Ju Project

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier
Acknowledgement
I express my sincere gratitude to my mentor Prof. Baidyanath Ray for helping me throughout, with his valuable and worthwhile experience. He regularly gave me various ideas and suggestions through which i learnt the subject in a practical approach. His encouraging words constantly inspired me to be innovative in my approach and to cross the incoming hurdles in an efficient manner. I also extend my thanks to the department for providing me with the technical facilities as and when required. I am also highly obliged to the Officer-In-charge of Defence Research and Develoment Organization, Advanced Technology Cell, Jadavpur University for accepting my project concept. They granted Rs.7,000/- as economical help for our project purpose and Rs.3,000/- as scholarship.
SIGNATURE OF STUDENT
BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier Contents

LIST OF FIGURES 1. ABSTRACT 2. MODULATION 2.1 Overview 2.2 Purpose of Modulation 2.3 Digital Modulation 2.4 Fundamental Digital Modulation Methods 3. BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Modulation Technique 3.3 Demodulation Technique 4. OSCILLATOR 4.1 Overview of Oscillator 4.2 Principle of Operation 4.3 Stability of Oscillator 4.4 Types of Oscillators 5.VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR 5.1 Overview 5.2 Types of VCOs 5.3 VCO time-domain equations 5.4 VCO frequency-domain equations 5.5 VCO Parameters 5.6 VCO Applications
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Contents
6.PHASE SHIFTER 6.1 Overview 6.2 Classification 7.CURRENT MODE DEVICE 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Current Conveyor 7.3 Switched Capacitor 7.4 Differential Pair Transconductor 7.5 Cross-Coupled Differential Pair 7.6 Operational Transconductance Amplifier 7.7 Reasons For Choosing OTA as Main Building Block 7.8 Model Parameter Of MOS Used For Simulation 8.BLOCK DIAGRAMS 8.1 Voltage Controlled Oscillator 8.2 Phase Shifter 8.3 BPSK Modulator 9.SIMULATED OUTPUT 9.1 Lineariaty Check 9.2 Voltage Controlled Oscillator 9.3 Phase Shifter 9.4 BPSK Modulator
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BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier Contents

10. SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION 10.1 DESIGN OF LFSR 10.2 DESIGN OF FCSR 10.3 DESIGN OF MODULATOR 11. PROGRAM & OUTPUT 11.1 LFSR PROGRAM 11.2 LFSR PROGRAM OUTPUT 11.3 FCSR PROGRAM 11.4 FCSR PROGRAM OUTPUT 11.5 COSINE PROGRAM 11.6 MODULATION PROGRAM 11.7 MODULATION PROGRAM OUTPUT
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12.APPLICATIONS IN DEFENCE 13.FUTURE PROSPECTS 14.REFERENCES 44 45
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BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier LIST OF FIGURES Figure

3.1 Block diagram of BPSK modulator 3.2 waveform of BPSK modulation 3.3 BPSK constellation diagram 3.4 Block diagram of BPSK demodulator 4.1 Block diagram of a positive feedback network 4.2 Bode Plot of an Unstable System 4.3 Pole Location of Stable & Unstable System 5.1 VCO Response Curve 7.1 Black box representation of the current conveyor 7.2 Nullator-norator representation of CCI 7.3 First-order CMOS implementation of CCI 7.4 Nullator-norator representation of CCII 7.5 Switched capacitor non-inverting integrator 7.6 Differential pair transconductor 7.7 Cross-coupled differential pairs 7.8 (a) Schematic of OTA (b) Equivalent circuit of OTA 7.9 Structure of proposed OTA 7.10 High frequency half equivalent circuit model of OTA 7.11 Simplified circuit model of OTA 8.1Block Diagram of VCO using OTA 8.2Block Diagram of PhaseShifter using OTA 8.3 Block Diagram of BPSK Modulator using OTA
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Figure
9.1 Waveform for Linearity Check 9.2 Waveform for VCO 9.3 Waveform for Phase Shifter 9.4 Waveform for BPSK Modulation Bit 1 9.5 Waveform for BPSK Modulation Bit 0 10.1 Block Diagram of Linear Feedback Shift Register 10.2 Block Diagram of Feedback Carry Shift Register
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Abstract
In a communication system message signals are transferred between two entities via a communication channel. However, depending on the channel and signal frequency domain characteristics, the message signals produced by various information sources are not always suitable for direct transmission over a given channel. When signal and channel frequency bands do not match exactly, channels can not be moved. Hence, messages must be moved to the right channel frequency bandwidth. Message signals must therefore be further modified to facilitate transmission. In this conversion process known as modulation, the baseband signal is used to modify one or more parameters of a radio-frequency(RF) carrier signal. There are two types of modulation techniques:I. II. Analog Modulation. Digital Modulation.
In analog modulation, the message transmitted through the channel is analog in nature. Whereas in digital modulation the message transmitted through the channel is digital. Because of the various advantages of digital communication digital modulation is widely used. Now, any signal can be characterized by three parameters: amplitude, phase & frequency. Thus, by changing one or more of these three parameters of the carrier signal different modulation schemes can be observed. Different digital modulation schemes are as follows: Binary Amplitude Shift Keying(BASK) Binary Phase Shift Keying(BPSK) Binary Frequency Shift Keying(BFSK) Quadrature Amplitude Shift Keying(QASK) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(QPSK) Quadrature Frequency Shift Keying(QFSK) Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM) M-ary Amplitude Shift Keying(MASK) M-ary Phase Shift Keying(MPSK) M-ary Frequency Shift Keying(MFSK) etc.
In BPSK modulation technique, our topic of discussion, two different phases of the carrier signal is used to modulate the two bits 1 and 0.
To generate the carrier signal an oscillator is required . An oscillator is an electronic device that generates a repetitive electronic signal by using positive feedback. The main factor of
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any oscillator is its stability. For the purpose of modulation different carrier signals with different frequencies are required. If different oscillators are to be used for each of the carrier then the cost of communication will increase sufficiently. To overcome this situation voltage controlled oscillator is used so that one voltage source can be used to tune to different frequencies. Analog design has historically been viewed as a voltage dominated form of signal processing. This has been apparent in analog IC design where generally current signals are readily transferred into the voltage domain before any analog signal processing takes place. A key performance feature of current mode processing is inherent wide bandwidth capability. Recent advances in integrated circuit technologies have meant that the analog IC design is now able to exploit the potential of current mode analog signal processing, providing attractive and elegant solutions for many circuit and system problems. The basic building block in this project is an operational transconductance amplifier(OTA) which is a current mode device. It is basically a cross-coupled differential amplifier with an output current that depends on the difference in voltage at the inputs. The reason for choosing OTA as the building block is its high bandwith, large transconductance and good linearity property. OTA is advantageous over other current mode device like JFET, MOSFET in the sense that OTA has the much higher capability of withstanding the noise & atmospheric attenuation. It has linear transconductance charactaristics with respect to the amplifier bias current, this can be considered as a gain controlled block It has a good power supply rejection & common mode rejection than any differential amplifier, above other mentioned This is the cause of choosing this device as a basic building block of our modulator.
Frequency hopping is the most popular method of transmitting/receiving radio signals by periodically switching carrier frequencies. It is realized by using pseudo-random sequences generated by hopping algorithms. As carrier frequency changes continually, it provides an effective firewall against the adversarys ability to follow the changes in carrier frequency. Thus, the adversary encounters difficulty to recover the data or information being carried. In addition, the frequency hopping provides an effective tool for protection against frequency jamming by adversaries. The switching of carrier frequencies is done with the help of FCSR (Feedback Carry Shift Register), which produces pseudo-random sequence. The basic building block of any FCSR is an LFSR (Linear Feedback Shift Register).
MODULATION
2.1 Overview
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high-frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal which typically contains information to be transmitted. Any of these properties can be modified in accordance with a low frequency signal to obtain the modulated signal. Typically a high-frequency sinusoid waveform is used as carrier signal, but a square wave pulse train may also be used. In telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine waveform is used to transform a baseband message signal into a passband signal, for example low-frequency audio signal into a radio-frequency signal (RF signal). In radio communications, cable TV systems or the public switched telephone network for instance, electrical signals can only be transferred over a limited passband frequency spectrum, with specific (non-zero) lower and upper cutoff frequencies. Modulating a sine-wave carrier makes it possible to keep the frequency content of the transferred signal as close as possible to the centre frequency (typically the carrier frequency) of the passband. A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device that performs the inverse operation of modulation is known as a demodulator (sometimes detector or demod). A device that can do both operations is a modem (from "modulatordemodulator"). If we look at a general function for a sinusoid:
we can see that this sinusoid has 3 parameters that can be altered, to affect the shape of the graph. The first term, A, is called the magnitude, or amplitude of the sinusoid. The next term, is known as the frequency, and the last term, be altered to transmit data. is known as the phase angle. All 3 parameters can
The sinusoidal signal that is used in the modulation is known as the carrier signal, or simply "the carrier". The signal that is used in modulating the carrier signal(or sinusoidal signal) is known as the "data signal" or the "message signal". It is important to notice that a simple sinusoidal carrier contains no information of its own.

In other words we can say that modulation is used because the some data signals are not always suitable for direct transmission, but the modulated signal may be more suitable.
2.2 Purpose of Modulation

The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog bandpass channel, for example over the public switched telephone network (where a bandpass filter limits the frequency range to between 300 and 3400 Hz), or over a limited radio frequency band. The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or lowpass) signal, for example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog bandpass channel at a different frequency, for example over a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel. Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing (FDM), where several low pass information signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared physical medium, using separate passband channels (several different carrier frequencies). The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to transfer a digital bit stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire such as a serial bus or a wired local area network. The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for example a phone call over a wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as a bit stream over another digital transmission system.
2.3 Digital Modulation

In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a discrete signal. Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-to-analog conversion, and the corresponding demodulation or detection as analog-to-digital conversion. The changes in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M alternative symbols (the modulation alphabet). According to one definition of digital signal, the modulated signal is a digital signal, and according to another definition, the modulation is a form of digital-to-analog conversion. Most textbooks would consider digital modulation schemes as a form of digital transmission, synonymous to data transmission; very few would consider it as analog transmission.
2.4 Fundamental Digital Modulation Methods:

The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are based on keying:
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In the case of PSK (phase-shift keying), a finite number of phases are used. In the case of FSK (frequency-shift keying), a finite number of frequencies are used. In the case of ASK (amplitude-shift keying), a finite number of amplitudes are used. In the case of QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation), a finite number of at least two phases, and at least two amplitudes are used. In QAM, an inphase signal (the I signal, for example a cosine waveform) and a quadrature phase signal (the Q signal, for example a sine wave) are amplitude modulated with a finite number of amplitudes, and summed. It can be seen as a two-channel system, each channel using ASK. The resulting signal is equivalent to a combination of PSK and ASK. In all of the above methods, each of these phases, frequencies or amplitudes are assigned a unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase, frequency or amplitude encodes an equal number of bits. This number of bits comprises the symbol that is represented by the particular phase, frequency or amplitude. If the alphabet consists of symbols/second (or baud), the data rate is alternative symbols, each symbol represents a bit/second.
message consisting of N bits. If the symbol rate (also known as the baud rate) is
For example, with an alphabet consisting of 16 alternative symbols, each symbol represents 4 bits. Thus, the data rate is four times the baud rate. In the case of PSK, ASK or QAM, where the carrier frequency of the modulated signal is constant, the modulation alphabet is often conveniently represented on a constellation diagram, showing the amplitude of the I signal at the x-axis, and the amplitude of the Q signal at the yaxis, for each symbol.
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Binary Phase Shift Keying

3.1 Introduction
Communication is the activity of conveying information. Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high-frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal which typically contains information to be transmitted. There are two types of modulation analog and digital. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) is one digital modulation technique where the phase of the carrier signal is varied according to the digital message signal.
3.2 Modulation Technique
Input Bit Stream
Serial to Parallel Converter
Sum
Phase Shifter
modulated signal
oscillator
Fig 3.1 Block diagram of BPSK modulator
The general form for BPSK follows the equation:
(3.2.1) This yields two phases, 0 and . In the specific form, binary data is often conveyed with the following signals:
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for binary "0"
(3.2.2) for binary "1"
(3.2.3) where fc is the frequency of the carrier-wave.
Here the carrier signal is used to modulate bit 1 and the shifted carrier is used to modulate bit 0.
Fig 3.2 waveform of BPSK modulation The main parts of a BPSK modulator is a VCO for the generation of carrier signal, a phase shifter for the generation of phase-shifted carrier and the main modulator part.
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The constellation diagram is shown in Fig 3.3
Fig 3.3 BPSK constellation diagram
3.3 Demodulation Technique

Modulated signal
LPF Decision
1 0
Carrier Fig 3.4 Block diagram of BPSK demodulator The information in PSK signals resides in the carrier phase. Envelope detection can not be used for the demodulation of BPSK signal as the envelope stays constant for both 1 and 0. Therefore, coherent detection is used for the demodulation of BPSK signals. Here the modulated signal is multiplied with the carrier, passed through an LPF and then sent to a decision device which is nothing but a comparator. If the input to the decision device is greater than zero then it decides in favour of bit 1 whereas if it is less than zero it decides in favour of bit 0. The bit error rate (BER) of BPSK in AWGN can be calculated as
or
(3.3.1)
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Since there is only one bit per symbol, this is also the symbol error rate.
Oscillator
4.1 Overview of Oscillator
An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. They are widely used in many electronic devices. Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games. Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal: an audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, about 16 Hz to 20 kHz. An RF oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency (RF) range of about 100 kHz to 100 GHz. A lowfrequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates a frequency below 20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator. The mathematical expression for oscillation is given by
(4.1.1) This equation is linear in . By assumption, the parameters and and/or depend only on time are assumed to
and do not depend on the state of the oscillator. In general, vary periodically, with the same period.
4.2Principle of Operation
An oscillator operates on the principle of positive feedback. The block diagram of a positive feedback network is given below: Vi(s)
G(s)
Vo(s)
H(s)
Fig 4.1 Block diagram of a positive feedback network
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The transfer function is given by T(s) = Vo(s) / Vi(s) = G(s) / [1+G(s)H(s)] (4.2.1)
Now, if the feedback factor G(s)H(s) = -1 , then T(s) becomes infinite and we get a very large output with negligible input. This is the Barkhausen Criterion for oscillation. Taking G(s)H(s) = x and expanding binomially, eqn (4.2.1) can be written as Vo(s) = Vi(s)G(s) .[1+x+x2+x3+x4+. upto infinite.] So , when x=1 , Vo(s) = infinite. Oscillations will not be sustained if the value of feedback factor x is less than unity. In practice, the feedback factor is always slightly less than unity for the stability purpose. So the eqn (4.2.2) can be written as (neglecting higher order components) Vo(s) = Vi(s)G(s) . [1+x+x2] (4.2.3) (4.2.2)
4.3 Stability of Oscillator

Stability of any electronic component can be expressed in terms of its Bode plot.A Bode plot is a parametric plot of a transfer function used in automatic control and signal processing. Illustrated in Fig 4.2, the situation can be viewed as excessive loop gain at the frequency for which the phase shift reaches -1800 or, equivalently, excessive phase at the frequency for ehich the loop gain drops to unity. Thus, to avoid instability, we must minimize the total phase shift so that for |H| = 1, H is still more positive than / -1800. 20log|H(w)| Excessive Gain 0 0 -1800 w (log scale) w (log scale)
/ H(w)
Excessive Phase
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Fig 4.2 Bode Plot of an Unstable System It is also instructive to plot the location of poles of a closed loop system on a complex plane. If the poles lie on the right half plane then the system will oscillate. If they lie on the imaginary axis then the sytem will sustain oscillations. If the poles lie on the left half then the oscillations will die out.
Fig 4.3 Pole Location of Stable & Unstable System
4.4 Types of Oscillators

There are two main types of electronic oscillator: the linear or harmonic oscillator and the nonlinear or relaxation oscillator. 1.Linear oscillator:
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The harmonic, or linear, oscillator produces a sinusoidal output. The basic form of a linear oscillator is an electronic amplifier connected in a feedback loop with its output fed back into its input through a frequency selective electronic filter to provide positive feedback. When the power supply to the amplifier is first switched on, the amplifier's output consists only of noise. The noise travels around the loop and is filtered and reamplified until it increasingly resembles a sine wave at a single frequency.
Linear oscillator circuits can be classified according to the type of frequency selective filter they use in the feedback loop:
In an RC oscillator circuit, the filter is a network of resistors and capacitors. RC oscillators are mostly used to generate lower frequencies, for example in the audio range. Common types of RC oscillator circuits are the phase shift oscillator and the Wien bridge oscillator. In an LC oscillator circuit, the filter is a tuned circuit (often called a tank circuit) consisting of an inductor (L) and capacitor (C) connected together Charge flows back and forth between the capacitor's plates through the inductor, so the tuned circuit can store electrical energy oscillating at its resonant frequency. There are small losses in the tank circuit, but the amplifier compensates for those losses and supplies the power for the output signal. LC oscillators are often used at radio frequencies, when a tunable frequency source is necessary, such as in signal generators, tunable radio transmitters and the local oscillators in radio receivers. Typical LC oscillator circuits are the Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp circuits. In a crystal oscillator circuit the filter is a piezoelectric crystal (commonly a quartz crystal). The crystal mechanically vibrates as a resonator, and its frequency of vibration determines the oscillation frequency. Crystals have very high Q-factor and also better temperature stability than tuned circuits, so crystal oscillators have much better frequency stability than LC or RC oscillators. They are used to stabilize the frequency of most radio transmitters, and to generate the clock signal in computers and quartz clocks. Crystal oscillators often use the same circuits as LC oscillators, with the crystal replacing the tuned circuit;[2] the Pierce oscillator circuit is commonly used. Quartz crystals are generally limited to frequencies of 30 MHz or below. Surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices are another kind of piezoelectric resonator used in crystal oscillators, which can achieve much higher frequencies. They are used in specialized applications which require a high frequency reference, for example, in cellular telephones.
In addition to the feedback oscillators described above, which use two-port amplifying active elements such as transistors and op amps, linear oscillators can also be built using one-port devices with negative resistance, such as magnetron tubes, tunnel diodes and Gunn diodes. In these oscillators, a resonator, such as an LC circuit, crystal, or cavity resonator, is connected across the negative resistance device, and a DC bias voltage is applied to supply energy. The
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negative resistance of the active device can be thought of as cancelling the (positive) effective loss resistance of the resonator and permitting a sustained oscillation. These circuits are frequently used for oscillators at microwave frequencies.
These are some of the many linear oscillator circuits:

Armstrong oscillator Hartley oscillator Colpitts oscillator Clapp oscillator Delay line oscillator Pierce oscillator (crystal) Phase-shift oscillator RC oscillator (Wien Bridge and "Twin-T") Cross-coupled LC oscillator Vack oscillator Opto-Electronic Oscillator.
2.Relaxation oscillator: A nonlinear or relaxation oscillator produces a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square, sawtooth or triangle wave. It contains an energy-storing element (a capacitor or, more rarely, an inductor) and a nonlinear trigger circuit (a latch, Schmitt trigger, or negative resistance element) that periodically charges and discharges the energy stored in the storage element thus causing abrupt changes in the output waveform. Square-wave relaxation oscillators are used to provide the clock signal for sequential logic circuits such as timers and counters, although crystal oscillators are often preferred for their greater stability. Triangle wave or sawtooth oscillators are used in the timebase circuits that generate the horizontal deflection signals for cathode ray tubes in analogue oscilloscopes and television sets. In function generators, this triangle wave may then be further shaped into a close approximation of a sine wave. Ring oscillators are built of a ring of active delay stages. Generally the ring has an odd number of inverting stages, so that there is no single stable state for the internal ring voltages. Instead, a single transition propagates endlessly around the ring. Types of relaxation oscillator circuits include:

multivibrator ring oscillator delay line oscillator

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rotary traveling wave oscillator.
Voltage controlled oscillator

5.1 Overview
A voltage-controlled oscillator or VCO is an electronic oscillator designed to be controlled in oscillation frequency by a voltage input. The frequency of oscillation is varied by the applied DC voltage, while modulating signals may also be fed into the VCO to cause frequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM); a VCO with digital pulse output may similarly have its repetition rate (FSK, PSK) or pulse width modulated (PWM). It consists of a varactor diode whose capacitance varies with the applied voltage. So by changing the input voltage the oscillation frequency can be varied.
wout
w2 w1 w0 Vcont V1 Fig 5.1 VCO Response Curve V2 KVCO wout = w0 +KVCOVcont
3.2Types of VCOs
VCOs can be generally categorized into two groups based on the type of waveform produced: 1) harmonic oscillators, and 2) relaxation oscillators. Harmonic oscillators generate a sinusoidal waveform. They consist of an amplifier that provides adequate gain and a resonant circuit that feeds back signal to the input. Oscillation occurs at the resonant frequency where a positive gain arises around the loop. Some examples of harmonic oscillators are crystal oscillators and LC-tank oscillators. When part of the resonant
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circuit's capacitance is provided by a varactor diode, the voltage applied to that diode varies the frequency. Relaxation oscillators can generate a sawtooth or triangular waveform. They are commonly used in monolithic integrated circuits (ICs). They can provide a wide range of operational frequencies with a minimal number of external components. Relaxation oscillator VCOs can have three topologies: 1) grounded-capacitor VCOs, 2) emitter-coupled VCOs, and 3) delay-based ring VCOs. The first two of these types operate similarly. The amount of time in each state depends on the time for a current to charge or discharge a capacitor. The delay-based ring VCO operates somewhat differently however. For this type, the gain stages are connected in a ring. The output frequency is then a function of the delay in each of stages.
Harmonic oscillator VCOs have these advantages over relaxation oscillators.

Frequency stability with respect to temperature, noise, and power supply is much better for harmonic oscillator VCOs. They have good accuracy for frequency control since the frequency is controlled by a crystal or tank circuit.
A disadvantage of harmonic oscillator VCOs is that they cannot be easily implemented in monolithic ICs. Relaxation oscillator VCOs are better suited for this technology. Relaxation VCOs are also tunable over a wider range of frequencies.
5.3 VCO time-domain equations

ftuning(t)=K0.vin(t) ftuning(t)dt=out(t)

(5.2.1) (5.2.2)
K0 is called the oscillator gain. Its units are hertz per volt. ftuning(t) is the symbol for the time-domain waveform that is the VCO's tunable frequency component. out(t) is the symbol for the time-domain waveform that is the VCO's output phase. Vin(t) is the time-domain symbol of the control (input) voltage of the VCO; it is sometimes also represented as vtune(t) .
5.4 VCO frequency-domain equations

Ftuning(s)=k0.vin(s) Ftuning(s)
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(5.3.1)

s = out(s) (5.3.2)
Analog applications such as frequency modulation and frequency-shift keying often need to control an oscillator frequency with an input a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The functional relationship between the control voltage and the output frequency may not be linear. Over small ranges, the relationship is approximately linear, and linear control theory can be used.
5.5 VCO Parameters

The important parameters of a VCO are as follows: Center Frequency Tuning Range Tuning Linearity Output Amplitude Power Dissipation Supply and Common-Mode Rejection Output Signal Purity
5.6 VCO Applications

VCOs are used in:

Function generators, The production of electronic music, to generate variable tones,
Phase-locked loops,
Frequency synthesizers used in communication equipment.
Voltage-to-Frequency converters are voltage-controlled oscillators, with a highly linear relation between applied voltage and frequency. They are used to convert a slow analog signal (such as from a temperature transducer) to a digital signal for transmission over a long distance, since the frequency will not drift or be affected by noise. VCOs may have sine and/or square wave outputs. Function generators are low-frequency oscillators which feature multiple waveforms, typically sine, square, and triangle waves. Monolithic function generators are voltage-controlled. Analog phase-locked loops typically contain VCOs. High-frequency VCOs are usually used in phase-locked loops for radio receivers. Phase noise is the most important specification for them. Low-frequency VCOs are used in analog music synthesizers. For these, sweep range, linearity, and distortion are often most important specs.
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Phase shifter
6.1 Overview
It is an electronic device that is use to shift the phase of any signal. In the BPSK modulation scheme, we need to use 2 phases for the two bits 1 & 0.So we need a phase shifter to provide the two phases of the same carrier signal. Thus we dont need two carrier signals, only one signal is enough. If the input to the phase shifter is A.sin (wt) then the output of the phase shifter will be A.sin (wt + ). where, is the required phase shift.
6.2 Classification
Active versus passive: Active phase shifters provide gain, while passive phase shifters are lossy. o Active: Applications: active electronically scanned array (AESA), passive electronically scanned array (PESA) Gain: The phase shifter amplifies while phase shifting Noise figure (NF) Reciprocity: not reciprocal o Passive: Applications: active electronically scanned array (AESA), passive electronically scanned array (PESA) Loss: the phase shifter attenuates while phase shifting NF: NF = loss Reciprocity: reciprocal Analog versus digital: o Analog phase shifters provide a continuously variable phase shift or time delay. o Digital phase shifters provide a discrete set of phase shifts or time delays. Discretization leads to quantization errors. Digital phase shifters require parallel bus control.
Differential, single-ended or waveguide:

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o
Differential transmission line: A differential transmission line is a balanced twoconductor transmission line in which the phase difference between currents is 180 degrees. The differential mode is less susceptible to common mode noise and cross talk. Antenna selection: dipole, tapered slot antenna (TSA) Examples: coplanar strip, slotline Single-ended transmission line: A single-ended transmission line is a twoconductor transmission line in which one conductor is referenced to a common ground, the second conductor. The single-ended mode is more susceptible to common-mode noise and cross talk. Antenna selection: double folded slot (DFS), microstrip, monopole Examples: CPW, microstrip, stripline Waveguide Antenna selection: waveguide, horn
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Current Mode Device

7.1 Introduction
A Current Mode Device is a device where the output current of the device is a function of the input voltage. There is often a demand in analogue signal processing for amplifier circuits that posses well defined current signal processing properties .Furthermore current amplifier based circuits can offer certain high performances properties such as speed, bandwidth, accuracy which make them more acceptable than voltage amplifier. A further consequence of the development of current mode analogue signal processing has been the emergence of new analogue building blocks ranging from the current conveyor and current feedback op-amps through to sampled data current circuits such as dynamic current mirrors and analogue neural network.
7.2 Current Conveyor

A current conveyor is a four (possibly five) terminal device which when arranged with other electronic elements in specific circuit configurations can perform many useful analog signal processing functions. iY VY Y CC VX iX Fig 7.1 Black box representation of the current conveyor The current conveyor (CCI), as initially introduced is a 3-port device whose black-box representation can be seen in Fig 7.1. the operation of this device is such that if a voltage is applied to input terminal Y, an equal potential will appear on the input terminal X. In a similar fashion, an input current I being forced into terminal X will result in an equal amount of current flowing into terminal Y. As well, the current I will be conveyed to output terminal Z such that terminal Z has the characteristics of a current source, of value I, with high output impedance. As can be seen, the potential of X, being set up by that of Y, is independent of the current being forced into port X. Similarly, the current through input Y, being fixed by that of X, is
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iZ Z

independent of the voltage applied at Y. Thus the device exhibits a virtual short-circuit input characteristic at port X and a dual virtual open-circuit input characteristic at port Y. In mathematical terms, the input-output characteristics of CCI can be described by the following hybrid equation iY VX IZ = 010 100 0 +1 0 VY iX VZ (7.2.1)
Note that the + sign applies for the CCI in which both Z and X flow into the convetor, denoted CCI+. The sign apply for the opposite polarity case, denoted CCI-. To visualize the interaction of the port voltages and currents described by the bove matrix equation the nullatornorator representation shown in Fig 7.2 may be helpful. In this figure, single ellipse is used to represent the nullator element and two intersecting ellipses to represent the norator element. The nullator element has constitutive equations V=0 and I=0 whereas the norator has an arbitrary voltage-current relationship. I Y
X I
Fig 7.2 Nullator-norator representation of CCI Clearly, the nullator element is used to represent the virtual short circuit apparent between the X and Y terminals. Also included in this equivalent circuit are two dependant current sources. These are used to convey the current at port X to ports Y and Z. A discrete first-order implementation of the current conveyor is depicted in Fig 7.3. Assuming that all transistors are matched and that all have high current gain, it can be shown that
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the currents through transistors M3-M5 are equal. This forces transistors M1 and M2 to have equal currents and thus equal VGSdrops. Thus X and Y track each other in both voltage and current iY Y vY X vX iX
M1
M2 Z vZ
iZ
M4 M3
M5
VSS Fig 7.3 First-order CMOS implementation of CCI To increase the versatility of the current conveyor, a second version in which no current flows in terminal Y, was introduced. This building block has since proven to be more useful than CCI. Utilizing the same block diagram representation of Fig 7.1, CCII is described by iY VX IZ = 0 0 0 10 0 0 +1 0 VY iX VZ (7.2.2)
Thus, terminal Y exhibits an infinite input impedance. The voltage at X follows that applied to Y, thus X exhibits a zero input impedance. The current supplied to X is conveyed to the high-impedance output terminal Z where it is supplied with either positive polarity or negative polarity.
27
In terms of a nullor, the port behavior of the second generation current conveyor can be depicted as shown in Fig 7.4
X Fig 7.4 Nullator-norator representation of CCII
In the case of CCII, the dependant current source is redundant; current flowing into terminal X must flow out of terminal Z. Hence, the equivalent circuit of CCII can be represented with a single nullor element as shown in Fig 7.4. The CCII may be viewed as an ideal MOS. Gate as terminal Y, source as terminal X and drain as terminal Z.
7.3 Switched Capacitor

Analog sampled-data signal processing has been dominated for the past decade by the switched capacitor technique. Switched capacitors gained favour as a technique for implementing active filters capable of greater precision and compactness than earlier active-RC filters, especially in low frequency applications. Most switched capacitor filter structures have resulted from the substitution of an activeRC filters continuous-time integrators by switched capacitor counterparts. This approach has been applied to state-variable filters and to filters which simulate the nodal voltages of lossless ladder prototypes.
28
C 2 V1 1 2 V0 1C 1
Fig 7.5 Switched capacitor non-inverting integrator Switched capacitor integrator is shown in Fig 7.5. On phase 2of the non-overlapping clock period (n-1), the charge on capacitor C holds the output voltage at V0(n-1) while capacitor 1C is charged to V1(n-1). The next clock phase is 1 of period(n), and capacitor1C is discharged into capacitor C causing the output voltage to charge to V0(n). It is easily shown that V0(n) = V0(n-1) + 1V1(n-1) which gives the z-domain transfer function H1(z) = V0(z) = 1z-1 V1(z) 1-z-1 (7.3.2) (7.3.1)
This is the Forward Euler z-transform of a non-inverting integrator (H(s)=1/sRC) where 1=T/RC.
7.4 Differential Pair Transconductor

The simplest and most widely used transconductor is the source-coupled differential pair. In addition to its obvious simplicity, the differential pair offers a true differential input and can readily achieve both positive and negative transconductance values. With a slight increase in complexity to implement common-mode feedback, this enables the implementation of a fullybalanced architecture, thus improving the dynamic range, PSRR, and CMRR. Furthermore, the inherent symmetry of the differential amplifier tends to reduce offsets and drift. While offering excellent high frequency performance and low noise, its large signal characteristics are
29

nonlinear. As a result, it can be shown that both the dynamic range and the efficiency of the differential pair are limited.
ID1
ID2
M1 Vid
M2
ISS
VSS Fig 7.6 Differential pair transconductor The basic source-coupled differential pair is shown in Fig 7.6. Using the simplified square-law relationship for a MOSFET in the saturation region and assuming M1 and M2 are perfectly matched, the output current is given by I0= ID1- ID2= 2ISSK Vid = ISS sgn(Vid) Vid > ISS/K (K/2ISS). V2id Vid < ISS/K (7.4.1)
Clearly, the input stage is linear only over a limited range of differential input voltage. The nonlinearity, which is a function of ISS, causes two problems. First, notice that as the signal level is increased the transfer function becomes more nonlinear. Therefore, large input signals will result in harmonic distortion and spurious signals being generated due to intermodulation. Second, since the transconductance of the input stage equals the slope of the I0 vs. Vid characteristic curve, gm decreases as the signal level increases. This makes the transconductance a function of differential input signal level.
30

The relationship between gm and Vid can be developed by taking the derivative of (7.4.1) with respect to Vid, yielding gm= 2ISSK [ 1- (K/ISS). V2id ] / 1- (K/2ISS). V2id (7.4.2)
7.5 Cross-Coupled Differential Pair

A substantial increase in linearity can be obtained by simply cross-coupling two differential pairs as shown in Fig 7.7. By properly scaling the ratio of W/Ls and bias currents, approximate cancellation of the remaining odd order nonlinearities can be achieved.
M1 K1 Vid
M3 K2
M4 K3
M2 K4
ISS1
ISS2
VSS Fig 7.7 Cross-coupled differential pairs The linear term is proportional to 2ISSK whereas the nonlinear term is proportional to K / ISS . Therefore, nonlinearity cancellation is accomplished by scaling the W/L ratios and tail currents of the differential pairs according to
3/2
[(W/L)1/ (W/L)2]3/2 = [ISS1/ISS2]1/2
(7.5.1)
providing (W/L)1 = (W/L)2and ISS1 = ISS2.This makes the coefficient of the nonlinear terms cancel when the output currents are subtracted resulting in a linear transconductance given by gm =gm1 =gm2 =2ISS1K1 - 2ISS2K2 (7.5.2)
31
7.6 Operational Transconductance Amplifier

An OTA is a voltage controlled current source, more specifically the term operational comes from the fact that it takes the difference of two voltages as the input for the current conversion. The ideal transfer characteristic is therefore, IO =gm . (V+V) or, by taking the pre-computed difference as the input, IO =gm. Vin (7.6.2) (7.6.1)
with the ideally constant transconductancegm as the proportionality factor between the two. Inreality the transconductance is also a function of the input differential voltage and dependent on temperature.
Fig 7.8 (a) Schematic of OTA (b) Equivalent circuit of OTA
32
The characteristics of an ideal OTA is as follows: Input Impedance (Zin) = Infinite Output Impedance (Z0) = Inverting input current = - Non-inverting input current =I0 Bandwidth =infinite
33
Fig 7.9 Structure of proposed OTA The proposed CMOS OTA is presented in Fig 7.9. It has differential inputs and differential outputs, which allows the circuit to be used in both positive and negative feedback system configurations.
34

Rch1 vgs1 = vin+ id1 id2 vin+ iout- = ip + in Cin id3 vd4 id4 vgs4 =vin+ -vd9 Rch4 vd9 Z4 Z3 vd1 Z2 Z1
Z9
Fig 7.10 High frequency half equivalent circuit model of OTA Fig 7.10 shows a high frequency equivalent circuit of the left-half of the OTA in Fig 7.9, where the transistor parasitic are modeled with an input capacitance Cin and impedances Z1~4and Z9. The equivalent circuit model can be simplified to one shown in Fig 7.11. Here the top transistor T1is modeled by a variable channel resistance Rch1 because it operates in triode. Its RF currentid1is given by id1 =-gm1 vin+ (7.6.3)
where vin+ is one of the differential RF input signals and the transconductance gm1 can be calculated using the following expression derived from the short-channel drain current in the linear region gm = dId / dVgs = Cox (W/L) Vds/( 1 + Vds /(Esat L)) (7.6.4)
35

ip vin+ Cin in Zn Zp iout-
Fig 7.11 Simplified circuit model of OTA Transistor T2 in the pMOS cascade works in the saturation region and its RF current is given by id2 = - gm2 vgs2 (7.6.5)
where vgs2 is the gate-source voltage, and the transconductance gm2 is calculated using the equation gm = dId / dVgs = vsatCox W [1 - ( Esat L /(Vgs- Vt + Esat L))2 ] (7.6.6)
The gate voltage of this pMOS device has an inverse polarity relative to its source voltage vd1. If they are assumed to be exactly offset from each other, its gate-source voltage vgs2becomes -2vd1. Then (7.6.5) can be changed to id2 = 2 gm2 vd1 In a similar fashion, the RF currents in the nMOS cascode are given by id3 = 2 gm3 vd4 id4 = - gm4(vin+ - vd9 ) where vd4 and vd9are the drain voltages of T4 and T9 respectively. (7.6.8) (7.6.9) (7.6.7)
The output currents can be derived from the equivalent circuit model as ip= - gm1 vin+ (Z1 + 2 gm2 Z1 Z2) /( Z1 + Z2 + 2 gm2 Z1 Z2) in= - gm4 vin+ (Z4+ 2 gm3 Z3 Z4) /( Z3 + Z4 + 2 gm3 Z3 Z4) The overall transconductance is found to be gm = ( iout+ - iout- ) / ( vin+ - vin- ) = - (ip + in) / vin+
36
(7.6.10) (7.6.11)

= gm1(Z1 + 2 gm2 Z1 Z2) /( Z1 + Z2 + 2 gm2 Z1 Z2) + gm4(Z4+ 2 gm3 Z3 Z4) / ( Z3 + Z4 + 2 gm3 Z3 Z4) (7.6.12)
7.7 Reasons For Choosing OTA as Main Building Block

Basically OTA is a voltage controlled current mode device & it is advantageous over other current mode device like JFET,MOSFET in the sense that OTA has the much higher capability of withstanding the noise & atmospheric attenuation. It has linear transconductance characteristics with respect to the amplifier bias current, this can be considered as a gain controlled block It has a good power supply rejection & common mode rejection than any differential amplifier, above other mentioned This is the cause of choosing this device as a basic building block of our modulator.
7.8 Model Parameter Of MOS Used For Simulation

Supply Voltage: Constant Bias Current: For PMOS: W/L Ratio Threshold Voltage: Oxide Thickness: For NMOS: W/L Ratio Threshold Voltage: Oxide Thickness: For both MOS s: Gate Source capacitance Gate Drain capacitance Body Drain capacitance Body Source capacitance 1.2 Volts 10mA 120/10.5 -0.293V 2.85 E-09 20/1.5 0.318V 2.81 E-09 1 microfarad 10 microfarad 100 picofarad 50 picofarad
Block Diagrams
8.1 Voltage Controlled Oscillator
OUTPUT
37
INPUT VOLTAGE
Fig 8.1Block Diagram of VCO using OTA
8.2 Phase Shifter
INPUT
OUTPUT
Fig 8.2Block Diagram of PhaseShifter using OTA
8.3 BPSK Modulator
BIT 1 38

OUTPUT VOLTAGE
CARRIER[A sin(wct)]
BIT 0
SHIFTED CARRIER[A cos(wct)]
Fig 8.3 Block Diagram of BPSK Modulator using OTA
Simulated Output
9.1 Lineariaty Check
39
Fig 9.1 Waveform for Linearity Check
9.2 Voltage Controlled Oscillator
40
Fig 9.2 Waveform for VCO
Input Voltage: Output Frequency:
5mv (DC) 25 Hz
41
9.3 Phase Shifter
Fig 9.3 Waveform for Phase Shifter
Input Voltage: Input Frequency: Input Phase:
4 V peak to peak 50 Hz 00
Output Voltage: Output Frequency: Output Phase:
0.2 V peak to peak 50 Hz 900
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BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier 9.4 BPSK Modulator
Fig 9.4 Waveform for BPSK Modulation Bit 1
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Fig 9.5 Waveform for BPSK Modulation Bit 0
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Spread Spectrum Moculation

10.1 DESIGN OF LFSR
An LFSR is a shift register that, when clocked, advances the signal through the register from one bit to the next most-significant bit. Some of the outputs are combined in exclusive-OR configuration to form a feedback mechanism. A linear feedback shift register can be formed by performing exclusive-OR on the outputs of two or more of the flip-flops together and feeding those outputs back into the input of one of the flip-flops.
Fig 10.1 Block Diagram of Linear Feedback Shift Register
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10.2 DESIGN OF FCSR

In sequence design, a Feedback with Carry Shift Register (FCSR) is the arithmetic or with carry analog of a Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR).An 8 bit FCSR consists of 4 LFSRs. The output of each LFSR is multiplied with a fixed integer and then added together. The sum is then divided by an integer giving the 8bit output of the FCSR. In this project, I have multiplied the output of the LFSRs by 7,9,4,2 respectively and then divided the sum by 15.
Fig 10.2 Block Diagram of Feedback Carry Shift Register
10.3 DESIGN OF MODULATOR

According to the output of the FCSR different frequencies are chosen from a set of frequencies, which will be the carrier frequency. Now, the baseband signal is phase modulated by this carrier. In PSK bit 1 is transmitted by cosine waveform & bit 0 is transmitted by cosine waveform shifted by 90 degrees. In this part, i have written a C program for cosine waveform & merged it with the FCSR program to generate the modulated signal. This program is not yet completed & is in progress.
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Program & Output

11.1 LFSR PROGRAM
#include<stdio.h> int xor(int,int); main(){ int a0,a1,a2,a3,i,t,g; a1=a2=a3=0; a0=1; for(i=1;i<16;i++) { t=a3; g=a2; a3=a2; a2=a1; a1=a0; a0=x0r(t,g); printf(%d%d%d%d\n,a0,a1,a2,a3); } getchar(); } int xor(inta,intb){ int r; if(a==b) r=0; else r=1; return(r); }
11.2 LFSR PROGRAM OUTPUT

0100 0010 1001 1100 0110 1011
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0101 1010 1101 1110 1111 0111 0011 0001 1000
11.3 FCSR PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h> int xor(int,int); int mult (int,int,int,int,int,int,int,int); main(){ int a0,a1,a2,a3,b0,b1,b2,b3,c0,c1,c2,c3,d0,d1,d2,d3; int t1,t2,t3,t4,g1,g2,g3,g4; int m1,m2,m3,m4; int e,f,i,g,s,x[8]; a1=a2=a3=b0=b2=b3=c0=c1=c3=d0=d1=d2=0; a0=b1=c2=d3=1; for(i=0;i<16;i++){ t1=a3; g1=a2; a3=a2; a2=a1; a1=a0; a0=xor(t1,g1); t2=b3; g2=b2; b3=b2; b2=b1; b1=b0; b0=xor(t2,g2); t3=c3; g3=c2; c3=c2; c2=c1;
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c1=c0; c0=xor(t3,g3); t4=d3; g4=d2; d3=d2; d2=d1; d1=d0; d0=xor(t4,g4); m1=mult(a3,a2,a1,a0,0,1,1,1); m2=mult(b3,b2,b1,b0,1,0,0,1); m3=mult(c3,c2,c1,c0,0,1,0,0); m4=mult(d3,d2,d1,d0,0,0,1,0); s=m1+m2+m3+m4; e=s/15; f=s%15; for(j=0;j<8;j++){ x[j]=e%2; e=e/2; } printf(the %dth fcsr output is\ni+1,e); for(j=0;j<8;j++){ printf(%d,x[7-j]); } printf(\n); } } int xor(int a,int b){ int r; if(a==b) r=0; else r=1; return(r); } int mult(int a0,int a1,int a2, int a3, int b0,int b1,int b2, int b3){ int c[8],d,e,f,i; d=a3*8+a2*4+a1*2+a0; e=b3*8+b2*4+b1*2+b0; f=d*e;
49

return(f); }
11.4 FCSR PROGRAM OUTPUT

the 1th fcsr output is 00001000 the 2th fcsr output is 00001001 the 3th fcsr output is 00010000 the 4th fcsr output is 00010010 the 5th fcsr output is 00010000 the 6th fcsr output is 00010000 the 7th fcsr output is 00001111 the 8th fcsr output is 00010100 the 9th fcsr output is 00011001 the 10th fcsr output is 00011010 the 11th fcsr output is 00010110 the 12th fcsr output is 00001100 the 13th fcsr output is 00000110 the 14th fcsr output is 00000111 the 15th fcsr output is 00001010 the 16th fcsr output is 00001000
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11.5 COSINE PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h> main(){ int i; float angle,sum,term; sum=term=1.0; printf(enter the angle in degree\n); scanf(%f,&angle); angle=(angle*3.141592654)/180; for(i=1;i<20;i++){ term=((-term)*angle*angle)/((2*i-1)*2*i); sum=sum+term; } printf(%f,sum); }
11.6 MODULATION PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h> float cosine(float); main(){ int i,j,T,a[10]; signed int b[10]; float t,d; float m[100],c[10][100]; printf(enter the bit stream(length=10)\n); for(i=0;i<10;i++) scanf(%d,&a[i]); for(i=0;i<10;i++){ if(a[i]==1) b[i]=5; else b[i]=-5; } printf(enter the bit duration\n); scanf(%d&T); d=T/0.1;
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m[0]=0.0; for(i=1;i<=d;i++) m[i+1]=m[i]+0.1; for(i=i=0;i<10;i++){ for(j=0;j<d;j++){ c[i][j]=b[i]*cosine(m[j]*1000); } } for(j=0;j<d;j++) printf(%f\n,c[0][j]); } float cosine(float angle){ int i; float sum,term; sum=term=1.0; angle=(angle*3.1415926540/180; for(i=1;i<20;i++){ term=((-term)*angle*angle)/((2*i-1)*2*i); sum=sum+term; } return(sum); }
11.7 MODULATION PROGRAM OUTPUT

enter the bit stream(length=10) 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 enter the bit duration
52

1
5.00000000 5.00000000 -0.867094 -4.698861 2.498982 3.830972 -3.829222 -2.500202 4.698554 0.842643
53
Applications In Defence
1.This OTA based modulator can be used in Stationary vehicular & portable transreceiver, fast data modem, tactical antennas on all military platform. Portable transreceiver is used to provide short-range, two-way radiotelephone voice communication.
2. It can also be used Doppler RADAR which can give the velocity data about a moving or stationary object using the Doppler effect. A Doppler radar is a specialized radar that makes use of the Doppler effect to produce velocity data about objects at a distance. It does this by beaming a microwave signal towards a desired target and listening for its reflection, then analyzing how the frequency of the returned signal has been altered by the object's motion. This variation gives direct and highly accurate measurements of the radial component of a target's velocity relative to the radar. Doppler radars are used in aviation, sounding satellites, meteorology, police speed guns, radiology, and bistatic radar (surface to air missile). 3.OTA based M_ary communication system is most bandwidth efficient modulation scheme enable us the less use of the required input power. 4.Because of the wide applicability of bandwidth-efficient modulation to most new satellite systems, One recent application can be found in the Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) program. This OTA based Modulators has been developed for an approach of using the system in S Band (2 to 4 GHz). 5. The S-Band spectrum has been a bone of contention between terrestrial mobile phone service providers and backers of satellite mobile services for the last few years. The S band is used by weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications satellites, especially those used by NASA to communicate with the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station. The 10-cm radar short-band ranges roughly from 1.55 to 5.2 GHz. S band is also used in optical communications, WiMax, Bluetooth. As the proposed OTA works in GHz range so the advantages of S band can be fully utilized by the OTA based modulator.
Future Areas Of Work

All the works that I have done is related to BPSK modulation. It can be further improved through the introduction of QPSK where four phases of the carrier are used to modulate four
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message signals. After QPSK it can be further extended to the concept of Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum. Frequency hopping is the most popular method of transmitting/receiving radio signals by periodically switching carrier frequencies. It is realized by using pseudorandom sequences generated by hopping algorithms. As carrier frequency changes continually, it provides an effective firewall against the adversarys ability to follow the changes in carrier frequency. Thus, the adversary encounters difficulty to recover the data or information being carried. In addition, the frequency hopping provides an effective tool for protection against frequency jamming by adversaries.
References
[1] Eduard Sckinger, Walter Guggenbhl A high swing, High-impedance MOS Cascode circuit. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,Vol.25,February 1990. [2] You Zheng, Carlos E. Saavedra Feedforward-Regulated Cascode OTA for Gigahertz Applications. IEEE Journal of Circuits and Systems,Vol.55, December 2008. [3] Chung-Yu Wu, Hong-Sing Kao A 2-V Low Power CMOS Direct-Conversion Quadrature Modulator With Integrated Quadrature Voltage-Controlled Oscillator and RF Amplifier for GHz RF Transmitter Applications. IEEE Journal of Analog and Digital Signal Processing, Vol.49, February 2002. [4] Abdelouahab Djemouai, Mohamad A. Sawan, Mustapha Slamani New Frequency-Locked Loop Based on CMOS Frequency-to-Voltage Converter: Design and Implementation. IEEE Journal of Analog and Digital Signal Processing, Vol.48, May 2001. [5] Digital Communication by Simon Haykin, Wiley Student Edition. [6] Anlogue IC design: the current-mode approach by C.Toumazou, F.J.Lidgey&D.G.Haigh, IEE Circuits And Systems Series 2. [7] Design Of Analog CMOS IC by Behzad Razavi, Mc Graw Hill Edition. [8] Atis D Mitra Frequency Hopping an user programmable implementation for PSK modulated signals [9] Atis D Mitra and Pradip K Srimani, A New Architecture for User Programmable Frequency Hopped Radios for PSK Modulated Signals
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BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier Contents

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier Contents

12.APPLICATIONS IN DEFENCE 13.FUTURE PROSPECTS 14.REFERENCES 44 45

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier LIST OF FIGURES Figure

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

2.2 Purpose of Modulation

2.3 Digital Modulation

2.4 Fundamental Digital Modulation Methods:

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

Binary Phase Shift Keying

3.2 Modulation Technique

Input Bit Stream

Serial to Parallel Converter

Fig 3.1 Block diagram of BPSK modulator

The general form for BPSK follows the equation:

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

(3.2.2) for binary "1"

(3.2.3) where fc is the frequency of the carrier-wave.

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

The constellation diagram is shown in Fig 3.3

Fig 3.3 BPSK constellation diagram

3.3 Demodulation Technique

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

4.3 Stability of Oscillator

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

Fig 4.3 Pole Location of Stable & Unstable System

4.4 Types of Oscillators

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

These are some of the many linear oscillator circuits:

multivibrator ring oscillator delay line oscillator

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

rotary traveling wave oscillator.

Voltage controlled oscillator

w2 w1 w0 Vcont V1 Fig 5.1 VCO Response Curve V2 KVCO wout = w0 +KVCOVcont

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

Harmonic oscillator VCOs have these advantages over relaxation oscillators.

5.3 VCO time-domain equations

5.4 VCO frequency-domain equations

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

5.5 VCO Parameters

5.6 VCO Applications

Function generators, The production of electronic music, to generate variable tones,

Frequency synthesizers used in communication equipment.

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

Differential, single-ended or waveguide:

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

Current Mode Device

7.2 Current Conveyor

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier

X Fig 7.4 Nullator-norator representation of CCII

7.3 Switched Capacitor

BPSK Modulation Using Operational Transconductance Amplifier