Ex.

No:

Date:

1. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING DIFFERENT SENSORS

AIM:

To measure the temperature using sensors like Thermocouple, Thermistor and RTD.
REFERENCE:

1. 2.

A.K. Sawhney : A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. H.S. Kalsi: Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1995. Working principle and operations of different types of temperature

BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

measurement sensors.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. 1 2 3

Particulars Temperature measurement kit Thermometer Multi meter

Quantity 1 No. 1 No. 1 No.

FORMULAE USED:

% Error = (Actual reading True reading) / Actual reading

THEORY:

Thermistors: Thermistor means Thermal Resistor.Thermistor is a semiconductor device which behaves as thermal resistor having negative temperature coefficient (NTC) in which their resistance decreases as temperature increases. The NTC is as large as several percent per degree Celsius. This allows the thermistor circuits to detect very small changes in temperature which could not be observed with RTD or Thermocouple. In some cases the resistance of thermistor at room temperature may decrease as much as 5% for each one degree Celsius rise in Temperature. This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes thermistors extremely useful for precision temperature measurements control and compensation Thermocouples: When two metals having different work functions are placed together, a voltage is generated at the junction which is nearly proportional to the temperature. This junction is called a thermocouple.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fe Constantan DC output voltage

+5V -5V

MODEL GRAPH:

Thermistor

Thermocouple

RTD Thermocouple

RTD

OBSERVATION:

Thermistor

Room Temperature = Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Thermometer Reading (Degree Celsius) Thermocouple Reading (Degree Celsius) % Error

This principle is used to convert the heat energy to electrical energy at the junction of two conductors. The heat at the junction is produced by the electrical current flowing in the heater element while the thermocouple produces an EMF at its output terminals which can be measured with the help of a PMMC instrument. The EMF produced is proportional to the temperature and hence to the RMS value of the current. Thermocouple types of instrument can be used for both ac and dc. Resistance temperature detector: Electrical resistance of any metallic conductor varies according to temperature changes. The sensor for measurement of temperature by utilizing this phenomenon is called resistance thermometer. It is the basic element for resistance temperature detector.
PROCEDURE:

1. The heat source box is connected to the socket provided on the back side of the main unit. 2. The leads from the Transducers are connected to the input socket of main unit. 3. Single phase supply is given to the main unit 4. The glass mercury thermometer is placed (to measure the temperature) in heat source through the window hole. 5. Thermometer reading and digital display readings are noted down. 6. The knob of phase controller is adjusted to select the temperature level for experiment. 7. For various temperatures, thermometer reading and display reading are noted.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What is a thermocouple? 2. What is Seeback effect? 3. What is Peltier effect? 4. What are the merits of thermocouple? 5. What are the demerits of thermocouple? 6. What are the applications of temperature sensors? 7. What are the various methods of measuring the thermocouple output?
RESULT:

Thus the temperature measuring transducer (Thermocouple) is studied.

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE B P

C R-Unknown Resistance D- Galvanometer S

R D

KELVINS DOUBLE BRIDGE C

R1
DRB

c R4
R
3

R2

RX A
A

DRB

RS

a
+ +

Rb

Ex. No:

Date:

2. DC BRIDGES
AIM:

To determine the value of the given low resistance using (i) Wheat stones Bridge (ii) Kelvins Bridge
REFERENCE:

1. A.K.Sawhney: A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S.Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1985.
BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Principle and operation of bridge circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
THEORY:

Apparatus RPS Ammeter Decade Resistance Box Resistor Rheostat

Range (0-30 V) (0-300 mA) (0-100 K) 1 K 1180 / 0.6 A

Quantity 1 1 2 2 1

The bridges are used not only for the measurement of resistance but also used for measurement of various component values like capacitor and inductor etc. Bridge circuit in its simplest form consists of a network of four resistance arms forming a closed circuit. A source of current detector is connected to the two junctions. The bridge circuit uses the comparison measurement methods and operates on nullindication principle. The bridge circuit compares the value of an unknown component with that of an accurately known standard component. Thus the accuracy depends on the bridge component without the null detector. Hence high degree of accuracy can be obtained. In a bridge circuit when no current flows through the null detector which is generally a galvanometer, then the bridge is said to be balanced.

TABULATION:

Kelvins Bridge: Sl.No R1 () R3 () RX () % Error

Wheat stones Bridge: SL.No R1 () R2 () R3 () RX () % Error Actual works ()

Wheatstone bridge: A very important device used in the measurement of medium resistances is the Wheatstone bridge. A Wheatstone bridge has been in use longer than almost any electrical measuring instrument. It is still an accurate and reliable instrument for making comparison measurements and operates upon a null indication principle. The well known expression for the balance of Wheatstone bridge is follows QR = PS If three of the resistance is known then the fourth may be determined from the eqn, R = S*(P/Q) Where R is the unknown resistance, S is called the standard arm of the bridge and P and Q are called the ratio arms. Kelvins double bridge: The Kelvin Bridge is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge and provides greatly increased accuracy in measurement of low value resistances. An understanding of the Kelvin bridge arrangement may be obtained by a study of the difficulties that arise in a Wheatstone bridge on account of the resistance of the leads and the contact resistances while measuring low valued resistors.
PROCEDURE:

Make the Connections as per the circuit diagram. 1. deflection. 2. Note the values and calculate unknown resistance using the formula. By increasing DC Voltage source, note different readings and repeat the calculation
FORMULAE:

Give supply and adjust Decade Resistance Box to get null

Kelvins Bridge: RX = (RSR1) / R2 + R4 r (R1 / R2 R3 / R4) / (R3 + R4 + r) () Wheat stones Bridge: R = P * S / Q () Where, RS Standard resistance, r - Load resistance, RX unknown resistance

% Error = ((Actual Value Obtained Value) / Actual Value) * 100

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What is the range of low, medium and high resistances? 2. What are the methods of measuring medium resistances? 3. What are the advantages of Wheatstone bridge method? 4. What are the methods of measuring high resistances? 5. What are the precautions to be followed while measuring low resistance? 6. What are the factors involved in measurement of high resistance? 7. What are the advantages of bridges? 8. What is meant by Kelvins bridge? 9. What is Kelvin double bridge? 10. What is meant by balanced condition for Wheatstone bridge?
RESULT:

Thus the value of given resistance was determined using Wheatstone bridge & Kelvin bridge. The value of the given resistor = _________ (Using Wheatstone bridge) _________ (Using Kelvins double bridge)

INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

V1

+ A1 -

R2 R R1 A3 R R3 + R4 V0

V2 + A2

Ex. No: 3. INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

AIM:

Date:

To design and determine the performance characteristics of Instrumentation Amplifier.

REFERENCE:

1. A.K. Sawhney : A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S. Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1995.

BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Principle of working of Instrumentation amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No 1. 2. 3. 4.
THEORY:

Apparatus name Regulated Power Supply Resistors OP-Amp IC 741 Connecting wires

Quantity 1 No. As reqd 3 Nos. As reqd

In a number of industrial and consumer applications, one is required to measure and control physical quantities. Some typical examples are measurement and control of temperature, humidity, light intensity, water flow etc. These physical quantities are usually measured with the help of transducers. The output of transducers has to be amplified so that it can drive the indicator. So that it can display system. This function is performed by an instrumentation amplifier. Many of the input specification of an Op-amps employed directly determine the input specifications of the instrumentation amplifier. An analysis of the circuit gives the following equation: Let R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 Considering the basic differential amplifier shown in the figure, the output voltage V0 is given by V0 = - R2/ R1 V2 + 1/1 + R3/R4 V1 (1+ R2/R1) Or, V0 = R2/ R1 (V2 1/1 + R3/R4 (R1/ R2+1) V1V1)

V0 = -R2/R1 V2 + 1/ 1+R3/R4 V1 (1+ R2/R1) V0 = - Rf / Rin (V1 V2)

TABULATION:

Sl.No

Input Voltage (V1)

V2

Output Voltage (V0)

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

The Op-amp A1 and A2 have differential input voltage as Zero. For V1 = V2 that is, under common mode condition, the voltage across R will be zero. As no current flows through R and R1 the non-inverting amplifier A1 acts as voltage follower having output V11 and V1. However, If V1 V2 current flows in R and R2 and (V2-V1). The gain of an instrumentation amplifier can be varied by changing R1 alone. High gain accuracy can be obtained by using precision metal film resistors for all the resistances. Because of the large negative feedback used, the amplifier has good linearity typically about 0.01% for a gain less than 10. The output impedance is also low being in the range of milliohms. The input bias current of the instrumentation amplifier is determined by that of the amplifiers A1 and A2.
FEATURES:

The important features of an instrumentation amplifier are 1. High gain accuracy and linearity 2. High CMRR 3. High gain stability with low temperature coefficient. 4. Low dc offset 5. Low output impedance The instrumentation amplifier is also called as Data amplifier. The expression for its voltage gain is generally of the form, A = (V0/V2) V1 Where V0 = output of the amplifier V2-V1 = differential input is to be amplified.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER:

1. Finite, accurate and stable gain 2. Easier gain adjustment 3. High input impedance 4. Low output impedance 5. High CMRR 6. Low power consumption 7. Low thermal and time drift

8. High Slew rate

PROCEDURE:

1. Circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. V1 & V2 are connected together & the input voltage is set at 7V.The output voltage V0 is measured. 3. Common mode gain is calculated Ac = V0/((V1+V2)/2) 4. V1 & V2 are given different voltages & the output voltage V0 is measured. 5. Differential gain is calculated Ad = V0/(V1~V2) 6. CMRR= Ad / Ac
DESIGN:

An analysis of the circuit gives the following equation: Let R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 Considering the basic differential amplifier shown below, the output voltage V0 is given by V0 = - R2/ R1 V2 + 1/1 + R3/R4 V1(1+ R2/R1) Or, V0 = R2/ R1 (V2 1/1 + R3/R4 (R1/ R2+1)V1V1) V0 = -R2/R1 V2 + 1/ 1+R3/R4 V1 (1+ R2/R1) V0 = -Rf / Rin (V1 V2)
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What is instrumentation amplifier? 2. What are the important features of instrumentation amplifier? 3. What is an op amp? 4. What are the properties of an ideal op amp? 5. What are the characteristics of voltage amplifier? 6. What is CMRR? 7. What is bandwidth? 8. What is the need of instrumentation amplifier? 9. What are the advantages of instrumentation amplifier? 10. What are the applications of Op-Amp?
RESULT:

Thus an instrumentation amplifier is designed and analyzed. CMRR of the Instrumentation Amplifier is determined.

R-L circuit: For a series RL circuit, V L

V(t)R
2

I (t)

Circuit Equations: V (t) = R i (t) + L di (t) dt di (t) = V (t) - R i(t) dt L L i (t) = ( V(t) - R i(t)) dt L L

R-L Circuit Simulation: + S U M PRODUCT _ INTEGRATOR SCOPE

V/ L V/

R/L R/ L

Ex. No: 4. STUDY OF TRANSIENTS

AIM:

Date:

To study the transients of DC circuits and AC circuits. To obtain the Transient Response Curve of R-L circuit and R-C circuit using MATLAB.
REFERENCE:

1. M.Arumugam and N.Prem Kumar Electrical circuits Theory, Khanna Publishers, Newdelhi. 2. B.L. Theraja Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics, S.Chand and Company Ltd, New Delhi.
BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Basic concepts of DC and AC circuits. Basic concepts of RL, RC transients and MATLAB.

THEORY:

Transient phenomenon is a periodic function of time and doesnt last longer. The duration of which they last is very significant as compared with operating time of the system. But they are very important because depending upon the reversibility of the transients, the system may result in block out condition.
REQUIREMENT OF TRANSIENT IN THE CIRCUIT:

1. Either inductor or capacitor or both should be present. 2. A sudden change in the parameter as the form should occurs as a fault or any switching operation. a) The following are the simple 3 facts which are the fundamental to the phenomenon of transients in electrical power systems. b) The current cant change instantaneously through any inductor. c) The voltage across a capacitor cant change instantaneously. 3. The law of conversion of energy should hold good.

R-C circuit: For a series RC circuit, R C

V(t) R2

i(t)

Circuit Equations: V (t) = R i(t) + 1 i(t) dt C R i (t) = V (t) 1 i(t) dt C i (t) = V(t) /R 1 i(t) dt RC

R-C Circuit Simulation:

V/ R

+ S U M PRODUCT INTEGRATOR _ SCOPE

1/ RC

SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

1. To work with Matlab-Simulink, first type simulink in the command window. A library file and untitled notepad appears in the window. 2. Double click on each icon to get different blocks. 3. Drag each component from library block and place in untitled. 4. Dragging the mouse between two components draws lines. 5. After completing the circuit, select start from the simulation menu. 6. Double click on the scope to view the response
PROBLEM:

R-L circuit R=10; L=1H and V=10 V. Choose simulation time as 5 sec. R-C circuit R=10; C=1f and V=10 V. Choose simulation time as 5 sec.

RESULT:

Thus the transient response curve for the given R-L circuit and R-C circuits have been obtained.

Ex. No:

Date:

5. CALIBRATION OF SINGLE-PHASE ENERGY METER

AIM:

To calibrate the given single-phase energy meter by direct loading and phantom loading.
REFERENCE:

1. A.K. Sawhney : A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S. Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1995.

BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Working principle and operation of single phase energy meter, loading arrangements and method of calibrating the energy meters.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
THEORY:

Particulars Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Test energy meter Phase shift transformer Connecting wires

1 No. 1 No. 1 No. 1 No. 1 No. As reqd.

Direct loading: In this method, precision grade indicating instruments are used as reference standard. These indicating instruments are connected in the circuit of meters under test. The current and voltage are held constant during the load test. The number of revolutions made by the meter disc and the time taken during the test are recorded. Phantom loading: When the current rating of a meter under test is high. A test with actual loading arrangements would involve a considerable waste of power. In order to avoid this, phantom or fractious loading is done. The calibration procedure involves the steps like visual inspection for various defects, installation according to the specifications, zero adjustment etc.

PRE CAUTIONS:

1. Auto transformer is kept at minimum position at the time of starting. 2. Rheostat is kept at minimum position in phantom loading. 3. Phase shaft transformer is kept at UPF position
PROCEDURE:

Direct loading: 1. Make the circuit connection as per the circuit diagram. 2. Close the DPST switch. 3. Adjust single phase auto transformer till the voltage connected across the primary winding reads rated primary voltage. 4. Vary the resistive load to vary the load current. 5. Note down readings of time taken for the Energy meter for 5 revolution, Wattmeter, ammeter and voltmeter. 6. Repeat the same procedure for various load conditions. 7. Calculate percentage error and draw the graph between percentage error and load current. Phantom loading: 1. Make the circuit connection as per the circuit diagram. 2. Close the DPST switch 2. 3. Give the supply to energy meter circuit which energies the pressure coils in energy meter and wattmeter. 4. Vary the single phase variac up to rated current in ammeter there by energising the current coil. 5. Note down the time taken for five revolutions for various load at UPF. 6. Rotate the phase shifting transformer and note down the readings for lagging power factor and leading power factor. 7. Calculate the true energy, actual energy and % error. 8. Draw the graph between % error Vs load current.
FORMULAE:

% Error =

Actual Trueenergy 100 % Actualenergy Wattmeter reading Timetaken 100 % 3600 1000 No. of revolution made by energy meter = meter constant

True energy in kWhr = Actual energy

MODEL GRAPH:

Direct loading

Phantom loading

UPF % Error % Error Lag Lead IL (A) IL (A)

TABULATION:

Direct loading Sl.No. Voltage Current Wattmeter Time taken Actual True %Error (Volts) (Amps) Reading for 5 Energy energy (Watts) revolutions

Phantom loading: Power factor UPF Voltage (V) IL (A) Wattmeter Reading Time for 5 Actual revaluations energy True %error energy

Lagging

Leading

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What is creeping in energy meter? 2. What is Phantom Loading? 3. What is energy meter? 4. What are the types of energy meter? 5. What are the advantages of two element polyphase meter? What is the provision available in energy meter for adjusting creeping? 6. What is the provision available in low power factor measurement energy meter? 7. What is calibration and why it is needed for instruments?

RESULT:

Thus the single phase energy meter was calibrated using direct and phantom loading methods and the graph is drawn. .

Ex. No.

Date:

6. MEASUREMENT OF THREE PHASE POWER AND POWER FACTOR

AIM:

To measure the power and power factor in three-phase circuit star connected, Delta connected load & to check the relationship between line and phase quantity.
REFERENCE:

1. A.K.Sawhney : A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S. Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1995.
BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

1. Basics of three-phase power and power factor 2. Basics of Star and Delta connections.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5
THEORY:

Particulars Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Rheostat Connecting wires

Quantity 2 Nos. 2 Nos. 2 Nos. 3 Nos. As reqd.

In a three phase, three wire system, we require three elements. But if we make the common points of the pressure coils coincide with one of the lines, then we require only two elements. Instantaneous power consumed by load =V1i1+V2i2+V3i3. Star Connection: Instantaneous reading of P1 wattmeter W1 and the instantaneous reading of P2 is W2.Sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeter =W1+W2.Sum of instantaneous readings of two watt meters = V1i1+V2i2+V3i3.Therefore, the sum of the two wattmeter reading is equal to the power consumed by the load. This is irrespective of whether the load is balanced or unbalanced. Delta Connection Here also, by means of Kirchhoffs voltage law, hence sum of instantaneous readings of two watt meters = V1i1+V2i2+V3i3. Therefore the sum of the two wattmeter readings are equal to the power consumed by the load. This is irrespective of whether the load is balanced or unbalanced.

TABULATION:

Sl.No

Voltage (V)

Current (V)

Wattmeter reading W1 (W) W2 (W)

Power factor cos

M.F =

FORMULA:

3-phase power P = W1+W2 (Watts) Power factor Angle = tan-1 [3 (W1 ~W2) ] (W1+W2)
MODEL CALCULATION:

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the circuit connection as per the circuit diagram. 2. Close the TPST switch. 3. Note down the Wattmeter readings W1 and W2. 4. By knowing the Multiplication factor, calculate the power. 5. Note down the line voltage and phase voltage using voltmeters. 6. Note down the line current and phase current using ammeters. 7. By using the above all the readings calculate the power and power factor.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What is energy? 2. What are the advantages of three phase system? 3. What is the relation between the line and phase quantities in delta connection? 4. What are the methods for measuring power? 5. What do you meant by power factor?

RESULT:

Thus the relationship between phase & line quantities for star and delta connected load are verified in three phase connection and the power and power factor is measured.

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

CORE

Difference Voltage 1 AC Excitation

+ Sy1 _ AFO Py

+ Sy2 _

CRO

Ex. No 7. STUDY OF DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER (Linear Variable differential Transformer)

AIM:

Date:

To obtain the performance characteristics of Linear Variable differential Transformer

(LVDT) and to measure the displacement made by the given object using LVDT. REFERENCE:

1. A.K. Sawhney : A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S. Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1995.
BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Principle of working of Linear Variable Differential Transformer and different transducers.

THEORY:

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT): The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring linear displacement. The transformer has three solenoidal coils placed end-to-end around a tube. The centre coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the secondaries. A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the object whose position is to be measured, slides along the axis of the tube. An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a voltage to be induced in each secondary proportional to its mutual inductance with the primary. The frequency is usually in the range 1 to 10 kHz. As the core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing the voltages induced in the secondary coils to change. The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the output voltage is the difference (hence "differential") between the two secondary voltages. When the core is in its central position, equidistant between the two secondary coils, equal but opposite voltages are induced in these two coils, so the output voltage is zero. When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases as the other decreases, causing the output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum.

TABULATION: Sl.No Micrometer Reading (mm) Actual Displacement (mm) Display reading (Volts) Indicated displacement (mm) %Error

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

MODEL GRAPH:

Output voltage (mV)

Displacement (mm)

SPECIFICATION OF LVDT:

Four Stage range Excitation Sensitivity Body Diameter Resolution

: 20mm : Upto 5V, 3 KHz AC : 5mV, rms at 3 KHz : 22mm : Infinite Resolution

This voltage is in phase with the primary voltage. When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also increases from zero to a maximum, but its phase is opposite to that of the primary. The magnitude of the output voltage is proportional to the distance moved by the core (up to its limit of travel), which is why the device is described as "linear". The phase of the voltage indicates the direction of the displacement because the sliding core does not touch the inside of the tube, it can move without friction, making the LVDT a highly reliable device. The absence of any sliding or rotating contacts allows the LVDT to be completely sealed against the environment.
PRECAUTIONS:

In all the arms of the bridge the resistance values one kept at Maximum position to reduce current through the detector circuit.
PROCEDURE:

For plotting the Characteristics of LVDT: 1. Make the connection as per the circuit diagram. 2. Vary the frequency and the LVDT core. 3. Measure the output Voltage. 4. Plot the Graph between displacement and output voltage. To measure the displacement made by the given object: 1. The LVDT module is connected to main unit. 2. Initially the unit is set at 0 at 40mm in vernier. 3. The power supply is given to the unit. 4. The zero adjust is varied to obtain a correct zero value on output display. 5. Vernier position is adjusted using the screw provided towards right hand side. 6. Now core of LVDT wire will move towards positive position. 7. For 10mm movement towards right, the display will indicate 1V. For further 5mm movement the display will indicate 1.5V and so on. 8. Now the given object is placed in Vernier scale. The reading shown by the display and Vernier scale are noted. 9. By using noted value, error is calculated.
FORMULAE:

% Error = (Actual Displacement Indicated Displacement)/Actual Displacement

FORMULAE:

(i) V0 =V01-V02 Where, V0 = Output voltage V01 = Voltage across secondary SV1 V02 = Voltage across secondary SV2 (ii) Displacement = MSR + (RSR x 0.01)
MODEL CALCULATION:

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Mention some of the transducers. 2. What is LVDT? 3. State the advantages of LVDT. 4. What are the disadvantages of LVDT? 5. What are the applications of LVDT? 6. What is RVDT? 7. What is Synchro? 8. What are the types of synchro systems?
RESULT:

Thus the performance characteristic of LVDT is studied.

SCHERINGS BRIDGE
C1 C2

AF O

D
R4 R3 C3

MAXWELLS BRIDGE

RX LX R2

R3

R4 C4

Ex. No 8. A.C. BRIDGES

AIM:

Date:

To determine the value of the unknown capacitance and loss angle () using low voltage Scherings bridge. To measure unknown value of inductance using Maxwells Bridge.
REFERENCE:

1. A.K.Sawhney: A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S.Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1985.

BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Principle of bridge circuits, loss angle, low voltage Schering bridge for measurement of capacitance and low frequency and high frequency inductance measurements using Maxwells Bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
THEORY:

Particulars Capacitor Decade capacitance Box Decade Resistance Box Resistor AFO Galvanometer

Quantity 3 Nos. 1 No. 2 Nos. 1 No. 1 No. 1 No.

Scherings Bridge: A very important bridge used for the precision measurement of capacitors and their insulating properties is the Schering Bridge. The standard Capacitor C2 is a high quality mica capacitor (low-loss) for general measurements or an air capacitor (having a very stable value and a very small electric field) for insulation measurement. Under balance condition, {R1+[1/jC1]}{R4/[1+jC4R4]} = {I/jC2}R3 {R1+1/jC1}R = R3/jC2[1+jC4R4] R1R4-[jR4/C1] = -[jR3/C2]+ [R3C4R4/C2] C1=C2R4/R3

TABULATION: (Scherings bridge)

SL. No.

Capacitor C2 (f)

R4 ()

C4 (f)

R3 ()

C1 Actual Value (f)

C1 Obtained Value (f)

% Error

FORMULAE:

C1= C2 ( R3 / R4) cos2 Farad Where, R3 Variable resistance R4 Standard resistance (Ohm) (Ohm)

C1 unknown Capacitance (Farad) C2 Standard Capacitance (Farad) C4 Variable Capacitance (Farad) Loss angle = tan-1( C4 R4) % Error = ((Actual Value Obtained Value) / Actual Value) * 100
MODEL CALCULATION:

Equating real and imaginary terms, R1= R3C4/C2 Two independent balance equations are balanced if C4&R4 are chosen are the variable element. Dissipation factor D1= tan =C1R1 = [C2R4/R3][R3C4/C2] = C4 R4 This bridge is widely used for testing small capacitors at low voltages with very high precision.
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. Vary the DRB and DCB. 3. When the detector shows null position, note the corresponding readings. 4. Using the formula find the value of unknown capacitance. Maxwells bridge: Maxwells bridge measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitor. The use of standard arm offers the advantage of compactness and easy shielding. The capacitor is almost a loss-less component. One arm has a resistance R1 in parallel with C1, and hence it is easier to write the balance equation using the admittance of arm 1 instead of the impedance. The general equation for bridge balance is Z1Zx = Zx = Z2Z3 Z2Z3/ Z1
=

Z2Z3Y1

Where, Z1=R1 in parallel with C1; i.e. Y1=1/Z1 Y1=1/R1 + jC1 Z2=R2 Z3=R3 Zx=Rx in series with Lx=Rx + jLx From these equations we have, Rx + jLx = R2R3(1/R1 + jC1) Rx + jLx = R2R3/R1 + jC1R2R3

TABULATION: (Maxwells bridge)

Sl.No

R2()

R3()

R4()

RX() Actual Practical

LX() Actual Practical

FORMULAE:

RX = R2 R3 / R4() LX = R2 R3 C4(H) Q factor= LX / RX Where, LX = unknown Inductance RX =Effective resistance of inductance LX R2, R3, R4 = Known non Inductance resistance C4 = Standard capacitance
MODEL CALCULATION:

Equating real terms and imaginary terms we have Rx = R2R3/R1 and Lx=C1R2R3 Also, Q = Lx/Rx = (C1R2R3 * R1)/R2R3 = C1R1 Maxwells bridge is limited to the measurement of low Q values (1-10). The measurement is independent of the excitation frequency. The scale of the resistance can be calibrated to read inductance directly. The Maxwells bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there is an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. This can be avoided by varying the capacitances, instead of R2 and R3, to obtain a reactance balance. However, the bridge can be made to read directly in Q. This bridge is particularly suited for inductances measurements, since comparison with a capacitor is more ideal than with another inductance. Commercial bridges measure from 1-1000 H, with + 2% error. (If the Q is very large, R1 becomes excessively large and it is impractical to obtain a satisfactory variable standard resistance in the range of values required)
PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit Diagram. 2. Give supply and adjust Decade Resistance Box to get null deflection. 3. Note the values and calculate unknown Inductance using the formula.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

How can we eliminate the error? Applications of Scherings bridge? What is the use of vibrational glanvanometer? List out commonly used detectors for A.C. Bridge. What are the types of A.C.bridges? How do you measure capacitance? What are the advantages of Maxwell Wein Bridge? What are the disadvantages of Maxwell Wein Bridge? What are the advantages of electronic oscillator?
RESULT:

Thus the value of the unknown capacitance and loss angle () using low voltage Scherings bridge was determined. Thus the unknown value of inductance using Maxwells Bridge was determined.

Ex. No 9. A/D CONVERTER AND D/A CONVERTER

AIM:

Date:

(i) To obtain the analog output voltage from digital Input. (ii) To obtain the digital output voltage from Analog Input.
REFERENCE:

1. A.K. Sawhney : A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S. Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1995.

BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Basic theory and operation of A/D & D/A and its types.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. VSTM 003 experiment unit and channel ADC kit. 2. VSTM 003 experiment unit and channel DAC kit.
THEORY: DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSION:

It involves conversion of digital information into equivalent analog information. Digital to analog converter (DAC) acts as a decoding device since it operates on the output of the system. DAC are of two types, Binary weighted resistor type & R-2R ladder type. R-2R ladder DAC: In this type, the reference voltage is applied to one of the switch position and the other switch position is connected to ground. The typical value of resistors ranges from 2.5k to 10k. Let us consider 3 bit R-2R ladder DAC with binary input 001. The output voltage will be VR/ 8, is equivalent to binary input 001.
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION:

The analog information is converted into equivalent binary number in the digital form. Analog to digital converter (ADC) acts as an encoder. The types of ADC are 1) single slope, 2) Dual slope, 3) successive approximation, 4) Flash type, 5) Delta modulation and 6) Adaptive delta modulation. In this type most frequently used method is successive approximation

Successive approximation: In this type the basic idea is to adjust the DACs input code such that its output is within 1/2 LSB of the analog input Vi. The circuit uses Successive Approximation Register (SAR) to find the required values of each bit by trial and error.

PROCEDURE:

D/A Conversion: 1. Switch on the Power supply. 2. The jumpers J9 to J16 should be in the s/w (right) position. 3. The switches sw1 through sw8 are placed approximately to represent the desired output. 4. For example if the input is 496 V then the switch positions are as follows. SW1 1 SW2 1 SW3 11 SW4 1 SW5 1 SW6 1 SW7 SW8 Hex Value 0 (FE) H

5. The output voltage can be observed by using CRO. A/D Conversion: 1. Switch on the supply. 2. The Variable terminal of the potentiometer is given to analog input channel 2. 3. To select the analog input channel 2, the channel select switch position is as follows. SW1 0 SW2 1 SW3 0

4. The start of conversion button (soc) is pressed. Once to start the Conversion from analog signal to digital form. The LED 9 glows on pressing start of Conversion button. 5. The Address latch enable button is also pressed once so as to enable the digital data to be sent to the output.

TABULATION:

Digital to Analog Conversion: Sl. No B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0 Hex Value Analog O/p

Analog to digital Conversion: Sl. No Analog I/p B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0 Hex Value

DISCUSSION QUESTION:

1. 2.

What are the types of D/A converter? What are the advantages of R-2R ladder D/A converter?

3. 4. 5.

What are the uses of D/A converter? What are the types of A/D conversion? What is the use of A/D conversion device?

6. What is sample and hold circuit? 7. What is resolution? 8. What are the advantages of successive approximation converter? 9. What are the disadvantages of Dual slope converter? RESULT: Thus the analog output voltage from digital input and digital output from analog input were obtained.

Ex. No

Date: 10. CALIBRATION OF THREE-PHASE ENERGY METER

AIM:

To calibrate and hence draw the characteristics curve for the given 3 energy meter by direct loading.
REFERENCE:

1. A.K. Sawhney : A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S. Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1995.

BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Working principle and operation of Three-phase energy meter, loading arrangements and method of calibrating the energy meters.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No 1 2 3
THEORY:

Apparatus Ammeter M.I Wattmeter Three-Phase energy meter Voltmeter M.I

Quantity 1 1 1 1

Range 0 10A 600 V, 10A,UPF 0 - 600 V

In a 3 four wire system, the measurement of energy is carried out by a three phase energy meter. In a 3 three wire system, the measurement of energy is carried out by 2 element energy meter. This meter consists of 3 elements. The construction of an individual element is similar to that of a single phase energy meter. The current coils are connected in series with line and denoted as C1, C2, C3, while pressure coils are connected along line & neutral and denoted as P1, P2, and P3. The coils are connected in such a manner that the net torque produced is the sum of the torques due to all the three elements. These are employed for 3 four wire systems where the fourth wire is a neutral. To have a zero error, the actual energy consumed by load for time corresponding to two revolutions must be same as r. This energy is actual energy consumed or true energy denoted as r. The graph is calibration curve for the energy meter.

MODEL GRAPH:

% Error

Load Current (A)

TABULATION:

Sl.No

IL (Amps)

Wattmeter Readings (W) W1 W2

Actual Energy (kWhr)

Time Taken True for 5 Energy revolutions (kWhr) (sec)

% error = (AE-TE)/ TE x 100

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Auto transformer should be kept at minimum position at the time of starting. 2. Resistive load should be kept at minimum position.
PROCEDURE:

1. Make the circuit connection as per the circuit diagram. 2. Close the TPST switch. 3. Adjust three-phase auto transformer till the rated voltage. 4. Vary the resistive load to vary the load current. 5. Note down readings of time taken for the Energy meter for 5 revolution, Wattmeter and ammeter. 6. Repeat the same procedure for various load conditions. 7. Calculate the percentage error and draw the graph between percentage error and load current.
FORMULA:

% Error

= (Actual energy True energy) / True energy X 100

Actual energy (kWhr) = No of revolutions by energy meter / Meter Constant True energy (kWhr) = (Watt meter readings X Time taken) / (3600 X 1000)
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

What is Creeping? What is Phantom Loading? What is energy meter? What is calibration? What are the types of energy meter? What are the methods of testing the energy meter? What is the reason for rotation of disc? How can the creeping be eliminated? Which torque is absent in energy meter. Why? RESULT: Thus the given 3 energy meter was calibrated by direct loading & the graph was plotted.

CALIBRATION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER

A P

30 V AC Supply

Ex. No

Date:

11. CALIBRATION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER

AIM:

To study and calibrate current transformer parameters

REFERENCE:

1. A.K. Sawhney : A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S. Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1995.

BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Principle of working of current transformer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SNO 1 2 3 4
FORMULAE:

Apparatus Current Transformer Trainer Rheostat Loading rheostat Patch cords

Range 500 ,3A 700 W

Quantity 1 No. 1 No. 1 No. As reqd.

Ratio error or Current error (%) = 100( KN IS -IP) IP KN = Primary winding current Secondary winding current

Phase Angle error

Im

180 Im = Ip Ip = nIs

THEORY:

A current transformer is an instrument transformer specially designed and assembled to be used in measurement control and protective circuits. Its primary consists of few turns and is connected in series with the circuit whose current is desired to be measured and the secondary is connected to the current measuring instrument. The secondary circuit is closed through the typical low impedance of the instruments connected to it.
TABULATION:

Sl No

Supply Voltage (V)

Primary Current ( IP)

Secondary Current ( IS)

Ratio Error KN

Phase angle Error

MODEL CALCULATION:

In ideal CT the secondary current is inversely proportional to the ratio of turns and opposite in phase to the impresses primary current. The exciting current must be subtracted phasorially from the primary current to find the amount remaining to supply secondary current. This value will be slightly different from the value that the ratio of turns would indicate and there is slight shift in phase relationship. This results in introduction of ratio and phase angle errors when compared to ideal CT.
PROCEDURE:

The calibration of current transformer operation is under two modes (ie.Low voltage and high voltage) Low Voltage : (ie.30 V) 1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram 2. Switch on the kit with rheostat at minimum position. 3. Load the CT by using 500 , 3A rheostat. 4. Now note down the primary (IP) and secondary current (IS) of transformer. 5. Tabulate the readings and calculate calibration parameters. High Voltage : (ie.230 V) 1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram 2. Switch on the kit and switch on the MCB. 3. Keep the rheostat maximum position. 4. Load the CT by using loading rheostat 700 W. 5. Now note down the primary (IP) and secondary current (IS) of transformer. 6. Tabulate the readings and calculate calibration parameters
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Define current transformer 2. How is current transformer designed? 3. Mention the uses of current transformer. 4. Mention precautions to be followed while using current transformer. 5. What is calibration? Mention the need for calibration. 6. Mention calibrated parameters of current transformer
RESULT:

Thus the calibration of current transformer was studied and calibrated. The calibrated parameters are ratio error & phase angle error .

MEASUREMENT OF IRON LOSS A

L

AC

G
R3 R4

Ex. No 12. MEASUREMENT OF IRON LOSS

AIM:

Date:

To determine the iron loss in magnetic material using bridge method.

REFERENCE:

1. A.K. Sawhney : A course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1984. 2. H.S. Kalsi : Electronic Instrumentation, TMH, 1995.

BASIC KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED:

Concept of hysteresis and eddy current loss.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SNO 1 2 3 4
PROCEDURE:

Apparatus Ring Specimen Ammeter AFO Patch cords

Range 0-2A, M.I

Quantity 1 No. 1 No. 1 No. As reqd.

1. Measure the resistance value of ring specimen by using multi meter in ohm. 2. Connect the galvanometer and ammeter with ring specimen. 3. Also connect variable inductor with the Maxwells bridge. 4. Switch on the power supply and adjust the variable inductance and potentiometer till the galvanometer reads to zero. 5. Observe ammeter reading. 6. Switch off the power supply and measure the resistance value of potentiometer. Iron loss Pi = I2[R4/(R3+R4)].[Rs-Rw] Rs = (R3/R4).(R2+R2)
RESULT:

Thus the Iron loss of the given magnetic material is determined using bridge method.