Gram Positive Bacteria

Gram-positive bacteria are those that are stained dark blue or violet by Gram staining. This is in contrast to Gram-negative bacteria, which cannot retain the crystal violet stain, instead taking up the counterstain (safranin or fuchsine) and appearing red or pink. Gram-positive organisms are able to retain the crystal violet stain because of the high amount of peptidoglycan in the cell wall. Gram-positive cell walls typically lack the outer membrane found in Gram-negative bacteria.

Characteristics The following characteristics are generally present in a Gram-positive bacterium:[1] 1.cytoplasmic lipid membrane 2.thick peptidoglycan layer 3.teichoic acids and lipoids are present, forming lipoteichoic acids, which serve to act as chelating agents, and also for certain types of adherence. 4.capsule polysaccharides (only in some species) flagellum (only in some species) 5.if present, it contains two rings for support as opposed to four in Gram-negative bacteria because Gram-positive bacteria have only one membrane layer. The individual peptidoglycan molecules are cross-linked by pentaglycine chains by a DD-transpeptidase enzyme. In gram-negative bacteria, the transpeptidase creates a covalent bond directly between peptidoglycan molecules, with no intervening bridge.

Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria may have a membrane called an Slayer. In Gram-negative bacteria, the S-layer is attached directly to the outer membrane. In Gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the peptidoglycan layer. Unique to Gram-positive bacteria is the presence of teichoic acids in the cell wall. Some particular teichoic acids, lipoteichoic acids, have a lipid component and can assist in anchoring peptidoglycan, as the lipid component is embedded in the membrane.

Classification
Along with cell shape, Gram staining is a rapid diagnostic tool of use to group species of Bacteria. In traditional and even some areas of contemporary microbiological practice, such staining, alongside growth requirement and antibiotic susceptibility testing, and other macroscopic and physiologic tests, forms the full basis for classification and subdivision of the Bacteria (e.g., see Figure, and pre-1990 versions of Bergey's Manual).

As such, historically, the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based primarily on Gram staining: Firmicutes (positive in staining), Gracillicutes (negative in staining), Mollicutes (neutral in staining) and Mendocutes (variable in staining).[2]

Since 1987 and the seminal 16S ribosomal RNA phylogenetic studies of Carl Woese (Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois) and collaborators and colleagues, the monophyly of the Gram-positive bacteria has been challenged,[3] with striking productive implications for the therapeutic and general study of these organisms. Based on molecular studies of 16S sequences, Woese recognised 12 bacterial phyla, two being Gram-positive: high-GC Gram-positives and low-GC Gram-positives (where G and C refer to the guanine and cytosine content in their genomes),[3] which are now referred to by these names, or as Actinobacteria and Firmicutes. The former, the Actinobacteria, are the high GC content Gram-positive bacteria and contains genera such as Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, Nocardia and Streptomyces. The latter, the Firmicutes are the "low-GC" Gram-positive bacteria, which actually have 45%60% GC content but lower than that of the Actinobacteria,.[1] The Firmicutes contain the well-known genera that are majority of Gram-positives of medical interest: Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus (cocci), Bacillus, Clostridium and Listeria (bacilli/rods). This group also been expanded to include the Mycoplasma, or Mollicutes, bacteria-like organisms that lack cell walls and cannot be Gram-stained, but appear to have derived evolutionarily from such forms. Despite the wide acceptance and practical record of utility of the new molecular phylogeny, a small group, including Cavalier-Smith, still treat the Monera as a monophyletic clade and refer to the group as division "Posibacteria".[4]

It is worth stressing here that the description of bacteria as Gram-positive or Gramnegative is ambiguous as it can refers to three distinct aspects (staining result, cellenvelope organization, taxonomic group), which do not necessarily coalesce for some bacterial species.[5] When referring to the type of bacterial cell envelope, the terms of monoderm and diderm bacteria are much more appropriate,[5] where the diderm bacteria can even be further differentiated between didermLPS and diderm mycolate, at least.[6] [edit]Exceptions In general, Gram-positive bacteria have a single lipid bilayer (monoderms), whereas Gram-negative have two (diderms). Some taxa lack peptidoglycan (such as the domain Archaea, the class Mollicutes, some members of the Rhickettsiales, and the insect-endosymbionts of the Enterobacteriales) and are Gram-variable. This, however, does not always hold true. The Deinococcus-Thermus bacteria have Gram-positive stains, although they are structurally similar to Gram-negative bacteria with two layers (diderms). The Chloroflexi have a single layer, yet (with some exceptions[7]) stain negative.[8] Two related phyla to the Chloroflexi, the TM7 clade and the Ktedonobacteria, are also monoderms.[9][10] Some Firmicute species are not Gram-positive; these belong to the class Mollicutes (alternatively considered a class of the phylum Tenericutes), which lack peptidoglycan (Gram-indeterminate), and the class Negativicutes, which includes Selenomonas and which stain Gram-negative.[11] [edit]Pathogenesis

Most pathogens in humans are Gram-positive organisms. In the classical sense, six Gram-positive genera are typically pathogenic in humans. Two of these, Streptococcus and Staphylococcus, are cocci (sphere-shaped bacteria). The remaining organisms are bacilli (rod-shaped bacteria) and can be subdivided based on their ability to form spores. The non-spore formers are Corynebacterium and Listeria (a coccobacillus), whereas Bacillus and Clostridium produce spores.[12] The spore-forming bacteria can again be divided based on their respiration: Bacillus is a facultative anaerobe, while Clostridium is an obligate anaerobe.

Actinobacteria
Actinobacteria are a group of Gram-positive bacteria with high guanine and cytosine content.[1][2] They can be terrestrial or aquatic.[3] Actinobacteria is one of the dominant phyla of the bacteria.[4] Analysis of glutamine synthetase sequence has been suggested for phylogenetic analysis of Actinobacteria.[5]

Characteristics

Actinobacteria include some of the most common soil life, freshwater life, and marine life, playing an important role in decomposition of organic materials, such as cellulose and chitin, and thereby playing a vital part in organic matter turnover and

carbon cycle. This replenishes the supply of nutrients in the soil and is an important part of humus formation. Other Actinobacteria inhabit plants and animals, including a few pathogens, such as Mycobacterium, Corynebacterium, Nocardia, Rhodococcus and a few species of Streptomyces. Actinobacteria are well known as secondary metabolite producers and hence of high pharmacological and commercial interest. In 1940 Selman Waksman discovered that the soil bacteria he was studying made actinomycin, a discovery for which he received a Nobel Prize. Since then, hundreds of naturally occurring antibiotics have been discovered in these terrestrial microorganisms, especially from the genus Streptomyces. Some Actinobacteria form branching filaments, which somewhat resemble the mycelia of the unrelated fungi, among which they were originally classified under the older name Actinomycetes. Most members are aerobic, but a few, such as Actinomyces israelii, can grow under anaerobic conditions. Unlike the Firmicutes, the other main group of Gram-positive bacteria, they have DNA with a high GCcontent, and some Actinomycetes species produce external spores. Some types of Actinobacteria are responsible for the peculiar odor emanating from the soil after rain (Petrichor), mainly in warmer climates. The chemical that produces this odour is known as Geosmin.[6]

General

Most Actinobacteria of medical or economic significance are in subclass Actinobacteridae, order Actinomycetales. While many of these cause disease in humans, Streptomyces is notable as a source of antibiotics.

Of those Actinobacteria not in Actinomycetales, Gardnerella is one of the most researched. Classification of Gardnerella is controversial, and MeSH catalogues it as both a gram-positive and gram-negative organism.[7

Phylogeny

The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) [8] and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)[9] and the phylogeny is based on 16S rRNA-based LTP release 106 by The All-Species Living Tree Project [10]