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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Physiology: The study of function at many levels
Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Essential tools for the study of physiology:
Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular) Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) Basic chemical principles
Principle of Complementarity
Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.
Function always reflects structure What a structure can do depends on its specific form
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Levels of Structural Organization Chemical: atoms and molecules (Chapter 2) Cellular: cells and their organelles (Chapter 3) Tissue: groups of similar cells (Chapter 4) Organ: contains two or more types of tissues Organ system: organs that work closely together Organismal: all organ systems
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Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
3 Tissue level Tissues consist of sim ilar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Sm ooth m uscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are m ade up of different types of tissues.
6 Organismal level The hum an organism is m ade up of m any organ system s.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
5 Organ system level Organ system s consist of different organs that w ork together closely.
Figure 1.1
Atom s
Molecule
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Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
3 Tissue level Tissues consist of sim ilar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Sm ooth m uscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are m ade up of different types of tissues.
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Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
3 Tissue level Tissues consist of sim ilar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Sm ooth m uscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are m ade up of different types of tissues. 5 Organ system level Organ system s consist of different organs that w ork together closely.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
3 Tissue level Tissues consist of sim ilar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Sm ooth m uscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are m ade up of different types of tissues.
6 Organismal level The hum an organism is m ade up of m any organ system s.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
5 Organ system level Organ system s consist of different organs that w ork together closely.
Figure 1.1, step 6
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(a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3a
Bones Joint
(b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3b
Skeletal muscles
(c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3c
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Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
(d) Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3d
Pituitary gland
Ovary
(e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3e
Heart
Blood vessels (f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.
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Figure 1.3f
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Lymph nodes
(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
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Figure 1.3g
(h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
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Figure 1.3h
Rectum Anus
(i) Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
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Figure 1.3i
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Kidney Ureter
(j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3j
Mammary glands (in breasts) Prostate gland Ovary Penis Testis Scrotum Ductus deferens Uterine tube
Uterus Vagina
(l) Female Reproductive System (k) Male Reproductiv e System Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and m ale sex horm one, and m ale ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the fem ale reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and fem ale sex horm ones. The rem aining fem ale structures serve as sites for fertilization and developm ent of the fetus. Mam m ary glands of fem ale breasts produce m ilk to nourish the new born.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3k-l
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Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces) Food
Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs
Blood
Heart Nutrients
Interstitial fluid
Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole Urine from the external environment
Feces
Figure 1.2
Necessary Life Functions 1. Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments
Plasma membranes Skin
2. Movement (contractility)
Of body parts (skeletal muscle) Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
4. Digestion
Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
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Necessary Life Functions 5. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
Catabolism and anabolism
Survival Needs
1. Nutrients
Chemicals for energy and cell building Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins
2. Oxygen
Essential for energy release (ATP production)
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Homeostasis Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes A dynamic state of equilibrium
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2. Control center
Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
4 Output: 3 Input: Information Information sent along Control sent along afferent efferent pathway to Center pathway to control effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway 2 5 Receptor Effector Receptor Response detects of effector change. feeds back 1 to reduce Stimulus the effect of BALANCE produces stimulus change in and returns variable. variable to homeostatic level.
Figure 1.4
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BALANCE
Receptor
BALANCE
3 Input: Information Control sent along afferent Center pathway to control center. Afferent pathway 2 Receptor Receptor detects change.
BALANCE
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4 Output: 3 Input: Information Information sent along Control sent along afferent efferent pathway to Center pathway to control effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway 2 Receptor Effector Receptor detects change.
BALANCE
4 Output: 3 Input: Information Information sent along Control sent along afferent efferent pathway to Center pathway to control effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway 2 5 Receptor Effector Receptor Response detects of effector change. feeds back 1 to reduce Stimulus the effect of BALANCE produces stimulus change in and returns variable. variable to homeostatic level.
Negative Feedback
The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus Examples:
Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)
Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)
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Effectors Sweat glands Sweat glands activated Response Evaporation of sweat Body temperature falls; stimulus ends
Stimulus
Body temperature rises Response Body temperature rises; stimulus ends BALANCE
Stimulus
Body temperature falls
Shivering begins
Afferent pathway Information sent along the afferent pathway to control center
Figure 1.5
Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH Receptors sense decreased blood volume Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood
Positive Feedback
The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
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Figure 1.6
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Homeostatic Imbalance
Disturbance of homeostasis
Increases risk of disease Contributes to changes associated with aging May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)
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