates

= T0 = cons tan t

(75)

This curve involves a given gas (cp and R) with fixed values of stagnation temperature, densityvelocity product, and inlet temperature, pressure, and entropy.
T-s diagram for Fanno flow
111

Example 11.11 Compressible Flow with Friction (Fanno Flow)

Air (k=1.4) enters [section (1)] an insulated, constant cross-sectional area duct with the following properties: T0=518.67R T1=514.55R p1=14.3 psia For Fanno flow, determine corresponding value of fluid temperature and entropy change for various values of downstream pressures and plot the related Fanno line.

112

Example 11.11 Solution1/3

To plot the Fanno line we use Eq. (75) and (76)
T+ (V ) 2 T 2 2c P ( p / R )
2 2

= T0 = cons tan t

(11.11.1) (11.11.2)

T p s s1 = c P ln R ln T1 p1
k = 1.4

R = 1716(ft lb ) /(slug R ) = 53.3(ft lb ) /(lbm R )

From Eq. (14) c = Rk = ... = 187(ft lb ) /(lbm R ) p (1)+(69)

k 1 p p V = Ma RTk = 1V1 = 1 Ma1 RT1k RT RT1

(11.11.3) (11.11.4)
113

Example 11.11 Solution2/3

T1 514.55R = = 0.992 To 518.67R
From Eq. (56) Ma1 = 1 1 / 0.02 = 0.2 0.992

T = To 1 +

1
k 1 Ma 2 2

(56)

RT1k = ... = 1112ft / s

(11.11.4)

(14.3psia )(144in.2 / ft 2 )0.2(1112ft / s) V = = 16.7lbm /(ft 2 s) {53.3(ft lb ) /(lbm R )](514.44R )

(V ) 2 T 2 T+ = ... = 518.67R T = 502.3R 2 2 2c P ( p / R )

For p= 7psia (11.11.1) (11.11.2)

T p s s1 = c P ln R ln = ... = 33.6(ft lb ) /(lbm R ) T1 p1

114

Example 11.11 Solution3/3

For p=6 psia T=496.8R s-s1=39.8 (ftlb)/(lbmR) For p=5 psia T=488.3R s-s1=46.3 (ftlb)/(lbmR) For p=4 psia T=474.0R s-s1=52.6 (ftlb)/(lbmR)

115

Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 3/7

To learn more about Fanno lines Second Tds equation Tds = d h 1 dp (18)
(

For ideal gas

(1)+(7)+(18)+(77)

( dh = c P dT (7)

p = RT

(1)

dp d dT = + T
(78) (79)

(77)

d dV = From continuity equation V = cons tan t V

Substituting (79) into (78)

d dT Tds = c PdT RT + T

dV dT Tds = c P dT RT + T V ds c P 1 dV 1 = R + dT T V dT T

(80)
116

Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 4/7

Differentiating (74) Substituting (81) into (80)

dV c = P dT V

(81) (82)

cp 1 ds c P = R 2 + V dT T T
ds =0 dT cp = Rk k 1

At state a

Va = RTa k

(83)

Va = RTa k
ds =0 dT

vs.

c = RTk

The Mach number at state a is 1.

117

Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 5/7

The temperature at point a is the critical temperature, T*, for the entire Fanno line. Fanno flow corresponding to the portion of the Fanno line above the critical temperature must be subsonic, and Fanno flow on the line below T* must be supersonic. The second law of thermodynamics states that, based on all past experience, entropy can only remain constant or increase for adibatic flows. For Fanno flow to be consistent with the second law of Thermodynamics, flow can only proceed along the Fanno line toward state a, the critical state.
118

Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 6/7

The critical state may or may not reached by the flow. If ti is, the Fanno flow is choked.
subsonic Supersonic

(a) Subsonic Fanno flow. (b) Supersonic Fanno flow. (c) Normal shock occurrence in Fanno flow (an abruot change from supersonic to subsonic flow in the Fanno duct).
119

Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 7/7

Subsonic Fanno flow is accelerated by friction to a higher Mach number without chocking. Supersonic Fanno flow is decelerated by friction to a lower Mach number without chocking. Sudden deceleration across a standing normal shock wave.

120

Qualitative Aspects of Fanno Flow

121

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 1/12

To quantify Fanno flow behavior we need to combine a relationship that represents the linear momentum law with the set of equations already derived in this chapter. Apply the linear momentum equation to the Fanno flow through the control volume
p1A1 p 2 A 2 R X
A1 = A 2 = A,
p1 p 2 =

& = m(V2 V1 )

Rx is the frictional force exerted by the inner pipe wall on the fluid

& m = AV = cons tan t

(84)

RX = V( V2 V1 ) A

122

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 2/12

Differential form of (84) , which is valid for Fanno flow through the semi-infinitesimal control volume
w Ddx dp = VdV A
(85)

The wall shear stress is related to the wall friction factor

f=

8 w V 2

(86)

123

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 3/12

Substituting (86) and A=D2/4 into (85)

V 2 dx dp f = VdV 2 D dp f V 2 dx d ( V 2 ) + + =0 p p 2 D p 2
(1)+(36)+(46)+(88)

(87) (88)

dp fk Ma 2 d ( V 2 ) 2 dx + Ma +k = 0 (89) 2 p 2 D 2 V
V = Ma RTk
2 2

V = Ma c = Ma RTk

d( V 2 ) V2

d ( Ma 2 ) Ma 2

dT (90) T
124

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 4/12

Apply energy equation to Fanno flow
(V) 2 T+ = T0 = cons tan t 2 2c P
(74) is differentiated & divided by T (74)

dT d ( V 2 ) + =0 T 2c P T
2 dT k 1 2 d( V ) + Ma =0 2 T 2 V

(91)

Substituting (14) (36) (46) into (91)

(92)

(92)+(90)

d( V 2 ) V
2

1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma

d ( Ma 2 ) / Ma 2

(93)
125

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 5/12

(77)+(79)+(90)

dp 1 d( V 2 ) d ( Ma 2 ) = 2 p 2 V Ma 2

(94)

(94)+(89)

2 dx 1 d( Ma 2 ) fk 2 d( V ) (1 + kMa ) + Ma 2 =0 2 2 2 V Ma 2 D

(95)

Incorporating (93) into (95)

(1 Ma 2 )d ( Ma 2 ) {1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 }kMa 4

=f

dx D

(96)

(96) can be integrated from one section to another in Fanno flow duct. We elect to use the critical (*) state as a reference and to integrate (96) from an upstream state to the critical state.
126

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 6/12

M* a

(1 Ma 2 ) d ( Ma 2 ) {1 + [( k 1) / 2 ] Ma }kMa
2 4

Ma

l*

dx D

(97)

l is length measured from an arbitrary but fixed upstream reference location to a section on the Fanno flow. Friction factor is constant at an average value over the integration length l*- l. K is also constant.
1 (1 Ma 2 ) k + 1 [( k + 1) / 2]Ma 2 f (l l *) + = ln 2 2 D k Ma 2k 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma

(98)

127

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 7/12

For a given gas, value of f(l*- l)/D can be tabulated as a function of Mach number for Fanno flow. For example, values of f(l*- l)/D for air Fanno flow are graphed as a function of Mach number in Figure D.2. Note that the critical state does not have to be exist in the actual Fanno flow being considered, since for any two sections in a given Fanno flow
f (l * l 2 ) f (l * l1 ) f = (l1 l 2 ) D D D
(99)

The physical meaning of (99)

NEXT PAGE
128

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 8/12

(a) Unchoked Fanno flow. (b) Choked Fanno flow.

129

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 9/12

For a given Fanno flow (constant specific heat ratio, duct diameter, and friction factor) the length of duct required to change the Mach number from Ma1 to Ma2 can be determined from Eqs. (98) and (99) or a graph such as Figure D.2. To get the values of other fluid properties in the Fanno flow field we need to develop more equations.

130

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 10/12

(90)+(92)

(k 1) dT d ( Ma 2 ) = T 2{1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 }

(100)

Integrating Eqs. (100) from any state upstream in a Fanno flow to the critical (*) state
T ( k + 1) / 2 = T * 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2

(101)
= Ma T T*

(68)+(69)

V V*

Ma RTk RT k
*

(102)
1/ 2

Substituting (101) into (102)

V [( k + 1) / 2]Ma 2 = V * 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2

(103)
131

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 11/12

Continuity equation (40) (104)+(103)

V = * V *
2

(104)

V * 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma = = * V [( k + 1) / 2]Ma 2

1/ 2

(105)

Ideal gas (1)

p T = p* * T*

(106)
1/ 2

(106)+(105)+(101)

p 1 ( k + 1) / 2 = p * Ma 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2

(107)

132

Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 12/12

The stagnation pressure ratio
po p* o = po p p * * p p * po
(108)

By using of Eqs. (59) (107)

1 2 k 1 2 = Ma 1 + * 2 p o Ma k + 1 po

[( k +1) / 2( k 1)]

(109)

133

Figure D.2
Value of f(l*- l)/D, T/T*, V/V*, p/p*, and p0/p0* for Fanno flow of air (k=1.4) are graphed as a function of Mach number in Figure D.2.
f (l * l 2 ) f (l * l1 ) f = (l1 l 2 ) D D D
T ( k + 1) / 2 = T * 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2

(99)
1/ 2

(101)
1/ 2

V [( k + 1) / 2]Ma 2 = V * 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2

(103)

p 1 ( k + 1) / 2 = p * Ma 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2

(107)
[( k +1) / 2( k 1)]

1 2 k 1 2 Ma = 1 + * 2 p o Ma k + 1 po

(109)
134

Example 11.12 Choked Fanno Flow 1/2

Standard atmospheric air [T0 = 288K, p0=101 kPa (abs)] is drawn steadily through a frictionless, adiabatic diverging nozzle into an adiabatic, constant area duct as shown in Figure E11.12a. The duct is 2-m long and has an inside diameter of 0.1 m. The average friction factor for the duct is estimated as being equal to 0.02. What is the maximum mass flowrate through the duct? For this maximum flowrate, determine the values of static temperature, static pressure, stagnation temperature, stagnation pressure, and velocity at the inlet [section (1)] and exit [section (2)] of the constant area duct. Sketch a temperature-entropy diagram for this flow.

135

Example 11.12 Choked Fanno Flow 2/2

136

Example 11.12 Solution1/5

Consider the flow through the converging nozzle to be isentropic and the flow through the constant area duct to be Fanno flow. A decrease in the pressure at the exit of the constant area duct (back pressure) causes the mass flowrate through the nozzle and the duct to increase. The flow throughout is subsonic. The maximum flowrate will occur when the back pressure is lowered to the extent that the constant area duct chokes and the Mach number at the duct exit is equal to 1. Any further decrease of back pressure will not affect the flowrate through the nozzle duct combination.

137

Example 11.12 Solution2/5

For the maximum flowrate condition, the constant area duct must be chocked, and
f ( l * l1 ) f ( l 2 l1 ) (0.02)( 2m) = = = 0.4 D D (0.1m)
(11.12.1)

Entering Figure D.2 with f ( l * l 1 ) / D = 0.4 We read

Ma1 = 0.63 V1 = 0.66 V* T1 = 1. 1 T* p1 = 1 .7 p*

p 0,1 p0 *

= 1.16
138

Example 11.12 Solution3/5

Entering Figure D.1 with Ma1=0.63 We read
T1 = 0.93 T0 p1 = 0.76 p 0,1 1 = 0.83 0,1

Since T0=288K

T1 = 0.93T0 = 267.84 K

T* = T1 / 1.1 = 243.49 K

V* = RT * k = ( 286.9J / kg K )( 243.49 K )(1.4) = 312.73( J / Kg)1 / 2 = 312.73m / s

139

Example 11.12 Solution4/5

V1 = 0.66V* = 0.66 312.73m / s = 206.40m / s 1 = 0.83 0,1 = 0.83 1.23kg / m 3 = 1.02 kg / m 3 (0.1m) 2 & m = 1A1V1 = (1.02 kg / m 3 ) ( 206.40m / s) = 4 T1 = 0.93 T0 = 0.93 288K =

p1 = 0.76 p 0,1 = 0.76 101kPa (abs) = 77 kPa (abs)

The stagnation temperature, T0, remain constant through this adiabatic flow at a value of
T0,1 = T0,2 = T0 = 288K
140

Example 11.12 Solution5/5

The stagnation pressure, p0, at the entrance of the constant area duct is the same as the constant value of stagnation pressure through the isentropic nozzle.
p 0,1 = p 0 = 101kPa (abs)

The duct exit pressure

p * p1 1 p 2 = p* = p 0,1 = (0.76)101kPa (abs) = p1 p 0,1 1. 7

The duct exit stagnation pressure p * 1 p 0,2 = p 0 * = 0 p 0,1 = 101kPa (abs) = 84 kPa (abs) p 0,1 1.16

141

Example 11.13 Effect of Duct Length on Choked Fanno Flow

The duct in Example 11.12 is shortened by 50%, but the duct discharge pressure is maintained at the chocked flow value for Example 11.12, namely, Pd=45 kPa (abs) Will shortening the duct cause the mass flowrate through the duct to increase or decrease? Assume that the average friction factor for the duct remains constant at a value of f = 0.02.

142

Example 11.13 Solution1/4

We guess that the shortened duct will still choke and check our assumption by comparing pd with p*. If pd < p*, the flow is chocked. If not, another assumption has to be made. For chocked flow
f ( l * l 1 ) f ( l 2 l 1 ) (0.02)(1m ) = = = 0 .2 D D (0.1m )

Entering Figure D.2 with f ( l * l 1 ) / D = 0.2 We read p1 T1 V1 Ma1 = 0.7 = 1 .5 = 1.05 = 0.73 p* T* V*
143

Example 11.13 Solution2/4

Entering Figure D.1 with Ma1=0.7 We read

T1 = 0.92 T0

p1 = 0.72 p 0,1

1 = 0.79 0,1

The duct exit pressure

1 p * p1 p 2 = p* = p 0,1 = (0.72)101kPa (abs) = 48.5kPa (abs) p1 p 0,1 1 .5

pd<p*. Our assumption of chocked flow is justified.

144

Example 11.13 Solution3/4

1 = 0.79 0,1 = 0.79(1.23kg / m 3 ) = 0.97 kg / m 3
V1 = 0.73 V*

Since T0=288K

T1 = 0.92T0 = 264.96 K

T* = T1 / 1.05 = 253.34 K

V* = RT * k = ( 286.9J / kg K )( 252.34 K )(1.4) = 318.37( J / Kg)1 / 2 = 318.37 m / s

& V1 = 0.73V* = 232.31m / s m = 1A1V1 = 1.77 kg / s
145

Example 11.13 Solution4/4

Conclusion
1. The mass flowrate associated with a shortened tube is large than the mass flowrate for the longer tube. 2. This trend is general for subsonic Fanno flow. 3. For the sane upstream stagnation state and downstream pressure, the mass flowrate for the Fanno flow will decrease with increase in length of duct for subsonic flow. 4. If the length of the duct remains the same but the wall friction is increased, the mass flowrate will decrease.

146

Example 11.14 Unchoked Fanno Flow

If the same flowrate obtained in Example 11.12 is desired through the shortened duct of Example 11.13 ((l2- l1 =1 m), determine the Mach number at the exit of the duct, Ma2, and the back pressure, p2, required. Assume f remain constant at a value of 0.02.

147

Example 11.14 Solution

From Example 11.12, Ma1=0.63 and from Figure D.2
f (l * l1 ) f (l 2 l1 ) f (l * l1 ) f (l * l 2 ) = 0. 4 = D D D D f (l * l 2 ) = 0 .2 D

From Figure D.2, Ma1=0.7 p2 = 1 .5 From Example 11.12 p*

p 2 p * p1 1 p2 = p 0,1 = (1.5) (0.76)101kPa (abs) = 68kPa (abs) p * p1 p 0,1 1 .7
148

Rayleigh flow
Flows with heat transfer without friction

149

Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 1/6

Consider the steady, one-dimensional, and frictionless flow of an ideal gas through the constant area duct with heat transfer. This is Rayleigh Flow. Apply linear momentum equation to Rayleigh flow through the finite control volume
& & p1A1 + mV1 = p 2 A 2 + mV2 + R X
(V) 2 p+ = cons tan t

(110)

Frictionless

150

Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 2/6

(1)+(110)

(V) 2 RT p+ = cons tan t (111) p V = cons tan t

For a given Rayleigh flow, the constant, V, and R are all fixed. Eqs. (111) can be used to determine values of fluid temperature corresponding to the local pressure in a Rayleigh flow.

151

T-s Diagram for Rayleigh Flow

Using Eqs. (76), which was developed earlier from the second Tds relationship. Eqs. (111) and Eqs. (76) can be solved simultaneously to obtain temperature-entropy diagram

(V) 2 RT p+ = cons tan t p

(111) (76)

p T s s1 = c P ln R ln p1 T1

These two equations can be solved simultaneously to obtain the Rayleigh lines.

Rayleigh line.

152

Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 3/6

The physical meaning of point a ?? At point a, ds/dT=0
Differentiating (110) (112)+(18)

dp = VdV
(113)

dp = VdV

(112)

( Tds = dh + VdV

Substituting (7) into (113)

( Tds = dh + VdV = c P dT + VdV ds c p V dV = + dT T T dT

( ( h dh cP = = (7) T dT p

(114)

(114)+(112)+(1)+(77)+(79)

ds c P V dV c P V 1 = + = + dT T T dT T T [( T / V ) ( V / R ) ]

(115)
153

Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 4/6

Hence, at point a where ds/dT=0, (115)
Comparison of (116) and (36)

Va = RTa k

(116)

Mach number at state a Ma a = 1

At point b where dT/ds=0, From (115)

dT 1 1 = = ds ds / dT ( c p / T ) + ( V / T )[( T / V ) ( V / R )] 1
(117)

dT 1 = 0 Ma b = ds k

(118)

The flow at point b is subsonic.

154

Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 5/6

To learn more about Rayleigh flow, we need to consider the energy equation in addition to equation already used. Apply the energy equation to the Rayleigh flow through the finite control volume
2 ( ( V2 V12 & m h 2 h1 + + g( z 2 z1 ) = Q net 2 in

& + Wshaft

net in

or in differential form for Rayleigh flow through the seminfinitesimal control volume (

dh + VdV = q

(119)

The heat transfer per unit mass of fluid in the semi-infinitesimal control volume

155

Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 6/6

( By using dh = c P dT = RkdT /( k 1) into (119)

dV q V dT V ( k 1) = + V c P T T dV kRT
2

(120)

(36)+(46)+(1)+(77)+(79)+(112)+(120)

dV q 1 = V c P T (1 Ma 2 )

(121)

From (121), we see clearly that when the Rayleigh flow is subsonic (Ma<1), fluid heating (q>0) increases fluid velocity while fluid cooling decreases fluid velocity. When the Rayleigh flow is supersonic (Ma>1), fluid heating decrease fluid velocity and fluid cooling increases fluid velocity.
156

Qualitative Aspects of Rayleigh Flow 1/2

(a) Subsonic Rayleigh flow. (b) Supersonic Rayleigh flow. (c) Normal shock in a Rayleigh flow.

157

Qualitative Aspects of Rayleigh Flow 2/2

Along the upper portion of Rayleigh line, which includes point b, the flow is subsonic. Heating the fluids results in flow acceleration to a maximum Mach number of 1 at point a. Between points b and a along the Rayleigh line, heating the fluids results in a temperature decrease and cooling the fluids leads a temperature increase. Along the lower portion of the Rayleigh line the flow is supersonic. Rayleigh flows may or may not be chocked. As with Fanno flow, an abrupt deceleration from supersonic flow to subsonic flow across a normal shock wave can also occur in Rayleigh flows.
158

Quantify Rayleigh Flow Behavior 1/4

To quantify Rayleigh flow behavior we need to develop appropriate forms of the governing equations We elect to use the state of the Rayleigh flow fluid at point a as the reference state. Apply the linear momentum equation to Rayleigh flow between any upstream section and the section, actual or imaged, where state a is attained.
2 p + V 2 = p a + a Va

a 2 p V 2 + =1+ Va pa pa pa

(122)
159

Quantify Rayleigh Flow Behavior 2/4

Substituting (1) into (122) and making use of (36)+(46) From (1)

T p a = Ta p a

p 1+ k = p a 1 + kMa 2
(124)

(123)

From (40) with constant A (125)+(36)+(46)

a V = Va

(125) (126)

a T = Ma Ta
T p = Ma Ta p a
2

(124)+(126)

(127)
160

Quantify Rayleigh Flow Behavior 3/4

(127)+(123)
T (1 + k ) Ma = Ta 1 + kMa 2
2

(128)

(125)+(126)+(128)

a V (1 + k ) Ma = = Ma Va 1 + kMa 2

(129)

The energy equation tells us that because of the heat transfer involved in Rayleigh flows, the stagnation temperature varies.

To To T = To, a T Ta

Ta T o ,a

(130)

161

Quantify Rayleigh Flow Behavior 4/4

(130)+(56)+(128)

To T o, a

k 1 2( k + 1) Ma 1 + Ma 2 2 = (1 + kMa 2 ) 2
2

(131)

p o p po = p p p 0 ,a a
(132)+(123)+(59)

p a p 0 ,a

(132)

p0 1+ k = p 0,a 1 + kMa 2

2 k 1 2 Ma 1 + 2 k + 1

k / k 1

(133)

162

Figure D.3
Value of p/pa, T/Ta, /a or V/Va, T0/T0,a, and p0/p0,a are graphed in Figure D.3 as a function of Mach number for Rayleigh flow of air (k=1.4).

p 1+ k = p a 1 + kMa 2

(123)

T (1 + k ) Ma = (128) Ta 1 + kMa 2
2

To a V (1 + k ) Ma = = Ma (129) To, a Va 1 + kMa 2

k 1 Ma 2 2( k + 1) Ma 1 + 2 = (131) 2 2 (1 + kMa )

p0 1+ k = p 0,a 1 + kMa 2

2 k 1 1+ Ma 2 2 k + 1

k / k 1

(133)
163

Example 11.15 Rayleigh Flow

Air (k=1.4) enters [section (1)] a frictionless, constant flow cross0sectional area duct with the following properties (the same as in Example 11.11): T0=518.67R T1=514.55R p1=14.3 psia For Rayleigh flow, determine corresponding value of fluid temperature and entropy change for various values of downstream pressures and plot the related Rayleigh line.

164

Example 11.15 Solution1/3

To plot the Rayleigh line we use Eq. (111) and (76)

(V) 2 RT p+ = cons tan t p T p s s1 = c P ln R ln T1 p1

k = 1.4 R = 1716(ft lb ) /(slug R ) = 53.3(ft lb ) /(lbm R )
From Eq. (14) c = Rk = ... = 187(ft lb ) /(lbm R ) p

k 1
2

V = 16.7lbm /(ft s)

RT1 = ... = 13.3ft 3 / lbm p1

165

Example 11.15 Solution2/3

(V) 2 RT p+ = 15.10psia = cons tan t p With the downstream pressure of p=13.5 psia
(V) 2 RT p+ = 13.5psia + [1.65 10 3 (lb / in.2 ) / R ]T = 15.10psia p T = 979R

T p s s1 = c P ln R ln = ... = 121(ft lb) /(lbm R ) T1 p1

With the downstream pressure of p=12.5 psia
166

Example 11.15 Solution3/3

167

Example 11.16 Effect of Mach Number and Heating/Cooling for Rayleigh Flow
The information in Table 11.2 shows us that subsonic Rayleigh flow accelerates when heated and decelerates when cooled. Supersonic Rayleigh flow behaves just opposite to subsonic Rayleigh flow; it decelerates when heated and accelerates when cooled. Using Figure D.3 for air (k=1.4), state whether velocity, Mach number, static temperature, static pressure, and stagnation pressure increase or decrease as subsonic and supersonic Rayleigh flow is (a) heated, (b) cooled.

168

Example 11.16 Solution

169

Normal Shock Wave 1/3

Normal shock wave can occur in supersonic flows through converging-diverging and constant area ducts. Normal shock waves involve deceleration from a supersonic flow to a subsonic flow, a pressure rise, and an increase of entropy. To develop the equations that verify the observed behavior of flows across a normal shock, we apply first principle to the flow through a control volume that completely surrounds a normal shock wave.
170

Normal Shock Wave 2/3

For steady flow through the control volume, the conservation of mass principle yields V = cons tan t (134) because the flow cross-sectional area remains essentially constant within the infinitesimal thickness of the normal shock.. Equation (134) is identical to the continuity equation used for Fanno and Rayleigh flows. The linear momentum equation describing steady gas flow through the control volume is
(V) 2 RT For ideal gas p + V = cons tan t p+ = cons tan t (135) p
2

Linear momentum equation (111) of Rayleigh flow 171

Normal Shock Wave 3/3

For the control volume containing the normal shock, no shaft work is involved and the heat transfer is assumed negligible. Thus, the energy equation can be applied to steady gas flow through the control volume to obtain
( V ( h+ = h 0 = cons tan t 2
2

( ( For ideal gas h h 0 = c p (T T0 )

(136)

p = RT

(V )2 T 2 T+ = To = cons tan t 2 2 2c P ( p / R )

Energy equation (75) of Fanno flow

172

T-s Diagram for Normal Shock

The steady flow of an ideal gas across a normal shock is governed by some of the same equation used for describing Fanno and Rayleigh flows (energy equation for Fanno flows and momentum equation for Rayleigh flows). For a given V, gas (R,k), and conditions at the inlet of normal shock (Tx, x, and sx), the conditions downstream of the shock (state y) will be on both a Fanno line and a Rayleigh line that pass through the inlet state (state x).
173

Equation for Normal Shock Wave

The energy equation for Fanno flow and the momentum equation for Rayleigh flow are valid for flow across normal shocks.

174

Normal Shock Wave

The second law of thermodynamics requires that entropy must increase across a normal shock wave. This law and sketches of the Fanno line and Rayleigh line intersections persuade us to conclude that flow across a normal shock can only proceed from supersonic to subsonic flow. Since the state upstream and downstream of a normal shock wave are represented by the supersonic and subsonic intersections of actual and/or imaged Fanno and Rayleigh lines.

We should be able to use equations developed earlier for Fanno and Rayleigh flows to quantify normal shock wave.
175

Normal Shock Wave py/px 1/2

For the Rayleigh line
Momentum equation for Rayleigh flow

p y pa = p x pa p x

py

(137)

p 1+ k = (123) From 2 p a 1 + kMa

py pa = 1+ k 1 + kMa 2 y
(138)

px 1+ k = p a 1 + kMa 2 x

(139) (b) The normal shock in a Rayleigh flow 176

Normal Shock Wave py/px 2/2

(137)+(138)+(139)

py px

1 + kMa 2 x 1 + kMa 2 y

(140)

Equation (140) can also be derived by ..

py p * = px p * px p 1 ( k + 1) / 2 = p * Ma 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2
1/ 2

py

(107)

1 + kMa 2 x = p x 1 + kMa 2 y py

(140)

From linear momentum equation 2 2 p x + x Vx = p y + y Vy

V 2 / p = V 2 / RT = kV 2 / RTk = kMa 2
177

Normal Shock Wave Ty/Tx 1/2

For the Fanno flow
Energy equation for Fanno flow

Ty T * = Tx T * Tx

Ty

(141)

T ( k + 1) / 2 = From T * 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2

(101)

Ty T*

( k + 1) / 2 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 y

(142)

Tx ( k + 1) / 2 = T * 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 x

(143) (a) The normal shock in a Fanno flow 178

Normal Shock Wave Ty/Tx 2/2

(141)+(142)+(143)

Ty Tx

1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 x 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 y

(144)

179

Normal Shock Wave May 1/2

To develop an equation to determine the Mach number downstream of the normal shock, May, when the Mach number upstream of the normal shock, Max, is known.
(1)

py px

Ty y Tx x
py

x Vx = y Vy

(145)

Ty Vx = p x Tx Vy
(147)

py

(146)

(146)+(36)+(46)

Ty = p x Tx

1/ 2

Ma x Ma y
1/ 2

(147)+(144)

p y 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 x = p x 1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 y

Ma x Ma y

(148)
180

Normal Shock Wave May 2/2

(148)+(140)

Ma 2 = y

Ma 2 + [2 /( k 1)] x [2 k /( k 1)]Ma 2 x 1

(149)

Equation (149) can be used to calculate values of Mach number downstream of a normal shock from a known Mach number of the shock. Max>1..May<1

181

Normal Shock Wave py/px Ty/Tx 1/2

(149)+(140)

k 1 2k 2 = Ma x px k + 1 k +1
Ty Tx = {( k + 1)
(152)
2

py

(150)

(149)+(144)

{1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 }{[2k /( k 1)]Ma 2 1} x x /[2( k 1)]}Ma 2 x

(151)

(40)

Vx = x Vy

(152)+(1)

p y Tx = x p x Ty

(153)

182

Normal Shock Wave py/px Ty/Tx 2/2

(152)+(153)+(150)+(151)

Vx ( k + 1) Ma 2 x = = x Vy ( k 1) Ma 2 + 2 x

(154)

The stagnation pressure ratio across the shock

p 0,y p 0,x p 0,y = py p y p x p x p 0,x
(155)

(59)+(149)+(150)

p 0,y p 0,x

+ ( k 2 1 Ma

2 k /( k 1 ) ) (1 + k 2 1 Ma 2 ) k /( 1 k ) x x k k ( k2+ 1 Ma 2 k + 1 ) 1 /( k 1 ) x 1

(156)
183

Figure D.4
Value of downstream Mach numbers, May, pressure ration, py/px, temperature ratio, Ty/Tx, density ratio, y/x or velocity ratio Vy/Vx, and stagnation pressure ratio, p0,y/p0,x are graphed in Figure D.4 as a function of upstream Mach number, Max, for the steady flow across a normal shock wave of an ideal gas having a specific heat ratio k=1.4.
Ma 2 y
Ty Tx =

Ma 2 + [2 /( k 1)] x [2 k /( k 1)]Ma 2 x
{( k + 1)
2

(149)

py px

2k k 1 Ma 2 x k +1 k +1
y

(150)

{1 + [( k 1) / 2]Ma 2 }{[2k /( k 1)]Ma 2 1} x x /[2( k 1)]}Ma 2 x

+ ( k 2 1 Ma

Vx ( k + 1) Ma 2 x = = (151) x Vy ( k 1) Ma 2 + 2 x

(154)

p 0,y p 0,x

2 k /( k 1 ) (1 + k 2 1 Ma 2 ) k /( 1 k ) x) x k k ( k2+ 1 Ma 2 k + 1 ) 1 /( k 1 ) x 1

(156)
184

Summary of Normal Shock Wave

185

Example 11.17 Stagnation Pressure Drop Across a Normal Shock

Designers involved with fluid mechanics work hard at minimizing loss of available energy in their designs. Adiabatic, frictionless flows involve no loss in available energy. Entropy remains constant for these idealized flows. Adiabatic flows with friction involve available energy loss and entropy increase. Generally, larger entropy increases imply larger losses. For normal shocks, shows that the stagnation pressure drop (and thus loss) is larger for heigher Mach number.

186

Example 11.17 Solution

p 0,y p 0,x =
+ ( k 2 1 Ma 2 k /( k 1 ) (1 + k 2 1 Ma 2 ) k /( 1 k ) x x) k k ( k2+ 1 Ma 2 k + 1 ) 1 /( k 1 ) x 1

k=1.4

p 0,y p 0,x

p 0,x p 0,y p 0,x

2k k 1 2 = Ma x px k + 1 k +1

py

187

Example 11.18 Supersonic Flow Pitot Tube

A total pressure probe is inserted into a supersonic air flow. A shock wave forms just upstream of the impact hole and head as illustrated in Figure E11.18. The probe measures a total pressure of 60 psia. The stagnation temperature at the probe head is 1000R. The static pressure upstream of the shock is measured will a wall tap to be 12 psia. From these data determine the Mach number and velocity of the flow.

188

Example 11.18 Solution1/3

We assume that the flow along the stagnation pathline is isentropic except across the shock. Also, the shock is treated as a normal shock.
p 0,y px p 0,y = p 0,x p 0,x p x
(11.18-1)

Where p0,y is the stagnation pressure measured by the probe, and px is the static pressure measured by the wall trap. The stagnation pressure upstream of the shock, p0,x, is not measured.
(11.18-1)+(156)+(59)

p 0,y px

+ ( k 2 1 Ma k ( k2+ 1 Ma

2 k /( k 1 ) x) 2 k k + 1 ) 1 /( k 1 ) x 1
189

Called the Rayleigh Pitot-tube formula

Example 11.18 Solution2/3

For k=1.4
p 0,y px 60 psia = =5 12 psia
Figure D.4

Max=1.9

To determine the flow velocity we need to know the static temperature upstream of the shock.

V x = Ma x c x = Ma

RT x k

The stagnation temperature downstream of the shock was measured and found to be

T o , y = 1000 R T o , x = T o , y = 1000 R
190

Example 11.18 Solution3/3

From
T 1 = 2 To 1 + k 1 M a 2

or Figure D.1

Tx = 0.59 Tx = 590R To,x

V x = Ma

RT x k = 1 . 9

191

Example 11.19 Normal Shock in a Converging-Diverging Duct

Determine, for the converging-diverging duct of Example 11.8, the ratio of back pressure to inlet stagnation pressure, pIII/pa, that will result in a standing normal shock at the exit (x=+0.5 m) of the duct. What value of the ratio of back pressure to inlet stagnation pressure would be required to position the shock at x=+0.3 m? Show related temperature-entropy diagrams for these flows.

192

Example 11.19 Solution1/4

For supersonic, isentropic flow through the nozzle to just upstream of the standing normal shock at the duct exit, we have from the table of Example 11.8 at x= +0.5m.

M a x = 2 .8

px = 0 . 04 p 0 ,x

From Figure D.4 for Max=2.8 we obtain

py px

= 9 .0
py p 0 ,x p y p x = p p x 0,x = ( 9 . 0 )( 0 . 04 ) = 0 . 36 = p III p 0 ,x

193

Example 11.19 Solution2/4

When the ratio of duct back pressure to inlet stagnation pressure, pIII/p0,x, is set equal to 0.36, the air will accelerate through the converging-diverging duct to a Mach number of 2.8 at the duct exit. The air will subsequently decelerate to a subsonic flow across a normal shock at the duct exit. The stagnation pressure ratio across the normal shock, p0,y/p0,x, is 0.38 (Figure D.4 for Max=2.8) A considerable amount of available energy is lost across the shock. For a normal shock at x=+0.3 m, we note from the table of Example 11.8 that Max=2.14 and

px = 0 . 10 p 0,x

194

Example 11.19 Solution3/4

From Figure D.4 for Max=2.14 we obtain py/px=5.2 and May=0.56 and p 0,y = 0 . 66 p 0,x From Figure D.4 for May=0.56 we get
Ay A* = 1 . 24

For x = +0.3m, the ratio of duct exit area to local area (A2/Ay) is
Ay A2 A2 0 .1 + ( 0 .5 ) 2 A2 = = 1 . 842 = = 2 . 28 2 Ay 0 .1 + ( 0 .3 ) A * A * Ay

195

Example 11.19 Solution4/4

With A2/A*=2.28 we use Figure D.1 and find Ma2=0.26 and
p2 = 0 . 95 p 0,y
p2 p 2 p 0 ,y = = ( 0 . 95 )( 0 . 66 ) = 0 . 63 p 0 ,x p 0,y p 0 ,x

196

Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel Flow 1/6

The propagation of weak pressure pulse (sound wave) in a compressible flow can be considered to be comparable to the movement of small amplitude waves on the surface of an openchannel flow. The influence of the flow velocity on wave pattern is similar: When the flow velocity is less than the wave speed, wave fronts can move upstream of the wave source and the flow is subsonic (compressible flow) or subcritical (open-channel flow). When the flow velocity is equal to the wave speed, wave fronts cannot move upstream of the wave source and the flow is sonic (compressible flow) or critical (open-channel flow).
197

Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel Flow 2/6

When the flow velocity is greater than the wave speed, the flow is supersonic (compressible flow) or supercritical (open-channel flow). Normal shock can occur in supersonic compressible flows. Hydraulic jumps can occur in supercritical open-channel flows.

198

Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel Flow 3/6

For compressible flows, Mach number
Ma = V c

For open-channel flows, Froude number Fr = Voc

c oc = gy
(158)

gy

(157) (159)

Voc Fr = c oc

Voc is the velocity of the channel flow coc is the velocity of a small amplitude wave on the surface of an open-channel flow
199

Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel Flow 4/6

For compressible flows, Continuity equation AV = cons tan t
(160)

For open-channel flows, Continuity equation ybVoc = cons tan t (161) y and b are the depth and width of the open-channel flow. Comparing Eqs. (160) and (161) we note that if flow velocities are considered similar and flow area, A, and channel width, b, are considered similar, the compressible flow density, , is analogous to open-channel depth, y.

200

Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel Flow 5/6

It should be pointed out that the similarity between Mach number and Froude number is generally not exact. If compressible flow and open-channel flow velocities are considered to be similar, then it follows that for Mach number and Froude number similarity the wave speeds c and coc must also be similar. From the development of the equation for the speed of sound in an ideal gas

c = (cons tan t ) k k 1

(162)

201

Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel Flow 6/6

From equation (162) and (158), we see that if y is to be similar to as suggested by comparing equation (160) and (161), then k

should be equal to 2. Typically k=1.4 or 1.67, not 2. This limitation to exactness is, however, usually not serious enough to compromise the benefits of the analogy between compressible and open-channel flows.

202

Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 1/8

Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with a small change of direction The component of velocity parallel to the Mach wave is constant across the Mach wave. That is, Vt1=Vt2. The flow accelerates because of the change in direction of the flow.
Flow acceleration across a Mach wave.
203

Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 2/8

Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with several change of direction The supersonic flow accelerates because of the change in flow direction across the Mach wave (also called expansion waves). Each Mach wave makes an appropriately smaller angle with the upstream wall.
Flow acceleration across a Mach wave.
204

Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 3/8

Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with round corner A rounder expansion corner may be considered as a series of infinitesimal changes in direction.

Corner expansion fan..

205

Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 4/8

Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with a small change of direction The flow decelerates and static pressure increases across the Mach wave.

Flow deceleration across a Mach wave

206

Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 5/8

Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with several change of direction For several changes in wall direction, several Mach waves occur. The supersonic flow decelerates across the Mach wave.

Corner expansion fan..

207

Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 6/8

Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with round corner A rounder compression corner may be considered as a series of infinitesimal changes in direction.

Oblique shock wave.

208

Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 7/8

Consider a supersonic flow incident on a wedge-shaped leading edge with smaller wedge angle. An attached oblique shock can form.

Supersonic flow over a wedge: (a) Smaller wedge angle results in attached oblique shock.

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Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 8/8

Consider a supersonic flow incident on a wedge-shaped leading edge with larger wedge angle. A detached, curved shock ahead of a blunt object can result.

Supersonic flow over a wedge: (b) Large wedge angle results in detached curve shock.

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