Species and their Formation

Ch 22 Evolution Notes IB Bio 2

Species: a definition
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of classification.

A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of (actual or potential) interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.

Is it the same species?

Is it a separate species?
Biologists are often asking this question when they discover a different type of living thing. Is the new organism capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring with an existing species?

The label species is not permanent

Some Biologists wish to classify new found organisms into new species(Splitters) Other Biologists try to combine new organisms in with existing species(Lumpers) This definition is adequate, but more precise measures are often used; based on similarity of DNA or morphology(anatomical structures).

Fruit Flies: Drosophila melanogaster

Male

Female Different species?

Red vs Yellow Shafted Flicker

Colaptes auratus

Red Shafted live west of Rocky Mtns Yellow Shafted live east of Rocky Mtns Are they the same species?

Geographically isolated, different in color...same species or not?

Red shafted flicker Yellow shafted flicker

Colaptes auratus auratus

The Rocky Mtns are a barrier that divides these birds

But wait!! They co-exist!

Ornithologists have found them BOTH living a isolated pockets in New Mexico Found breeding in the same range...same species?

Subspecies
Presence of specic locallyadapted traits may further subdivide species into subspecies.
!

! the dog Canis lupus familiaris. Compare with Canis lupus dingo;

All domesticated dogs are the same species

! The cat Felis silvestris catus. Compare with Felis silvestris libyca.

African Wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica), also known as the Desert Cat

sapiens Homo Homonidae Primates Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Subspecies: H. s. sapiens

Allopatric speciation
also known as geographic speciation, where huge biological populations are physically isolated by an extrinsic barrier and evolve intrinsic (genetic) reproductive isolation, such that if the barrier breaks down, individuals of the populations can no longer interbreed. Evolutionary biologists agree that allopatry is a common way that new species arise.

Allopatric Speciation
A new species arises from an existing species because it is separated by a physical barrier. Rising sea levels isolate populations Continental drift moves large land masses away from each other

Allopatric Speciation
Physical barrier required Total genetic isolation Adaptative changes over long time

Allopatric Speciation
Isolated populations become very different No interbreeding will occur when the barrier is removed

Allopatric speciation among fruit ies.

Allopatric speciation requires total genetic isolation

Sympatric Speciation
New species emerge from an existing population-while living in the same geographic area. Populations can isolate themselves because of: Behaviorial differences Timing/temporal differences

Interspecies barriers
Reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding can be classied as either prezygotic barriers or postzygotic barriers

Prezygotic barriers prevent mating between species or prevent

the fertilization of the egg if the species attempt to mate. Some examples are.....

Postzygotic barriers occur after fertilization, usually resulting in

the formation of a hybrid zygote that is either not viable or not fertile.

Prezygotic barriers
Temporal isolation - Occurs when species mate at different times. Populations of the western spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis) overlap with the eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) yet remain separate species because the western mates in summer and the eastern mates in late winter.

Behavioral isolation
- Signals that elicit a mating response may be sufciently different to prevent a desire to interbreed. The rhythmic ashing in male reies is species-specic and thus serves as a prezygotic barrier.

Different species of Firey do not recognize each others' mating signals, and as a result do not generally interbreed.

Mechanical isolation
Anatomical differences in reproductive structures may prevent interbreeding. This is especially true in owering plants that have evolved specic structures adapted to certain pollinators. Mechanical barriers often contribute to reproductive isolation of owers that are pollinated by insects. This has been well documented in the orchid family.

Gametic isolation
- The gametes of the two species are chemically incompatible, thus preventing fertilization. Gamete recognition may be based on specic molecules on the surface of the egg that attach only to complementary molecules on the sperm. Such mechanisms are common in sh species.
Closely related sea dragon and sea horse

Geographic / habitat isolation

- Geographic: The two species are separated by large-scale physical barriers, such as a mountain or large body of water, and therefore cannot mate with each other. This is illustrated in two separate species of antelope squirrels, genus Ammospermophilus, which inhabit opposite sides of the Grand Canyon.

Harris's Antelope Squirrel

White Tailed Antelope Squirrel

Habitat Isolation
Habitat: The two species prefer different habitats, even if they live in the same general area, and therefore do not encounter each other. For example, two different species of garter snakes in the genus Thamnophis occur in the same area but one prefers the water while the other prefers dry land.
T.s. sirtalis Linnaeus 1758: Common Garter Snake

T.s. parietalis : Red-sided Garter Snake thirteen subspecies

Thamnophis sirtalis

Post Zygotic Barriers

Postzygotic barriers occur after fertilization Usually resulting in the formation of a hybrid zygote that is either not viable or not fertile. This is typically a result of incompatible chromosomes in the zygote. Some examples include:

Reduced hybrid viability

- A barrier between species occurs after the formation of the zygote, resulting in incomplete development and death of the offspring.

Reduced hybrid fertility

Even if two different species successfully mate, the offspring produced may be infertile. Crosses of horse species within the genus Equus tend to produce viable but sterile offspring. For example, crosses of zebra x horse and zebra x donkey produce sterile zorses and zedonks. Horse-donkey crosses produce sterile mules. Very rarely, a female mule may be fertile

The mule is a hybrid of a female horse and a male donkey, and is usually infertile.

Hybrid breakdown
- Some hybrids are fertile for a single generation but then become weak or inviable.

Gametic incompatibility: Sperm transfer takes place, but the egg is not fertilized. !! Zygotic mortality: The egg is fertilized, but the zygote does not develop. !! Hybrid inviability: Hybrid embryo forms, but is not viable. !! Hybrid sterility: Hybrid is viable, but the resulting adult is sterile. !! Hybrid breakdown: First generation (F1) hybrids are viable and fertile, but further hybrid generations (F2 and backcrosses) are inviable or sterile.

Increase in the # of sets of chromosomes

Speciation via polyploidy

Speciation via polyploidy: A diploid cell undergoes failed meiosis, producing diploid gametes, which self-fertilize to produce a tetraploid zygote.

Peppered Moths
These moths are commonly found in the forests of Central Britain. There is a variation in their coloration; from very light to nearly black. Many shades of grey colored moths are found in this continuum . Question #7 on Study Guide D.2

Peppered Moth Studies

The evolution of the peppered moth over the last two hundred years has been studied in detail. Originally, the vast majority of peppered moths had light coloration, which effectively camouaged them against the light-colored trees and lichens which they rested upon.

typica color version

carbonaria version This small bird is a peppered moth predator

(not shown to scale)

Peppered Moth Studies

However, due to widespread pollution during the Industrial Revolution in England, many of the lichens died out, and the trees became blackened by soot, causing most of the lightcolored moths, or typica, to die off due to predation. At the same time, the dark-colored, or melanic, moths, carbonaria, ourished because of their ability to hide on the darkened trees.

Pre-industrial

Lichens cover the bark of trees in a smog free environment

Industrial pollution

The bark of many trees in Britain became covered with soot from the burning of coal and peat

Which type of Selection?

Allopatric vs. Sympatric

Both are speciation mechanisms. Which involves geographic isolation? Which involves changes in gene # ? Which could be due to behavior? Which could be caused by failed meiosis? Which could continued by self fertilization? Which could be continued by asexual reproduction?