-

,
0
, and
the magnetization, :
=
0 0
,
where
0
is again the magnetic permeability of free space. Instead of including the external

0
, it is customary to use the :

=
0
0
.
=
0
( ).
] = T and the unit of the magnetic permeability is
[
0
] = [] = A/m.
- -

0
, . For most materials (not all!)
this relationship is linear:
=
m
,
where the proportionality constant
m
is called the -- of the material
(Table 28.1). But there are materials that do not obey the simple linear relationship of equa-
tion 28.20, and the most prominent among those are ferromagnets, which we'll discuss in
equation 28.20 holds.
If
m
< 0, the dipoles inside the material tend to arrange themselves to oppose an exter-
m
< 0 are said to
- -
-
-

Aluminum +2.2 10
-3
Bismuth -1.66 10
-4
Diamond (carbon) -2.1 10
-3
Graphite (carbon) -1.6 10
-3
Hydrogen -2.2 10
-9
Lead -1.8 10
-3
Lithium +1.4 10
-3
Mercury -2.9 10
-3
Oxygen +1.9 10
-6
Platinum +2.63 10
-4
Silicon -3.7 10
-6
Sodium +7.2 10
-6
Sodium chloride (NaCl) -1.4 10
-3
Tungsten +6.8 10
-3
Uranium +4.0 10
-4
Vacuum 0
Water -9 10
-6
-

printed on T-shirts and posters:

=
=
=
0
0
,
- ,
,
and

=
0 0 0
,
where is the charge density (charge per unit volume) and is the current density. In
vacuum and in the absence of charges, both are zero; = 0 and was
introduced in Chapter 6 and represents the vector with the partial derivatives in each spatial
direction. In Cartesian coordinates, it is ( , , ).
In Section 31.4, we saw that electromagnetic waves as described by equation 31.8 are
valid solutions to all the Maxwell equations in vacuum. However, strictly speaking, we have
=
2
2
2 2
0

- .
=
2
2
2 2
0

- .

the second Maxwell equation and the gradient operator, :

=- . (i)
On the right-hand side of equation (i), we can interchange the order of the time derivative
and the spatial derivative:
- - ( ) - = =

0 0
=- .
0 0
2
2

(ii)

vector product. Chapter 10 introduced the BAC-CAB rule for double vector products:
( ) ( )- ( ). =
= = ( )- - ,
2 2
(iii)
in vacuum: = 0
2
is the scalar product of the gradient operator with itself:
2 2

2 2
/
2 2
/
2
. If
we substitute from equations (ii) and (iii) into equation (i) and use the fact that the speed of
light is = 1/
0 0
(equation 31.20) we obtain the desired wave equation:
= =
2
2
0 0
2
2
2
2 2
1
0

- - .
-
tion of Maxwell's equations, as discussed (but not exactly proven) in Section 31.4.
-

- - -

-

-
--

- -

When a capacitor is being charged, a displacement
current can be visualized between the plates, given by

d
=
0

/, where

Maxwell's equations describe how electrical charges,
Gauss's Law for Electric Fields, =
enc
/ ,
0
to the net enclosed electric charge.
Gauss's Law for Magnetic Fields, =0, states
surface is zero.
Faraday's Law of Induction, -

=- / ,
relates the
-

=
0 0
/
0

enc
For an electromagnetic wave traveling in the positive
-direction, the electric and magnetic fields can
be described by ( , ) =
max
sin( - ) and
( , ) =
max
sin ( - ) , where = 2 / is the
wave number and = 2 is the angular frequency.
are related by the speed of light, = .
electromagnetic constants: =1
0 0
/ .
an electromagnetic wave is the magnitude of the
Poynting vector = [1/(
0
)]
2
, where is the
the average power per unit area carried by the wave,
=
ave
= [1/(
0
)]
2
rms
, where
rms
is the root-mean-
For an electromagnetic wave, the energy density

=
1
2 0

2
, and the

= [1/(2
0
)]
2
. For any such wave,

.
waves of intensity is given by
r
= / if the
electromagnetic waves are totally absorbed or
r
= 2/
through a polarizer is =
0
/2, where
0
is the intensity
of unpolarized light incident on the polarizer.
a polarizer is =
0
cos
2
, where
0
is the intensity of
polarized light incident on the polarizer and is the
angle between the polarization of the incident polarized
light and the polarizing angle of the polarizer.

Maxwell's Law of Induction,
p. 993
Maxwell-Ampere Law,
p. 994
displacement current,
p. 994
Maxwell's equations, p. 996

= =
ave
rms
2
0
, average power per unit area carried by an
electromagnetic wave

d
=
0
, displacement current
=
2
, wave number

=
2
0
, magnitude of the Poynting vector, representing
the instantaneous power per unit area carried by an
electromagnetic wave
electromagnetism, p. 996
electromagnetic waves, p. 996
plane wave, p. 997
electromagnetic spectrum,
p. 1001
visible light, p. 1001
infrared waves, p. 1001
ultraviolet rays, p. 1001
radio waves, p. 1001
microwaves, p. 1001
X-rays, p. 1002
gamma rays, p. 1002
traveling electromagnetic
waves, p. 1003
Poynting vector, p. 1004
radiation, p. 1006
plane-polarized wave,
p. 1010
unpolarized light, p. 1010
polarizer, p. 1010
Law of Malus, p. 1011
all LecL

A current-carrying coil can be described with one parameter, which contains information

,
=
where is the number of windings, is the current through the wire, and is the area
and is the direction of the unit normal vector, . Using equation 27.13, we can rewrite
equation 27.14 as
= = sin sin .
= .
maximum potential energy. From Chapter 10, the work done by a torque is
= ' '.
0

Using the work-energy theorem and equation 27.16 and setting

0
= 90, we can express the
magnetic potential energy, , as
= = = = ' ' sin ' ' - cos '
0 0
0
- , 90
or
= = - cos - ,
where
of the potential energy of a magnetic dipole in an external mag-
results when the two vectors are anti-
simple model. So far, the only magnetic dipoles we have discussed are current-carrying
loops. However, other types of magnetic dipoles exist, including bar magnets and even the
Earth. In addition, elementary charged particles such as protons have intrinsic magnetic
dipole moments.

Consider a conductor carrying a current,

d
in
time, many electrons have moved to one edge of the conductor, creating a net negative
charge on that edge and leaving a net positive charge on the opposite edge of the conductor.
, which exerts a force on the electrons in
HagneLic dipole
nonenL vecLor in an exLernal nagneLic
a negaLive poLenLial energy, b) nag-
are anLiparallel, resulLing in a posiLive
poLenLial energy.

-
whaL is Lhe naxinun dierence in
nagneLic poLenLial energy beLween
Lwo orienLaLions o a loop wiLh area
0.100 n
2
carrying a currenL o 2.00 A
nagniLude 0.500 J:
HagneLisn
the magnitude of the force exerted on the electrons by the electric
the
H
, between the edges
of the conductor when equilibrium is reached is termed the
given by

H
= ,
where is the width of the conductor and is the magnitude of the
carriers in metals are negatively charged. If the charge carriers in
a metal were positive and moving in the direction of the current shown in Figure 27.31a,
those positive charges would collect on the same edge of the conductor as the electrons in
that in some semiconductors the charge carriers are electron holes (missing electrons),
which appear to be positively charged carriers.

= = = =
d
d
H
d
,
where substitution for from equation 27.20 is used in the last step. In Chapter 23, we saw

d
, of an electron in a conductor can be related to the magnitude of the
current density, in the conductor:

= =
d
,
where is the cross-sectional area of the conductor and is the number of electrons per
unit volume in the conductor. As shown in Figure 27.31a, the cross-sectional area is given
by = where is the width and is the height of the conductor. Solving / =
d
for
for gives

d
= = .
Substituting this expression for
d
into equation 27.21, we have

= = =
H
d
H H
.

H
, and the known height, and density of charge
carriers, of the conductor. Equivalently, a rearranged form of equation 27.22 can be used

H
= .

probe is a strip of copper with a height, of 2.00 mm. We measure a voltage of 0.230 V
across the probe when we run a current of 1.23 A through it.

(a) A conducLor carrying a currenL in a nagneLic

Lo one side o Lhe conducLor, leaving a neL posiLive charge on Lhe
Jhe poLenLial dierence across Lhe conducLor is Lhe all poLenLial
dierence.
whaL we ave Learned

=
H
.
We have been given the values of
H
, and and we know

=
number of electrons
volume
.
Cu
= 8.96 g/cm
3
= 8960 kg/m
3
, and 1 mole of copper has a mass
of 63.3 g and 6.02 10
23
density of the electrons is
=
1 electron
1 atom
6.02 10 ato
23
mms
63.3 g
g
1 cm
3
8 96 . 1 0 10
8 49 10
6
28
.
.
cm
1 m
=
3
3
electrons
m
3
.
=
0.230 10 V m
electron
-6
0 002 8 49 10
28
. .
ss
m
C
1.23 A
=
3
1 602 10
3 44
19
.
.
-
TT.
-- -
A copper conducLor has a currenL,

- 4.94 J. Jhe conducLor is

- 0.100 n wide and - 2.00 nn
high. whaL is Lhe elecLric poLenLial
dierence beLween poinLs 1 and 2:
a) 2.5610

V
b) 5.1210

V
c) 7.5010

V
d) 2.5610

V
e) 9.6610

|
on magnetic poles, but form closed loops instead.
moving
with velocity , is given by
= . Right-hand rule 1 gives the direction of the
force.
For a particle with charge moving with speed

the magnitude of the magnetic force on the moving

charged particle is = .
the surface is approximately 0.3 10
-4
T.
A particle with mass and charge moving with
speed
magnitude has a trajectory that is a circle with radius
= / .
of a particle with charge
and mass moving in a circular orbit in a constant
is given by = / .
, on a length
of wire, , carrying a current, is given by = .
= sin where is
the angle between the direction of the current and the
current, in a magnetic field with magnitude is
= sin where is the area of the loop and is the
angle between a unit vector normal to the loop and the
the direction of the unit normal vector to the loop.
coil carrying a current, is given by = where
is the number of loops (windings) and is the area of
right-hand rule 2 and is the direction in which the unit
normal vector points.

through a conductor with height

of magnitude

H
= / where is the density of electrons per unit
volume and is the magnitude of charge of an electron.
HagneLisn

A rectangular loop with height = 6.30 cm and width = 4.30 cm is in a uni-

= 0.230 T, which points in the negative -
= 33.0 with the -axis,
= 9.00 A in the
direction indicated by the arrows.

What is the magnitude of the torque on the loop around the -axis:

dicular to the plane of the loop, with the direction given by right-hand rule 2.

Figure 27.32b is a view of the loop looking down on the -plane.

permanent magnets, p. 863
north magnetic pole, p. 863
south magnetic pole, p. 863
, magnetic dipole moment

H
= /

,

= , magnetic force on a charged particle

= , magnetic force on a current-carrying wire

Particle 1:
B
= sin =
(6.13 10
-6
C)(463 m/s)(0.163 T)(sin30.0) = 2.36 10
-4
N.
Particle 2:
B
= sin =
(6.13 10
-6
C)(463 m/s)(0.163 T)(sin90.0) = 4.72 10
-4
N.
Particle 3:
B
= sin =
(6.13 10
-6
C)(463 m/s)(0.163 T)(sin130.0) = 2.36 10
-4
N

-

to sketch a clear diagram of the problem situation in three

useful to visualize the plane in which they lie, since the
magnetic force will be perpendicular to that plane.
Remember that the right-hand rules apply for positive
charges and currents. If a charge or a current is negative, you
can use the right-hand rule but the force will then be in the
opposite direction.

experiences an electric force,

= , and a magnetic force,

= . Be sure you take the vector sum of the individual

forces.

(a) A recLangular loop carry-
recLangular loop looking down on Lhe -plane.
Jhe nagneLic dipole nonenL is perpendicular Lo
Lhe plane o Lhe loop, wiLh a direcLion deLer-
nined by righL-hand rule 2.
Van Allen radiation belts, p. 866
aurora borealis, p. 867
aurora australis, p. 867
magnetic declination, p. 867
tesla, p. 869
p. 882
cyclotron frequency, p. 874
mass spectrometer, p. 873
magnetic levitation, p. 877
commutator, p. 880
magnetic dipole moment, p. 881
a) positive
b) slowing down
c)
acting on the particle to slow it down.)
=
max
-
min
= 2 = 2 =
2(2.00 A)(0.100 m
2
)(0.300 T) = 0.200 J.