EKATO Handbook of Mixing Technology

Problem analysis

Mixing process design

Problem analysis Testing Computational fluid dynamics Expert system

The increasing demands made on mixing processes mean that the efficient solution of the process problems involved in designing stirred vessels are continually gaining in importance. In recent years, the dramatic increase in computing power has led to the increased use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) as a design tool. Linking this closely to experimental results from model/pilot-scale tests and knowledge gained from process technology enables problems to be analyzed cost-effectively in a minimum of time. An expert system uses the results from laboratory tests, CFD simulations and industrial experience to produce an optimized agitator design.

Experiments with models/ testing Problem analysis

Computational fluid dynamics

Process engineering Knowledge base Expert system

PROBLEM ANALYSIS The first step in designing mixing processes is to analyze whether the available expertise, such as that formalized in the EKATO expert system ANTOS, is sufficient, or whether there are problems which can only be solved by first performing tests and/or CFD simulations, see Fig. 1. The process parameters relevant to the problems concerned are required as basis: Vessel dimensions Product physical properties, such as density, and viscosity Discontinuous or continuous production mode Process description covering formulation, changes in level and viscosity Is only one product to be manufactured, or is a complete range of products involved, each with very different requirements for the agitator system? The CFD simulation process and/or the test work cover: Definition of the principal mixing duty Selection of a suitable agitator system Scale-up rule to be applied or direct CFD simulation on a commercial scale

Fig. 1

Techniques when designing mixing processes

Fig. 2 shows a list of the key parameters and characteristics for the various mixing tasks. In industrial practice it is common for several mixing tasks to overlap, thus increasing the complexity of the problems to be solved. In the problem analysis the key parameters must be considered over the full time of the process. Numerous reaction stages often occur in the course of a chemical process. The agitator system can impact decisively on integrated process operations such as precipitation, crystallization, filtration distillation at various stages of their process. When manufacturing a single product, not only can the volume and temperature of the vessel contents change, but also the viscosity, and often by very large factors. The sensitive microorganisms present in bioreactors mean than only gentle gradients are permissible for the process parameters. It is therefore neces-

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Product characterization Blending Flow properties (Newtonian/non-Newtonian

Vessel features Preparation or storage vessel

Mixing process requirements Required blend time; flow velocity; special requirements such as drawing in at the surface or strong agglomeration tendencies, entrainment of air must be avoided Is a uniform suspension required or is off-bottom suspension enough; agitator start-up with sediment build-up Course of reaction; desired mass transfer rate; gassing rate; superficial gas velocity; mass transfer coefficient kLa; local/global power input per unit volume Temperature difference at beginning and end of process; desired heating/cooling time; local/global heat transfer coefficients

Suspending

Particle diameter, solids concentration, density of liquid and solids Required stoichiometric excess of reactant gas; are solids (e.g. catalysts) present which must be held in suspension?

Correct location of outlet

Dispersing

Type of gassing, self-gassing or separate internal (ring sparger, gassing lance)

Heat transfer

Specific heat capacity cp, and thermal conductivity of the product

Heat transfer area of the vessel; temperature in heating and cooling circuit; external film coefficient S; material and thickness of vessel wall

Fig. 2

Typical parameters for mixing processes

sary to distribute the substrate, oxygen and the temperature throughout the entire contents of the vessel as rapidly and as uniformly as possible. In a fermenter for producing primary metabolic substances in fed-batch operation, for example, there is a high oxygen uptake rate, therefore accompanied by a large amount of heat being evolved. Although the volume of liquid is low when fermentation begins, and there is thus only a small surface area available for heat transfer, the heat that is developed must nevertheless be removed. The agitator/vessel/internals system must therefore ensure the required high rate of heat transfer.

OUR [mol 02/(m3 h)]

150 100 50 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Relative time of fermentation 1

1.2 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 V/Vmax, Q/Qmax 1.0

Oxygen uptake rate OUR [mol 02/(m3 h)] Relative volume of liquid V/Vmax Relative heat generation Q/Qmax

Fig. 3

Agitator/relevant process parameters for a 500 m3 fermenter

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Testing

TESTING Application-oriented testing Basic testing

Basic Testing is carried out to determine the hydrodynamic properties of agitator impellers, such as the blend time characteristics, the measurement of the energy dissipated and of flow profiles using laserDoppler anemometry, plus the determination of power numbers and radial force coefficients. The results of these tests form the basis for agitator designs. So-called customer tests are often carried out for particular applications so that the special process characteristics and produce properties can be taken into account in the design work. Tests of this type offer the following advantages: Rapid performance of the test, usually with the original products and within 1 to 5 days Exhaustive testing of a variety of agitator impellers at the standard test scales of 3 l and 50 l (1 m3) Analysis and optimization of the mixing process in terms of the desired process specifications Determination of design-relevant physical properties of the original product Assured scale-up.

Fig. 4

Laboratory and pilot-scale test equipment for basic testing and application-oriented tests

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APPLICATION-ORIENTED TESTING Product characterization and rheometry Determination of the effective viscosity at the agitator impeller is of fundamental importance for many agitator designs. To design calculations at different viscosities illustrate the typical effect of viscosity on the required agitator power. In both cases a two-stage EKATO VISCOPROP agitator system with an impeller diameter d2 = 1 100 mm serves as basis for the calculations. Case 1 measured viscosity (mPas) n (min ) (kg/m3) Re Ne = f (Re) Pimpeller (W)
1

Measurement of torque Mt at laboratory scale at various shaft speeds

Calculation of agitator power from measured torque and shaft speed P = 2 n Mt

Determination of the Reynolds number from the power characteristic Re = f(Ne)

Case 2 18,000 50 1 000 56 2.1 1 957

Calculation of the associated apparent or effective viscosity app

2 000 50 1 000 504 1.4 1 304

The two values (app,n) are used to plot the viscosity curve for the agitator

To calculate the power on a commercial scale, the operating viscosity is read off from the agitator viscosity curve, as shown in Fig. 5. This is used to calculate the Reynolds numbers, after which the corresponding power number is read off from the power characteristic. This gives the impeller power on the commercial scale. Measurement with rotational viscometer and determination of the shear rate for the agitator shaft speed using the Metzner-Otto method [2] This process applies to the laminar flow range. Selection of suitable rotating body

The viscosity of Newtonian media is independent of the agitator shaft speed or shear rate. If non-Newtonian flow characters are displayed, however, the relations = f (n) or = f ( ) must be determined, since the scale-up process results in different shaft speeds at the test scale and the commercial scale. In order to avoid making numerous individual measurements at various agitator shaft speeds, it is often more practical to carry out a measurement using a rotational viscometer. With this measurement technique a rotating cylinder is accelerated in a short time from rest up to a maximum speed of rotation (maximum shear rate), shearing the liquid for a defined time, after which the speed is reduced again to zero. During this time the viscosity and the shear stress are plotted as a function of the shear rate. The measurement processes described below are normally used for determining the effective viscosity at the agitator impeller. Viscosity measurement via the agitator impeller using the Rieger-Novak method [1] The following schematic illustrates the measurement procedure. This process can be used in the laminar flow range and for identifying the turbulent flow range (Ne = constant).

Attemperation at 20 90C possible Plotting of viscosity against shear rate = f()

Approx. fitting of measured viscosity curve to defined flow curve, e.g. Ostwald-de Waele power law curve with consistency factor K and flow behavior index m.

The scale-up process gives the agitator shaft speed, the assumption being made in the subsequent steps that the shear rate developed by the impeller is proportional to the frequency of rotation n of the agitator. The shear rate is calculated using the MetznerOtto constant kM/O, which is a proportionality factor specific to the impeller concerned. full-scale = kM/O n

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Testing

The following approximate values are typical Metzner-Otto constants for commonly encountered agitator systems: Propeller agitator Flat blade disk turbine Ribbon agitator Anchor agitator kM/O kM/O kM/O kM/O = = = = 10 12 30 25

instrument are available. If the viscosity data are unreliable with regard to the effective viscosity at the agitator impeller, the actual flow properties of the mixture of substances should therefore always be tested using an original sample of the actual product. EKATO offers the facilities for doing this in the customer laboratory. Frequently used relative measurement processes, which cannot however be directly converted to the viscosity that is effective at the impeller are for example: The flow cup to DIN 53 211 (determination of flow time as a measure of the viscosity, mainly used for paints and varnishes). The Engler viscometer to DIN 51560 (comparison of the outflow time of the liquid concerned to the outflow time for the same quantity of distilled water at 20C; mainly used in the oil industry). Absolute viscometers are characterized by being able to set exact test conditions for both the shear rate and the shear stress . Fundamental distinction is made between two measurement principles: capillary and rotational viscometers. Capillary viscometers are suitable only for low-viscosity Newtonian media, whereas rotational viscometers can also be applied to non-Newtonian liquids over a wide range of viscosities. 1. Capillary viscometer The form of the outflow nozzle as a capillary tube means that the conditions for laminar flow according to the Hagen-Poiseuille equation are attained. The viscosity of the liquid can therefore be determined, since the geometric measurements are known and the outflow time of the liquid is measured. Rotational viscometer The requirement for a defined shear gradient is nearly fulfilled in rotational viscometers by a narrow coaxial annular space filled with product, in which laminar flow is created by the rotation of the inner cylinder. At a constant speed of rotation and sufficiently small annulus the shear rate is defined, with the simplifying assumption that the velocity profile across the annular gap is linear. A torquemeter is used to measure the torque, an as the area is known (2 Ri h), the shear stress . can be calculated. Pairs of measurement readings (, ) can be determined by varying the speed of rotation and plotted as a flow curve in the normal manner. Dropping ball viscometer This measurement principle is based on Stokes law for the drag exerted by the laminar flow around a sphere in a viscous medium. The time

Metzner-Otto: n = kM/O n

Rieger-Novak: n

Viscosity curve Haake rotational viscometer app Re = n d2 /app Power characteristic

2

app

Viscomon agitator viscometer

Ne Re P = Ne n3 d25

2.

Fig. 5

Calculating agitator power for non-Newtonian media

Viscosity measurement processes With viscosity measurement processes a fundamental distinction must first be made between the measurement of absolute values and the determination of empirical values. Various industries often use characteristic, media-specific scales with arbitrarily selected units as a measure of viscosity. Conversion of relative viscosity data of this type into a physically defined unit of viscosity can only be performed reliably if accurate knowledge of the measurement process concerned and the specific characteristic data of the measuring

3.

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Mixing process design

The Metzner-Otto constant kM/O is determined for individual agitator systems by comparing the measurement results from the rotational viscometer with those of the agitator viscometer by plotting corresponding values of (, n) for the same viscosity . The effective viscosity at the impeller is then determined from the viscosity curve using the calculated shear rate , see Fig. 5. The agitator impeller power for the full-scale system can then be determined as for the Rieger-Novak process.

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EKATO

needed by the ball to fall through a specified distance is a measure of the viscosity of the liquid being tested. 4. Brookfield viscometer This type of viscometer is used in many production plants for process monitoring and is similar in design to the rotational viscometer described above. The design of this instrument is such that a defined shear gap is only formed at two points on the rotating cylinder (anchor). Measurements made with this instrument should therefore not be regarded as absolute values. The viscosities determined with the Brookfield viscometer are normally considerably higher than those found with the rotational viscometer. Brookfield viscometers should therefore be classified as instruments determining a relative viscosity.

With on-bottom motion although most of the solids are in motion, large clear (i.e. particle-free) zones can occur in the upper part of the vessel. Temporary deposits of solids are tolerated underneath the impeller and in the corners. Off-bottom suspension defines a condition in which individual particles never come to rest for longer than a second at the bottom of the vessel. Zwietering [3] was the first to work with this visual suspension criterion. He determined minimum shaft speeds njs (js = just suspended) at which this condition first occurs. The offbottom suspension point can be determined by methods such as the ultrasonic Doppler anemometer [4], which do not, however, take into account the uniformity of distribution in the vessel. This means that particularly with particles with high settling velocities, on-bottom motion and off-bottom suspension are fulfilled, there are often clear zones near to the liquid surface with no particles in them. In these cases a further assessment process is employed, the so-called layer thickness criterion [5], at which the layer of particles in suspension has reached 90 % of the height of the liquid. In contrast, visually uniform suspensions have no large clear zones. In this condition, settling of the coarser particles can still occur, if for example there is a wide range of particle sizes, even though the fine particle fraction is already held in suspension near the liquid surface. If visually uniform suspension is used as the sole criterion, the shaft speed required to achieve it can therefore be greater or less than that for off-bottom suspension. For the more demanding suspension duties, e.g. continuously operated equipment with an overflow of the suspension, a uniform suspension is required. To achieve this both the one second criterion at the bottom of the vessel and the visually uniform suspension criterion must be fulfilled. The Society for Chemical and Process Engineering (GVC) of the German Association of Engineers (VDI) has produced a standard test method [6] to improve the comparison and assessment of suspension testing. Fig. 8 illustrates this method with the results of a series of tests carried out with EKATO ISOJET impellers arranged as single-stage and two-stage agitators. The percentage difference in concentration of a solids suspension between two measurement points located at 0.2 h1 and 0.8 h1 has been plotted against the agitator power input. A lower power is required to achieve the one-second criterion with the single-stage EKATO ISOJET agitator than with the two-stage agitator, because the entire power input in the former system is near to the bottom of the vessel. Nevertheless, selecting a two-stage agitator means a uniform power input into the vessel can achieve a uniform suspension with cv less than one percent for a lower overall power input.

Blend time determination In application tests the original product is nearly always used. Since these are usually not transparent media, blend time tests can only be carried out in rare cases (without using expensive sensor techniques). Colors or silicone dyes are metered into the product to make the blending processes visible, see Fig. 6. As a rule, the product data that are acquired, such as the viscosity, are measured and the blend time is determined through empirical correlations. The reader is referred to Basic mixing tasks, pages 25ff, 46, for the correlations used and literature sources.

Fig. 6

Color drawn in at the surface of a high-viscosity product

Suspending A cost-effective agitator design that fulfills suspension requirements requires an accurate knowledge and demarcation of the various possible suspension conditions. Fig. 7 illustrates the degrees of suspension on-bottom motion, off-bottom suspension and visually uniform suspension.

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Testing

visually uniform suspension

temporary local deposition

1-second criterion fulfilled

1-second criterion fulfilled

On-bottom suspension Fig. 7 Degrees of suspension

Off-bottom suspension

Uniform suspension

Measurement methods for suspension duties As the degree of uniformity can be determined neither visually nor by laser-Doppler anemometry, the distribution of the solids concentration must be ascertained by other measurement processes. For an overview of the measurement methods (sampling, pressure measurement, photoelectric process, density measurement) the reader is referred to authors such as Einenkel and Mersmann [7]. EKATO mainly uses the following two methods. Sampling at various heights A sampling tube is inserted horizontally through the wall of the vessel or vertically downwards through the liquid surface into the suspension. About 0.5% of the suspension are then withdrawn by a pump and transferred to a graduated cylinder. The concentration of solids in the sample is determined either from its density or from the height of the sediment once all the solids have settled. Care must be taken that the sampling is isokinetic. Conductivity probe [8] The conductivity probe consists essentially of two platinum electrodes molded in plastic with a gap between them. If a non-conducting solid is in the gap between the electrodes, the conductivity is reduced according to the proportion of the solid by volume. The

instrument is calibrated at two points (in clear liquid and in the settled settlement) before the measurement is carried out. Between these two extremities, cv = 0% and cv = max. %, it is assumed that the conductivity varies linearly with the concentration of the solids. When using a conductivity probe to measure absolute values, there is a risk of measurement errors occurring, since the conductivity of the liquid can be influenced more by impurities and solubility in the liquid phase than by the difference in solids concentration. Higher measurement accuracy can be attained by using two conductivity probes with differential circuitry. In a uniform suspension the difference in concentration between two different measurement points is by definition zero. The difference in solids concentration cv shown in Fig. 8 was determined by means of conductivity measurements. As an alternative to the differential conductivity measurement, the second probe can be used as a reference probe by inserting it into a cage through which a liquid that is free of solids flows. This arrangement has a more sensitive response than the single probe for small values of cv.

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16 12 cv [%] 8

Where n is the number of equidistant measurement points. The variance (the square of the standard deviation) is an important parameter in the design of agitators for suspension duties and is described in further detail on page 30. Measurement of mass transfer

4 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 P [W]

ISOJET 1-stage ISOJET 2-stage

1-s criterion 1-st. fulfilled 1-s criterion 2-st. fulfilled

Fig. 8

Determination of degrees of suspension by the GVC standard method

In nearly all industrial processes such as fermentation, wastewater aeration, hydrogenation, oxidation, chlorination, etc. the mass transfer from the gaseous to the liquid phase is of critical importance. The key parameters in these processes are the liquid film coefficients kL and the specific interfacial area a = A/V (surface area of all bubbles/volume of liquid). Neither kL nor a can be measured individually. What can be measured, however, is the mass transfer coefficient which is equal to the product kLa. Parameters interacting on the value of kLa ( = causes) High viscosity low flow velocity around the bubbles diminished mass transfer Higher proportion of dissolved salts in the liquid phase increasing ionic concentration reduced coalescence tendencies smaller bubbles larger specific interfacial area better mass transfer; see Fig. 10. Increased power input via the agitator greater local energy dissipation greater dispersing effect smaller bubbles better mass transfer Increased gassing rate (below the flooding limit for the impeller) greater proportion of gas in the liquid phase (hold-up) increased mass transfer

20 15 cv [%]

10 5 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Relative height of probe h/h1 1.0

n = 348 min-1 n = 406 min-1

n = 464 min-1 n = 522 min-1

n = 580 min-1 n = 696 min-1

Fig. 9

Concentration profile at various shaft speeds Measurement methods for mass transfer At EKATO two different measurement processes are used for determining the value of kLa.

Evaluation of conductivity measurements Fig. 9 shows the results of a typical series of measurements in which the vertical position of the conductivity probe in the vessel was varied. At the lowest shaft speed (n = 348 min1) the solids concentration in the lower part of the vessel is considerably more than the average value, while in the upper part a large clear zone is still present. From about n = 580 min1 the solids are uniformly distributed. In the upper part a so-called concentration bulge can be observed. As the curves indicate, no further increase in uniformity can be achieved by increasing the shaft speed/power input. The variance can be calculated from the measured distribution of solids concentration: n 2 cv,i 2 = 1 1 (1) cv n

8 kL a (solution) / kL a (water) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Ionic concentration I 0.7 0.8

(
i =1

Fig. 10

kLa as a function of ionic concentration

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Testing

Chemical method A defined quantity of sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) is added to a continuously aerated electrolyte (salt) solution saturated with oxygen in the presence of a Co++ catalyst. The oxygen content in the solution is monitored by means of a dissolved oxygen (DO) probe installed in the vessel. The dissolved oxygen is first consumed in oxidizing the salt to sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), a process which begins immediately, the measurement reading falling to zero (cO = 0 ppm). The amount of oxygen 2 dispersed into the liquid phase is alone enough to oxidize the total amount of Na2SO3. Once it has all been oxidized to Na2SO4, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the liquid phase rises again to its saturation value. The oxidation time of the Na2SO3, which determines the mass transfer, is measured; see Fig. 11. Evaluation: ~ mNa2SO3 0.5 MO2 kL a = ~ MNa2SO3 toxi V c* c* mNa SO ~ 2 3 M toxi V [g/m3] [g] [kg/kmol] [h] [m3] : saturated concentration : initial mass of Na2SO3 : mol mass : oxidation time : liquid volume

the DO probe must always be in a stream of liquid [9]. the DO probe must be checked for good working order (electrode wear, calibration).

Advantages of the method It is possible to measure comparative values of kLa in a noncoalescing system. (Practice-oriented!). From an ionic concentration I = 0.5 upwards the salt concentration has virtually no influence on the coalescence properties, see Fig. 10. If the correction is made for the salt concentration, several measurements can be made one after the other without needing to replace the test liquid. The oxidation time can be adjusted by selecting the quantity of sulfite added so that the response time of the probe does not falsify the measurement result.

Alternative measurement process (2) Hydrazine can also be used for the chemical method instead of Na2SO3, but the latter is generally preferable since it is safer to handle. Dynamic method In this method, which is easy to carry out experimentally, oxygen is stripped from the product system in the agitated vessel by means of nitrogen. The system is then again saturated with oxygen by aerating it, and the increase in the concentration of dissolved oxygen is recorded with a DO probe, see Fig. 12. The value of kLa can be determined from the exponential curve that results. Evaluation:

10 8 coxygen [ppm] 6 4

kL a =
2 0 0 3 6 9 Oxidation time 12 15 t [min]

1 ln t oxi

c* ca c* ce

(3)

Advantages of the method: For measurements made in water there is no addition of salt to influence the ionic concentration and therefore the coalescence properties.

Sodium sulfite added

Oxidation complete

Disadvantages of the method: Fig. 11 Measured oxygen concentration with Na2SO3 method for determining kLa With high kLa values (short saturation time) the response time of the DO probe falsifies the measurement result to an increasing degree (correction factors). This measurement method can hardly be used on an industrial scale since enormous quantities of nitrogen would be necessary.

Test conditions to be complied with compensation for the temperature-dependent saturated concentration of O2. correction for the salt content because it affects the saturation concentration of oxygen c* = f (csalt).

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Determination of heat transfer properties

10 8 coxygen [ppm] 6 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 Oxidation time cstart 40 50 t [min] csat 60

Fig. 12

cend

The (internal) heat transfer in agitated vessels has been investigated in numerous research projects for standard agitator impellers and a range of special EKATO agitator systems. See Basic mixing tasks, page 38. The influence of product physical properties such as density , viscosity , specific heat capacity cp and thermal conductivity together with the flow conditions in the vessel are therefore sufficiently wellknown and can be applied in appropriate Nusselt equations and computer programs based on these. The testing technology involved in determining heat transfer properties in agitated vessels is therefore mostly limited to measuring physical properties as yet unknown, particularly flow properties, which can then be used in the calculations. Simple cooling tests on a 50 l scale are suitable for the rapid and approximate verification of design calculations. cooling tests are preferred because the heat losses from the system are low. It is particularly recommended to carry out a test if the product has complex flow properties and when the specifications call for a uniform temperature throughout the vessel. It can therefore be checked whether the recirculation of the product is sufficient or if the agitator system is suitable to prevent temperature differences in the vessel. Frequent objectives when carrying out a cooling test are: Determination of the temperature distribution in the whole vessel, Investigation of boundary layers on the vessel wall that necessitate the use of scrapers, Comparison of the measured cooling time on the test scale with the calculated cooling time, A heat balance via the cooling water, to determine the rate of heat transfer, Testing to see whether flash cooling would be more suitable for the product.

Increase in oxygen concentration with the dynamic method for determining kLa

Correlation of test results: Evaluation of the volume-related mass transfer coefficient kLa results in the following form of correlations for scale-up to industrial dimensions: kL a = c1 c2 vsgc3 vsg [m/s] : superficial gas velocity [W/kg] : energy dissipation per unit mass c1, c2, c3 : empirical factor and exponents Conditions to be complied with for scale-up (4)

There must be geometrical symmetry with the test equipment. The product and the process conditions must be retained.

Note Scale-up As the value of kLa is dependent on many parameters, the following must be stated: An absolute value which is stated, or a value of kLa determined from equation (3) applies strictly speaking only to the product system in which it was measured. For other product systems these values of kLa must be converted using the usual dimensionless mass transfer correlations (Sherwood relations). See Basic mixing tasks, page 36. Calculation of the quantity of heat to be removed on an industrial scale per unit time: Q = m cp /t (5)

Calculation of the required overall heat transfer coefficient k: k= a S m cp ln t A e S (6)

Calculation of the required product-side film coefficient i = (1/k s/wall 1/S)

1

(7)

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Testing

Determination of the required agitator data to achieve the necessary product-side film coefficient i (turbulent flow): i = C Re2/3 Pr1/3 (/w)0.14 /d1 (8)
21.7 [C] 21.6 21.5

0.5

0.8

0.9

- 0 - 0

10

20

30 t [s]

40

50

60

Fig. 13 BASIC TESTING Blend time determination When blending two miscible liquids it is often important to know what blend time is required to achieve a desired degree of homogeneity. In the turbulent flow range there is, within certain limits, a linear relation between the recirculation rate and blend time. This is described in further detail on page 26. A definition of the degree of homogeneity can be found in the literature [10]. Various techniques are used to determine the primary or total circulation rates, e.g. photographing particle movements by the light plane method measuring circulation times by means of virtually inertialess floating particles (flow followers) or measuring the velocity field (hot-wire and vane-type current meters, laser Doppler imager). Numerous physical and chemical methods are used for determining blend time [10]. A basic distinction is made between those employing probes, e.g. conductivity, pH, temperature) and visual chemical methods (e.g. color change of chemical indicators, the colorizing reactions, refraction of light). Temperature equalization method Several highly sensitive resistance thermometers are installed in the vessel at various levels. A small proportion of the liquid is taken from the agitated vessel and heated sufficiently so that when it is returned to the surface of the liquid in the vessel an easily measurable temperature increase, e.g. overall 0.2C, results, which however does not change the rheological properties of the system. After this hot liquid has been added to the vessel, the probes at their various levels measure the local change of temperature until complete temperature equalization is established in the vessel, see Fig. 13. The probe at the

Temperature method: blend time as function of degree of homogeneity

liquid surface is contacted by the hot liquid, as yet barely diluted, so that initially a local temperature rise is seen. The last probe to respond is the one at the bottom of the vessel. After some time in the example shown about 50 seconds, a uniform temperature exists in the vessel. The plot thus shows the degree of homogeneity as a function of blend time. After about 39 seconds the temperatures at all four probes have converged toward the final temperature to within 10% of the difference between the initial and final temperatures. By definition the degree of homogeneity is then 90%. With this measuring technique, the temperature increase due to the agitator power input must be taken into consideration (rising straight line curve). Visual chemical method One example of the color change method is the H2SO4NaOH-phenolphthalein system. A defined quantity of OH ions (0.1 NaOH solution) is added to the initially neutral liquid. These form a red complex with the indicator as shown in Fig. 14. After adding the same number of moles of hydrogen ions (H2SO4) at time ta the liquid is decolorized locally where the pH falls below about 8.5. The blend time is then complete when decolorization is achieved. This method has the disadvantage of sudden decolorization with no intermediate stages identified at a pH of 8.5. It cannot be identified as to whether the local concentration of OH ions in the red or decolorized zones deviates only slightly, e.g. by 1% or by a factor of 1 000 (pH 11.5, or 5.5) from the average concentration. The assessment of degree of homogeneity can therefore be falsified, especially in highly viscous media, by streaks of color that do not easily dissipate. The decolorization reactions are less ambiguous in the iodine-starch-sodium thiosulfate system. Iodine and starch in aqueous solution form a complex with a deep violet color. If at the time ta the equivalent number of moles of Na2S2O3 are added, the iodine is reduced to

59

Mixing process design

As a rule, the product-side film coefficient i is the limiting parameter, i.e. the factor that determines the cooling/heating time, as it is in turn determined by the often high viscosity at the product side and by the ratio of volume to heat transfer surface area, which always becomes less favorable on scale-up. The utility-side film coefficient S is normally not critical, on account of the higher flow velocities of the cooling/heating medium in the vessel coil or jacket.

(t)

90 21.4

0 (t)

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One problem in the measurement of droplet size is the possible falsification of readings due to increased coalescence as soon as the droplets are no longer subject to shear, e.g. after sampling. Another source of error may be a progressive contamination of the dispersion with surface-active substances from the surroundings. Measurement methods Grossmann [13] describes the most commonly used processes: photography with subsequent analysis of the films, the Coulter counter and photoelectric techniques (reflection, refraction and extinction of light). In recent years two methods have mainly been used at EKATO. Solidification of molten wax droplets as described by Brooks [12] and analysis of the settling rate distribution of the disperse phase as described by Grossmann [11]. In the first method molten carnauba wax is dispersed at 85C in water. This dispersion is then quenched with chilled water and the solidified wax pills" are then strained out and dried. This is followed by a gentle sifting process to break up any undesired agglomerates. In the second method, after a steady-state droplet size distribution has been obtained, a maximum of 50 ml of the dispersion is pumped out of the stirred vessel with a time of 10 ms into a dilution vessel. The probability of coalescence is drastically reduced by the dilution. Starting at time ta, several hundred droplets pass downwards through a vertical tube. After falling through a certain distance l at a constant settling rate wd they pass through a laser beam and trigger a pulse by reflection. The distribution of the pulses with time can be used to calculate the settling rate distribution: wd,i = l ti (11)

Fig. 14

Color change method: preparatory colorization; left with propeller; right with EKATO VISCOPROP

iodide and the solution is decolorized. Even locally the decolorization process does not take place suddenly but in proportion to the remaining iodine concentration. The blend time is when complete decolorization is achieved. Methods using probes and those with visual chemical reactions are used to the same extent. The former methods allow a larger degree of objectivity, but their results are localized because of the finite number of measuring points. The methods involving a visual chemical change do not disturb the natural flow patterns and involve the entire volume of the vessel, but undesirable reactions with the agitated product may take place. Droplet size distribution The primary objective of liquid-liquid dispersion is to produce a large value of a, the interfacial area per unit volume, between the dispersed and continuous phases. For a given dispersed phase concentration cv,d , the smaller the droplet diameter, the greater is the available interfacial area for mass transfer: a = 6 cv,d / d32 (9)

using the Stokes law equation dd,i2 (d c) g 18 c

wd,i =

(12)

the droplet size distribution can then be determined and presented graphically. The Sauter diameter and the interfacial area are calculated from equations (9) and (10). High measurement accuracy results from the settling times, which are over one half-hour for droplets smaller than 100 m. Calibration is not necessary, but the measurement apparatus can be verified, for example using glass beads with a known size distribution.

Where d32 is the Sauter diameter. The latter is calculated from the droplet size distribution over the n different size classes (i = sequential number).
n 3 ni dd,i i =1 n i =1

d32 =

(10)

2 ni dd,i

60

EKATO

Testing

Measurement of power number and hydraulic force coefficients Power number Ne Every impeller type, whether propeller, EKATO VISCOPROP or whatever, is basically characterized in the turbulent flow range by a constant, impeller-specific power number Ne. The mechanical drive power required can only be determined when the value of Ne is known. Ne d25 n3 drive

Determination of CR: Measurement of the bending moments Mb Calculation of the radial force FR = Mb / lW where lW = shaft length

CR = FR / ( d24 n2). CR is not a constant, but depends on the ratio of the operating shaft speed to the critical shaft speed. When the critical shaft speed is approached, CR reaches its maximum value. See Forces on impeller and agitator shaft, page 95. Note: In addition to the determination of Ne and CR, the test rig illustrated in Fig. 15 can also be used universally, for example for measuring forces on impeller blades or baffles.

Pdrive =

(13)

(drive = efficiency of drive) The power number of an impeller varies with the viscosity of the product and the geometric arrangement of the agitator-vessel system (e.g. with/without baffles). The procedure for determining the value of Ne for a system is as follows:
M

A strain gauge is attached to the agitator shaft. This gives a stress signal proportional to the torque acting on the shaft. The output signals are transferred via a telemetry system from the agitator shaft to an amplifier, are converted from analogue to digital and are then processed by a PC program which calculates the average values. The measuring system is calibrated by producing defined torques by means of weights. A system for measuring the shaft speed is also necessary. Determination of power number: The power can be calculated from the measured torque and shaft speed P = 2 n Mt The power number is then given by the power equation Ne = P / ( d25 n3)

PC Data acquisition and evaluation

Hydraulic force coefficients The system used for determining the power number is also used to measure the hydraulic force coefficients. The only difference in the test rig is in the type and orientation of the strain gauge on the agitator shaft. To measure the radial force coefficient CR the strain gauge is attached so that it determines bending moments, after which calibration is also carried out.

motor with friction gear strain gauge impeller (here VISCOPROP) agitated vessel amplifier for instrument signals data acquisition board for PC shaft telemetry system for contact-free transmission of up to 4 strain gauge signals simultaneously tachogenerator strain gauge/telemetry signal cable (4-channel) agitator shaft stirred product

Fig. 15

Test rig for determining CR and Ne

61

Mixing process design

Testing

EKATO

Vane-type current meters are used for field measurements in pure water, see Fig. 18. In contaminated media, such as wastewater, where it is impossible to use mechanical instruments, inductive flow-measuring devices can still be relied on. The light section method allows the flow in vessels to be visualized directly. In this process, silver flakes are added to the stirred medium. These have negligible inertia and generally follow the streamlines of the liquid. A vertical light sectional plane is produced in the stirred vessel by means of mercury discharge lamps and narrow apertures. Only those silver particles that are actually in the plane are visible by reflection at any given time. Photographs of the light sectional planes produced in this way for commonly used agitator systems are shown on pages 77 and 80. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) can be applied to determine the velocity fields in the agitator vessel. This technique uses the principle of tracer particles, extremely fine solids being uniformly dispersed in the flowing liquid. Their movement can then be followed by taking snapshots of the reflected light with a camera, allowing individual particles to be tracked and their velocities thus determined. To determine local three-dimensional flow velocities and turbulent fluctuating velocities accurately, and hence the local energy dissipation rates, laser Doppler anemometry (LDA) is used. With this method, illustrated schematically in Fig. 19, two laser beams which cross each other form an interference grid consisting of light and dark stripes. Silvery particles added to the liquid as tracers act as reflectors in the light grid.
Amplitude [V]

0V

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Duration of measurement [blocks]

Fig. 16

Plot of CR

Amplitude [V]

Reading 0V
Duration of measurement [blocks]

Fig. 17

Plot of Ne

When measuring Ne there are only relatively small fluctuations in the measurement readings. With CR determination, however, a defined division of the plotted reading into time-dependent sectors (blocks) is necessary, in order to avoid exaggerated readings. See the plots in Figs. 16 and 17 and the Mechanical Design chapter, page 95. Flow velocity The measurement of flow velocity is of fundamental importance in ensuring that the specified circulation rates or blend times are achieved. The primary pumping rate q (and hence the associated pumping number Q) of an impeller, for example, is determined by defining measuring points for the local velocity wi at the discharge side of the impeller over the length of the radius. An annular area Aann, i is associated with each value of velocity wi. The pumping number is defined by Q = q / (n d23) where q is the circulation rate, given by q = (14)

(w A )
i ann, i

(15) Fig. 18 Vane-type current meter

62

Photo: Ott Co., Kempten

EKATO

Testing

The number of light reflections per unit of time is a measure of the speed of the particle concerned and the liquid that surrounds it. As this method works with negligible inertia, even the smallest changes in velocity can be detected, a vital prerequisite when measuring the turbulent fluctuating velocities w. The semi-empirical formula give by Brodkey is then used to calculate the local energy dissipation densities from the turbulent fluctuating velocities: loc = C w d2
3

(16) Mixing process design

He-Ne laser LDA optical system with beam splitter and Bragg cells focusing lens Bragg cell generator

receiving lens photomultiplier high voltage power unit LDA counter x-y traversing table

The results of the tests give valuable information, such as the optimum feed point for substances to be dispersed. It also makes it possible to evaluate which type of impeller enables the most uniform global energy input to be achieved or which displays optimum suspension properties, see Fig. 20.

Fig. 19

Laser Doppler anemometry (LDA) test rig

Author: Max Niefenthaler

0.75 0.5 vessel height z/h1 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.25 0 0 0 -0.25 0.25 0.5 1.0 -0.25 0 0.5 1.0 0 0.5 1.0 v u 0.4 0.2 0

radius 2r/d1 6-bladed flat blade turbine d2/d1 = 0.33

radius 2r/d1 3-bladed propeller d2/d1 = 0.5

radius 2r/d1 2-stage INTERMIG d2/d1 = 0.6

Fig. 20

Radial/axial vector diagrams for various impeller types and arrangements (Re >10 4)

63

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Computational fluid dynamics

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS Preprocessing modeling of the agitated vessel Numerical calculation Postprocessing and applicability Mixing technology

Numerical analysis

The pace of development in the field of computer hardware and software has made computational fluid dynamics (CFD) an important mixing technology design tool for the numerical simulation of flow in agitated vessels. This new technique uses interdisciplinary knowledge from the fields of numerical analysis and process engineering plus physical models and modern information technology methods. The physical and mathematical models must be validated by tests on a pilot scale or by practical experience on an industrial scale. CFD makes it possible to create a direct model of the mixing process on an industrial scale, so that it can also contribute to solving scale-up problems. CFD also makes it possible to investigate more accurately those processes taking place in the agitated vessel that are difficult to study with conventional testing methods or can only be assessed globally. It also means that much time-consuming and cost-intensive experimental work on a laboratory or pilot scale is now superfluous.

Information technology methods

Validation

Fig. 22

Knowledge base for CFD

An important specialty in the CFD simulation of mixing processes is in the analysis of stationary and rotating components. Other characteristics are the three-dimensional flows, often in the turbulent regime. The tasks involved are therefore highly complex, and solving them by means of CFD simulation can usually be broken down into three steps: preprocessing, numerical calculation and postprocessing, see Fig. 23. The numerical solution of systems of differential equations is based on a discrete description in which the variables of state are only defined in certain discrete points in space at certain points in time.

Preprocessing Definition of geometry Generation of mesh Result meshdependent?

Numerical calculation Numerical solver

Calculation convergent?

Postprocessing Graphical evaluation Fig. 21 Local specific energy distribution with the EKATO ISOJET Fig. 23 Steps in a CFD simulation

65

Mixing process design

Computational fluid dynamics

Scientific models

Computational fluid dynamics

EKATO

Preprocessing modeling the agitated vessel In the preprocessing stage the mixing problem is converted into a mathematical model that can be processed by the computer. The first step is to define the area to be analyzed. It is then divided into discrete cells (volume elements) by means of a numerical mesh, see Fig. 24. The validity and accuracy of the solution ultimately arrived at with the computational process is highly dependent on the quality of the geometry modeling and mesh generation. The properties of the fluid and the other design constraints are then specified. Fig. 25 shows some of the mesh models that can be used to take the stationary and rotating components of the agitated vessel of the agitator system into account. A distinction is made between steady-state and transient methods.

Explicit impeller modeling Explicit impeller modeling represents a more accurate method of analysis. The rotating frame technique is used to solve the problem of the fluid moving in the rotating reference system, i.e. the observer rotates with the system, that is, a system particularly suitable for agitated vessels with no baffles. In the snapshot approach, a frozen picture of the flow for a particular position of the impeller is analyzed. The tangential velocities before and behind the stationary impeller blades are defined. The flow between the impeller blades can be predicted, but the method is not suitable for any desired type of impeller. With the multiple reference frame model, several reference frames can be defined for various parts of the mesh. In a two-stage agitator system with different types of impeller, for example, two internal rotating reference frames may be selected. The zone near to the vessel wall and baffles can be analyzed via an external stationary reference frame and complex impeller geometries and combinations of different impeller types can also be modeled. With systems having a weak interaction between the impeller and the baffles it is easier to predict the flow patterns.

Implicit impeller modeling

Steady state

Impeller as velocity vectors

Impeller as source of momentum

Explicit impeller modeling

Fig. 24

Mesh structure of an agitated vessel equipped with an EKATO ISOJET

Rotating reference frame Snapshot technique Multiple reference frame

Steady-state mesh Implicit impeller modeling In the simplest steady-state case the agitator impellers are modeled implicitly. One technique is to model the impeller as values of velocity, while the other is to model it as a source of momentum. If the impeller is replaced by averaged velocity vectors, data determined experimentally must be available and inaccurate results may arise on scale-up to other flow conditions. The alternative is to model the impeller as a source of momentum, but in this case the flow pattern in the vicinity of the impeller can only be predicted inaccurately.
Transient

Sliding mesh

Fig. 25

Agitated vessel mesh models

66

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Computational fluid dynamics

Sliding meshes The transient method makes use of a sliding mesh to enable a time-dependent analysis of the impeller/baffle interaction to be made. A mesh around the impeller rotates at shaft speed, while the external mesh for the baffles and the vessel itself is fixed in the reference frame. The systems of equations are linked at the sliding interface. This enables time-dependent phenomena to be investigated, and the flow in the vicinity of the impeller can be calculated more accurately. This method is, however, demanding in terms of computer time, many iterations being required until a periodic balance is attained. The actual time-dependency of the mixing process can differ from its calculated value. Properties of the fluid Turbulence models The analysis and CFD simulation of turbulence is one of the most difficult tasks in fluid mechanics. In order to include the smallest eddy that arises in the direct CFD simulation, the balance equations must be solved with a mesh that is sufficiently fine. At large Reynolds numbers an immense memory and computing power would be required. For this reason various turbulence models are used as illustrated in Fig. 26. The model in most widespread use in the so-called standard k- model: described by Launder and Spalding in 1974 [15], based on an equation for turbulent eddy viscosity T = c k2/ where k c = = = = turbulent kinetic energy ,2 ,2 ,2 0.5 ( u + v + ) w energy dissipation density 0.09 (empirical constant). (17)

Logarithmic wall functions are usually integrated for analysis of the flow profile in the vicinity of the wall. Multiphase flow In liquid-liquid CFD simulations the two phases are treated as a continuum in the Euler/Euler framework and the balance equations are calculated for each phase. In addition, linked models can be used, such as depict the influence of liquid flow on the movement of the solids, and vice versa. In the Lagrange framework each particle is tracked individually, so that the computing power required for a high particle content is considerably greater. Models for particle-particle interaction can be integrated in the system of equations. Physical chemical properties The relevant parameters such as temperature, enthalpy and heat of reaction are integrated in the energy balance for the calculation of heat transfer processes. Special algorithms can be used for free surfaces (vortex formation), and models for non-Newtonian fluids can be integrated in the CFD simulation program. Numerical calculation The flow of the fluid can be calculated numerically on the basis of the fundamental equations of fluid mechanics. The equations for the conservation of mass and momentum (Navier-Stokes equations) and the energy balance form a system of five non-linear partial differential equations.
z + z z 1 z 2 x + x x 1 x 2

(18)

y +

y y

1 y 2

(x,y,z)
x x x 1 x 2 y y y 1 y 2

Turbulence simulation Direct CFD Turbulence model

y z x z z z 1 z 2

Finely structured model

Statistical turbulence models Vortex viscosity models Stress transport models Two-equation models

Fig. 27

Fluid cell with balance

Algebraic models

One-equation models

Standard k- model with wall function

Low Re models

Two-layer model

k- renormalization group method

Fig. 26

Turbulence model [16]

67

Mixing process design

Computational fluid dynamics

EKATO

The finite volume method [17] is the numerical method that is mainly used for mixing processes: 1. 2. 3. Integration of the conservation equations over all control volumes, see Fig. 27. Discretization of the integrated equations Iterative calculation of the algebraic equation system

The conservation equations are first integrated over all the control volumes. The conservation equation of a variable , for example the velocity component u within a controllable volume can be expressed as follows: Rate of change of in the control volume with time = Difference between inflow and outflow of at the control volume through convection + Difference between inflow and outflow of at the control volume through diffusion + Increase or reduction in though source/sink within the control volume

Fig. 28

EKATO ISOJET flow pattern

Postprocessing and applicability The evaluation and representation of the computed data is an important part of CFD. With the visualization tools commercially available, the data output can be as profiles, contours, streamlines or sectional planes, see Fig. 28. Depending upon the required results, additional subprograms for visualization for the computations can be integrated. As a rule of thumb, it can be said that applications in single-phase flows in the fully turbulent range and in the purely laminar range are well-suited to analysis by CFD, and reliable and rapid results can be expected from the computation. In contrast, problems in the transition range and in multiphase flow are more difficult to solve. 1. Blending: With blending duties the velocity fields, blend times and power numbers can be determined. The CFD simulation results for global mixing are normally reliable. In mixing processes that are largely characterized by diffusion on a micro-scale, the results of the CFD simulation can deviate significantly from those obtained in practice. In the laminar flow range inaccuracies in the discretization process can lower concentration peaks. The mixing efficiency is overestimated as a consequence of the so-called numerical diffusion. This source of error can be minimized by using a finer mesh or selecting another discretization process. Suspension: The CFD output can be in the form of velocity vectors and concentration contours in order to evaluate the results of the calculation for a suspension reactor. Scale-up usually requires extensive testing. Determination of the offbottom suspension point is only feasible with additional programs with the current status of standard software.

Finite volume methods therefore make direct use of the conservation of the differential equations. The formulation is made directly in the physical space, thus making the programming easier for complicated geometries. The unknown variables such as pressure or velocity in the control volume are represented by means of approximation functions dependent on the neighboring cells. The convection, diffusion or source terms of the integrated equations are replaced by discrete approximation terms and thus transferred to a system of algebraic equations. If the numerical solution parameters are incorrectly selected, non-physical oscillations can occur or the calculation can become unstable. The results are then unusable [18, 19]. A solution which satisfies the accuracy requirements is usable and is described as being convergent. The equation systems are solved in several iteration loops until the desired convergence is achieved. To obtain a solution independent of the mesh, the computation is repeated with a larger number of mesh nodes until a sufficiently close agreement is attained.

2.

68

EKATO

Computational fluid dynamics

Transition

Turbulent

relative temperature distribution - - 0.2 0.1 0.0 -0.1 -0.2

Mixing problem

Flow pattern standard geometries Flow pattern no standard geometries with vessel internals Turbulent shear local energy dissipation Blending
Single-phase

1 3

4 4

3 2 1 4

4 4 4 4

Laminar

1 2

3 2 4 Mixing process design 69

Heat transfer Chemical reactions influenced by agitator micromixing Suspension solids concentration profile Suspensions off-bottom suspension point Dispersion gas-liquid Dispersion liquid-liquid Dispersion solids-liquid

Fig. 29

Thermal transfer CFD simulation with EKATO PARAVISC

3 4 3 4 3 3 4

4 5 5 5 5 4 4

4 4

3.

Two-phase

Dispersion: CFD makes it possible to visualize the k and gradients for analyzing dispersion applications. The relative distribution of local energy dissipation can normally be predicted with some accuracy, whereas the absolute values for local energy input must be reviewed with a critical eye. Heat transfer: CFD makes it possible to visualize temperature gradients and local heat transfer coefficients for analyzing heat transfer applications, see Fig. 29. Heating and cooling times can also be determined. For heat transfer with laminar flow the mesh structure selected at the heat transfer surface must be sufficiently fine so that the boundary layers can be described in sufficient detail [20]. Special problems, such as the excessive wear of impellers due to erosion and cavitation, and the impact on chemical reactions, can also be investigated using CFD. Special models for concentration and temperature fluctuations must be integrated in the computations for chemical reactions that take place rapidly.

Heat transfer Chemical reactions influenced by agitation

4.

5.

The scale of 1 to 5 indicates increasing degree of difficulty, requiring increased special CFD and mixing technology expertise for problem-solving. 1 : Accurate prediction without validation 2 : Reliable scale-up with validation at pilot scale 3 : Scale-up usually requires extensive experimental work plus program extensions 4 : Scale-up only possible with program extensions and/or appropriate supplementary programs and extensive experimental work 5 : Very difficult requires accurate detailed knowledge : Not applicable

Fig. 30

Estimated scope of applicability for commercially available CFD programs as analytical tools for mixing problems. (Status: 1/2000)

Fig. 30 illustrates the applicability of commercially available CFD programs as tools for analyzing mixing problems.

Application-oriented impeller development using CFD The practical benefits of CFD are illustrated by the following case study: In hydrometallurgical treatment processes or in flue-gas desulfurization systems the agitators usually work in abrasive suspensions. In order to keep the ongoing abrasive wear within reasonable limits, either the agitator impeller tip speed must be limited or expensive measures must be taken to combat wear

Computational fluid dynamics

EKATO

(special materials of construction, plating, etc.; see page 129). In both cases this results in expensive agitators. In general the erosive wear is not distributed uniformly over the surface of the impeller blades, but is concentrated at locations on the blade where the flow dynamics are particularly severe. Fig. 31 shows as example a photograph of a propeller blade from a flue gas desulfurization system. Clearly identifiable wear symptoms at the suction side directly behind the tip of the blade are evident. EKATO carried out a study using CFD to gain a deeper insight into the dynamic flow mechanisms that contribute to the erosion of the impeller. The example shown above formed the basis of this study. The first step is to create a numerical model of the agitated vessel and the propeller agitator on a pilot scale. Using the k- turbulence model and taking into account the boundary layers, the single-phase flow around the propeller blade, in particular that at the blade tip, is calculated. Figs. 32 and 33 show the results: a pronounced formation of vortices at the blade tip. In the next step the interaction of the abrasive particles with the propeller blade are integrated in the model by calculating the (Lagrange) particle trajectories, turbulence being taken into account with a stochastic model of turbulent eddy life. At a certain point in time a defined number of particles are released above the agitator blade, and their point of impact and velocities together with the angle and frequency of impact on the agitator blade are tracked. The results are shown in Fig. 34: the relative erosive attack taking into account the particle diameter, velocity of impact, solids concentration and frequency of impact. The results show a high rate of erosion on the suction side behind the blade tip. Validation The simulated single-phase flow pattern can be validated with the known power numbers and pumping numFig. 33

Axial velocity component [m/s]

1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0

Fig. 32

Local formation of vortices at the blade tip

Axial velocity component [m/s]

2.4 0.9 -0.6 -2.0 -3.5

Formation of vortices at the blade tip, velocities in an upward axial direction

Erosive attack very heavy

heavy

moderate

low

no attack

Fig. 31

Wear at the outer edge of an industrial-scale propeller blade

Fig. 34

Relative erosive attack simulated on a pilot scale

70

EKATO

Computational fluid dynamics

desulfurized flue gas

flue gas

limestone slurry

air

Fig. 35

Abrasion test at pilot scale

Fig. 37

Absorber in a flue gas desulfurization system

bers. The review and adaptation of the erosive attack determined by computation was carried out with comparative experimental tests on a 2 m3 pilot scale. In a suspension with 40% by weight of solids the abrasion of layers of colored paint over time was observed. Fig. 35 shows the results: scouring away of the paint layers on the suction side of a propeller blade directly behind its tip. Qualitatively, the erosion pattern corresponds to that experienced on an industrial scale and the local values predicted by CFD. Resulting development objectives As shown, CFD can be used to analyze the interaction between the vortex formation at the impeller blade and solid particles, which cannot be measured experimentally. In order to reduce the erosive local interactions of the particles with the blade which were determined, it is necessary to create a flow pattern with changed movements of the particles. One measure to mollify the backflow of the vortices at the blade tip consists of diverting the blade vortices by a wide outer blade specifically curved upwards. The EKATO ISOJET shown in Fig. 36 with its geometry optimized in this way can be seen to have a lower and more uniform erosion pattern. Other possibilities of minimizing the

interaction between the particles and the blade are to change the blade angle and the specific geometry of the blade outside edge. The impeller on the left in Fig. 36, the EKATO VISCOPROP, displays an erosion pattern which is more uniform than that of the propeller and which has been moved to another location. The above example clearly shows the benefits of CFD in analyzing local phenomena that are not directly accessible with instrument sensors and the possibilities that therefore arise to develop agitator systems that are specifically designed to be more erosionresistant. Process design A further application of CFD in a mixing technology is illustrated by the complex absorption process in a flue gas desulfurization system [21]. The special feature of the jet bubble reactor shown in Fig. 37 is that several physical and chemical process operations take place simultaneously in one vessel. In contrast to a conventional spray tower, the flue gas is blown directly into the liquid through several thousand tubular lances. The zone of bubbles which is

Fig. 36

More uniform erosion pattern on the EKATO VISCOPROP (left) and the EKATO ISOJET (right)

71

Mixing process design

gypsum slurry

Computational fluid dynamics

EKATO

thus created results in the immediate absorption and chemical reaction of the SO2 with the limestone slurry fed to the vessel. At the same time, the calcium sulfite which results from the above reaction is oxidized in several stages to gypsum by the air that is also blown into the process. The gypsum is drawn off as a suspension, and the treated flue gas collects over the liquid surface and leaves the absorber through the outlet flues. The process has been chosen as an example to illustrate the following requirements for the agitators: the agitator system has the task of accelerating the combined physical and chemical processes of dissolving the limestone, SO2 absorption and neutralization through a short mixing time. A large interfacial surface is produced between the air introduced to the vessel and the liquid phase, enabling high mass transfer rates and hence a fast sulfite oxidation process to take place. It is a vital requirement of the agitator system that the gypsum that is formed is maintained in suspension, to avoid a buildup of sediment.

Numerical calculation CFD offers the possibility of analyzing part of the process which is highly significant for the reliability of the entire absorber in detail, i.e. the suspension of limestone and gypsum. To do this, a 3-dimensional cell model of the absorber sump on both a pilot scale and an industrial scale was created. To compare their suspending efficacy, various agitator impellers were modeled explicitly and integrated into the cell model when required. In order to simulate the suspending process with sufficient accuracy, it was necessary to create a numerical mesh with 90,000 cells, for which the mass and momentum balances must be solved iteratively. Interactions between the solid particles and the liquid are described with Eulers two-phase model [22] as a simplification, yet with sufficient accuracy. The computing effort required to cope with problems of this type can be carried out, within a reasonable time and at an economically justifiable expense. This is possible today with the CFD software (including the special auxiliary programs required) and the computing capacities now available. Fig. 38 illustrates the calculated distributions of the solids concentrations in the absorber sump using an EKATO VISCOPROP and a pitched blade turbine, the propeller type usually used for this application. Validation To validate the CFD calculations it is necessary to carry out a calibration procedure using experimental results from pilot-scale tests. It is appropriate to do this in steps. The process is at first only investigated partially, both in the experiment and in the CFD calculation, by dispensing with an expensive and time-consuming geometric CFD simulation of the gas lances. The gas mixing times measured in the experiment and the axial and radial velocity profiles prove to be in close agreement with the calculated values. Fig. 39 shows a comparison of the axial velocities in the particularly critical edge zone of the absorber sump. After demonstrating the validity of the basic model used, this can be refined further, for example by integrating the gas lances as additional resistances to flow in the model. Scale-up The numerical scale-up to industrial dimensions was carried out with the procedure described above and the gas lances integrated into the system of equations. This made it possible to carry out an adequate and reliable CFD simulation of the process for the industrial scale and the uncertainty that arises with conventional design methods in specifying the scale-up criterion to be applied was eliminated.

cV [%] 14.3 14.1 13.9 13.7 13.5

Fig. 38

Comparison of the solids distribution by an EKATO VISCOPROP and a pitched blade turbine

The CFD simulation of the flue gas absorber process predicted optimum operating conditions if a

72

EKATO

Computational fluid dynamics

0.4 Axial velocity [m/s]

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0 0 15 30 45 60 Segment angle [] 75 90

measured calculated 0

90

Fig. 39

Comparison of the measured and calculated axial velocities

4-bladed EKATO VISCOPROP agitator system with a 5 m diameter and 36 angle of attack were installed. Focusing on the suspension results, a conventional pitched blade turbine with the same power input gives an increased proportion of the solids around the bottom of the sump. In contrast, the EKATO VISCOPROP produces a uniform distribution of the gypsum without any build-up over the entire vessel. This example shows that a CFD analysis of flow conditions in a stirred vessel, even with difficult geometries, can help to find an optimized agitator system for the specified process duty.

Author: Ursula Marte

73

Mixing process design

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Expert system

EXPERT SYSTEM
Preparing quotation

Design system

Diagnosis Process and mechanical design, detail engineering

Archiving

Compliance with standards

Process design knowledge base

Mechanical design knowledge base

Databases

The knowledge-based system ANTOS has been developed at EKATO from the specialized knowledge of mixing technology that has been accumulated over many years. The resulting, formally structured expert knowledge of an agitator manufacturer has a variety of uses, and offers the customer a task-oriented agitator system that is optimized for cost-effectiveness. Knowledge from a vast wealth of experimental work, CFD simulations and basic mechanical approaches, using techniques such as finite element analysis (FEA) form the basis of the system. This is backed up by a variety of experience from commercial practice, and includes industry- and process-specific knowledge, engineering and design expertise, etc. A specially customized user interface assists the EKATO engineer in applying this readily available knowledge in his or her daily work for the optimized selection and design of customer-specific, cost-effective agitator systems and a fast turnaround with enquiries and quotations. The design system illustrated in Fig. 40 relies on databases covering mixing processes, customer trials, engineering drawings, etc. This accumulation of data and information can be considered as the raw materials, which can only be put into practical effect with experience and due interpretation of their knowledge content.

Process expertise

Detail engineering knowledge base

Experience, communications, interpretation

Mixing processes

Customer tests

Mechanical tests

Standard components

Detail drawings

Computational fluid dynamics and virtual impellers

Finite element analysis

Fig. 40

Architecture of the design system

Propeller Pitched blade turbine Impeller Flat blade disk turbine Anchor

Solid shaft Shaft Hollow shaft

The design system illustrated in Fig. 40 relies on databases covering mixing processes, customer trials, engineering drawings, etc. This accumulation of data and information can be considered as the raw materials, which can only be put into practical effect with experience and due interpretation of their knowledge content. On the one hand this means knowledge of what constitutes an agitator, which physical laws are applicable, which industrial standards must be complied with and which processes take place in the mixtures of substances. On the other hand, achieving expert status means the possession of almost a sixth sense, i.e. intuitive knowledge that cannot be based directly on the reasoning processes of physics or

Single speed Agitator component Motor Two speed Variable speed

Yoke

Mechanical seal Shaft seal Lip seal

Fig. 41

Object-oriented database

75

Mixing process design

Knowledge base

Expert system

EKATO

mathematics, but is plausible and derives from long years of professional involvement with the subject. Both forms of knowledge are programmed in an object-oriented structure. Both hierarchies have been set up for these objects. In the first hierarchy, shown in Fig. 41, the components are described as parts of larger units. In the second hierarchy the components themselves are specified. Every object is associated with parameters, which in the process of configuring the system must be calculated, and the calculation method specified. In the empirical knowledge base the interdependence of the components is filed mainly in the form of rules. When a customer enquiry is processed, the computer first analyzes the problem in terms of process design and provides the operator with suggestions for the basic design of the agitator: number and type of impellers, shaft speed, drive power rating and other fundamental factors. The detailed specification of the components, including their dimensions and materials of construction, is carried out in the subsequent configuration process. It is here that the empirical knowledge base is put to work to find the correct alternative from possible options. Under certain circumstances individual components or the entire arrangement must be determined again from scratch. For example, it can be found from the database that a certain drive power rating is not available as a standard option. If a drive with another shaft speed or power rating to the one specified is sought, ANTOS carries out all the required calculations automatically and adapts the design to suit the new conditions. The ANTOS knowledge-based system results in an optimized design for practical operation, because the available engineering and practical knowledge is utilized systematically as a key enterprise resource.

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Author: Ursula Marte

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