South Atlantic Modern Language Association

T. S. Eliot's Year Abroad, 1910-1911: The Visual Arts Author(s): Nancy D. Hargrove Reviewed work(s): Source: South Atlantic Review, Vol. 71, No. 1 (Winter, 2006), pp. 89-131 Published by: South Atlantic Modern Language Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20064709 . Accessed: 31/05/2012 15:51
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T. S. Eliot's 1910-1911:
Nancy
Mississippi When

Year Abroad, The Visual Arts

D. Hargrove
State University

T. S. Eliot had what he himself called the "exceptional good fortune" ("What France" 94) to live in Paris during the academic year 1910-1911, the citywas a breath-taking fusion of respect and admira tion for the old and daring experimentation with and excitement about the new; indeed, as Eliot strikinglydescribed it, "Tant?t Paris ?tait tout le pass?; pr?sent tant?t tout l'avenir: et ces deux aspects se combinaient en un this characterization 94). While parfait" ("What France"

was applied to all fields of endeavor, it especially accurate for the arts in general and the visual arts in particular. Paris was themost magnif icent and extensive repository of great artworks of the past, from the ancient Greeks to the nineteenth century,while at the same time serv as the a ing acknowledged hotbed for host of rapidly developing and new artmovements thatwere to change the art shockingly innovative world forever. In addition, Eliot visited museums on trips to London, Venice, and Bergamo. Unfortunately, only a limited number of docu ments from this formative period have survived, so thatwe have few even those amply indications of what he saw and did. However, demonstrate that he took extremely seriously the opportunity to immerse himself in the art and culture of Paris

in particular and some of the great clas Europe in general. In this essay, I will describe sical works of art and some of the contemporary art movements which he almost certainly encountered during that year and which seem to have influenced his work, both immediately and soon there Eliot

after.

arrived in Paris with an interest in and at least a rudimentary knowledge of the visual arts. At Harvard, he had taken two art histo ry courses as an undergraduate: History of Ancient Art in the fall of 1907 and Florentine Painting in the fall of 1909 (Lettersxix-xx). His

90 detailed Collection lecture notes

Nancy Hargrove for the second course, located in the Eliot

of King's College Library at Cambridge University, indicate that it focused on painters of the 14th and 15th centuries and includ ed, among others, Uccello, Filippo Lippi, Fra Diamante, Fra Ang?lico, 2 Eliot also attributed Ghiberti, Donatello, Brunelleschi, and Masaccio. to his undergraduate days atHarvard his discovery of Edouard Manet an (1832-1883), the French painter and printmaker who was important Monet the forerunner of the Impressionists, Claude (1840-1926), French founder and leader of the Impressionists, and Japanese prints, on Gordon Craig in the Eliot Collection of according to his essay King's came to the art-rich city of College Library. Thus, when he Paris, he was familiar with a wide spectrum of the visual arts from to the contemporary period and from ancient times to theRenaissance both the Occident and the orient, quite a considerable scope for a young man whose main guages, and philosophy. Established Soon Works academic focus was literature, foreign lan

of Art

in Paris

after arriving in Paris in mid to late October, he no doubt to the Louvre to see some of the great works of art from the went Since past that he had studied or discovered for himself at Harvard. a copy of Baedeker's 1908 London guidebook and marked he owned the pieces of artwhich he wanted to see, we can reasonably assume even that he did the same with Baedeker's Paris et ses environs, though not survived. However, the 1907 edition of that popular Paris it has can help us to determine what he could have seen. Perhaps guidebook after viewing the Louvre's most famous works, Winged Victory,Venus de Milo, Lisa, he explored its rich collection of Italian art, which, according to Baedeker, contains a large number of master 14th and 15th centuries being pieces of the first order, those of the artists of the recent acquisitions those of the grand and and Mona having been largely acquired by Fran?ois 1er. Indeed, "Cinquecento" Baedeker states that the Louvre has the richest collection of the great on this side of theAlps, naming Italian masters of the "Cinquecento" firstLeonardo da Vinci, who spent the last years of his life in France,

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and listing among his paintings in the Louvre not onlyMona Lisa, the "most celebrated portrait of a woman in theworld," but also the orig inal version of TheMadonna (orVirgin) of theRocks (115-16). Whether Eliot read this information in Baedeker or not, he surely viewed this version of the famous painting in the Louvre as well as the second version inLondon's National Gallery during his two-week hol in April 1911 or during a possible stopover there on iday in London 1910; although a note in The Letters of T S. Eliot tells us that theApril trip to London was his first (17), an ear lier visit is suggested by the date October 14, 1910 inscribed in black his way to Paris inOctober ink along with his name on the third page of his Baedeker guidebook. The two versions of the painting have an intriguing and somewhat mysterious his tory. Commissioned Vinci the by from da Milanese the as part for the in San London

of Confraternity Immaculate Conception of a polyptych Confraternity's Milan's Church Francesco painting between Grande, was 1483

chapel of

the original completed 1486. and

it apparently did not However, meet with the approval of the of its Confraternity because unorthodox aspects, and a long legal battle ensued (Marani 124- ^^ da Vind (1452.1519) Madonna (Virgn) of the Rocks. 5). This version was perhaps The to France J by the 65- Photo Credit: Reunion des Mus?es ??uvre-Paf> **?*? himself when Nationaux /Art Resource,NY

brought

year-old da Vinci he accepted the invitation of the young king Fran?ois 1er in 1516 to live under his patronage at a small casde in the Loire Valley, where he died in 1519; indeed, he may have given it to the king in appreciation for his support, for the painting is

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Nancy Hargrove

a part of the collection of Fran?ois 1er in the Louvre. At the time of Eliot's residence in Paris it was displayed in La Grande Galerie (Baedeker 123). The second, more orthodox version was completed between 1506 and 1508 and was installed in the Church of San Francesco Grande; after the dissolution of the Confraternity in 1781, itwas sold to an Englishman and, following several changes of own ership, was acquired by London's National Gallery in 1886. While both paintings depict the Virgin, an angel, and St. John the a Baptist and Christ as toddlers in front of dark grotto of jagged rocks4 with a lake in the background and various plants in the foreground, there are significant differences. In the original, the figures have soft er faces illuminated with a light,while the grotto in the golden-hued is darker, more mysterious, and more sinister. The background Virgin's robe is of very dark blue, she tilts her head toward St. John, and her face bears a gentle look; the angel to her rightwears a robe of soft red and green, she points at St. John, and her face has a mild are expression. The fingers of both theVirgin's and the angel's hands some have seen as a menacing effect. sharply angled, creating what

None

of the holy figures has a halo. In the second version, da Vinci to thewishes of the Confraternity by creating apparentiy conformed a more conventional painting with idealized figures and a less forbid ding background with blue and green water and light behind the far

thest rocks. The figures are slighdy larger and closer to the viewer, the colors are more subdued with the colorful gown of the angel replaced by a dull beige, brown, and grey-blue one and with Mary's robe of more rounded hands, and the angel's lighter blue. Mary has gender, hand has been removed altogether. The faces are cooler and more abstract: their skin tones are whiter describes as "a corpse-like pallor" addition of conventional religious elements denoting the holiness of the figures: halos for theVirgin, St. John, and Christ, a cruciform staff for St. John, and wings Marani 126-7 orWallace When Eliot for the angel (for side by side versions, see 50-51). composed The Waste Land between 1919 and 1921, he included an ironic allusion to TheMadonna of theRocks in the fortune the Lady of the of the protagonist in Section I: "Here is Belladonna, so that they have what Wallace (147). Most obvious, however, is the

South AtlanticReview
Rocks, / The

93

lady of situations" (48-49). The woman's name and the a a complexity of meanings, suggesting in variety of appositives bear while she is beautiful, she also seems to be a danger to the ways that, is Italian for "beautiful woman," but protagonist. Literally, Belladonna of the Rocks" also it evokes ironically the similarword "Madonna," while "the Lady is a secular version of the title of da Vinci's painting, evoking the jagged, dark rocks of both paintings and suggesting hard

ness and is also danger in thismodern context. Further, Belladonna the deadly nightshade, a highly poisonous plant cultivated in France in particular, from which were derived medicinal alkaloids used in seda tives, stimulants, and when, because until mid-twentieth century, antispasmodics was superseded by of its potential for causing death, it

synthetic drugs ("Belladonna," Encyclopaedia Britannica 1,950). Indeed, since ancient times, it served both as a sedative and as a poison, and, Europe, witchcraft and devil-worship cults used it for its effects ("Belladonna," Yahoo Search Encyclopedia). hallucinogenic Eliot clearly means the allusion to imply that this beautiful woman in the protagonist's future is dangerous - capable of sedating, disorient ing, or killing him, whether literally or emotionally. Further, in the late teens and twenties of the 20th century, as well as earlier,women used belladonna as a cosmetic, a dot of the placing red substance in the inner corners of the eyes because of its ability to dilate the pupils, an effect thought to increase sexual allure. This aspect of the allusion reinforces the idea that a sexually attractive woman poses an emotional this danger to the protagonist. Obviously modern functions as the opposite of the traditional concept of theVirgin as a gentle mother figure who comforts suffer sensual woman ing humanity. of the two versions of da Vinci's paintings increases the Knowledge complexity of the allusion. The eerie grotto with its jagged, dark rocks in both versions, but more strikingly in the original, the sharply-angled of theVirgin and the angel in the original, and the ghostly pal fingers lor of the faces in the second version all contribute to the sinister aspects of Eliot's Belladonna. Thus these two paintings, which Eliot almost certainly saw during his year abroad in 1910-1911, contributed to one of themost complex allusions in The Waste Land. inmedieval

94 Located

Nancy Hargrove

quite close to The Madonna of theRocks in the Louvre are two paintings of the school of da Vinci thatmay have influenced the allusion to John the Baptist in "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," composed largely during Eliot's Parisian year: But though I have wept and fasted, wept and prayed, I have seen my head (grown slighdy bald) Though brought in upon a platter, I am no prophet?and here's no great matter. Salome Receiving the Head of Saint John the Baptist by Bernardino Luini a (1485?-1532) depicts Salome holding platter, while above it an unseen person's hand suspends the head of the saint by the hair. This dramatic work Andrea is a part of the collection of Louis XTV. Nearby is Solario's 1507 painting The Head of St. John theBaptist, portray

street fairs in which, according to Nancy Perloff, "the per former cut off his head and presented it on a plate to his baffled spec tators. This act? which evokes the decapitated head of John the on a silver platter?under Baptist delivered to the Princess Salome Parisian scores the enomous

an autoportrait of the painter) on a foot ing the head (thought to be ed platter. These two classical works of art may indeed have com bined with a source from the lowbrow world of popular entertainment to inspire Prufrock's striking allusion: the popular decapitation act at

... and for appeal of the Salome legend for artists the Parisian public during the early decades of the twentieth century" 96-7). Eliot this (30-1; see also Hargrove, "Popular Entertainment"

thus already a master at blending high artwith a ordinary, everyday material, technique which he employs most bril liantly in the startling images and allusions in The Waste Land. was early in his career Also in theLouvre were with those in London's Museum, threeworks byMichelangelo, which, along National Gallery, Royal Academy, and British

may have contributed to the famous couplet "In the room in "The Love the women come and go / Talking of Michelangelo" statues Song of J.Alfred Prufrock." The famous unfinished marble

The Dying Slave and The Rebellious Slave and an unfinished drawing enti Dead Christ are the only works byMichelangelo ded The Sorrow overthe

South AtlanticReview
in the Louvre,

95

themajority being located inmuseums in Italy. Two other paintings in the Louvre may well have contributed to his

growing interest in works of art portraying the martyrdom of St. Sebastian (see Letters 41, 44, 376) and specifically to his poem "The Love Song of St. Sebastian," completed in July 1914. In 1910, the Louvre 1480s version of Saint Sebastian; because acquired Mantegna's was an new acquisition and thus a it important showpiece at the time, it is highly likely that he saw it,perhaps instituting the "particular admi ration" which he held for this

In grayish tones, it por painter. trays the saint tied to fluted columns with nine arrows pierc ing his body as he casts an and sorrowful look anguished heavenward. The Saint Sebastian by Perugino, with an inscription at the bottom reading, "Your arrows pierce me," portrays the saint leaning against a column with his hands apparendy bound behind

by two arrows, he with a sweet, serene gazes upward two paintings expression. These him; pierced seem to have combined with sev to inspire "The Love Song of St. Sebastian": the Mantegna, Andrea (1431-1506). Pollaiuolo TheMartyrdom of Saint Saint Sebastian. Sebastian Saint Canvas, 255 x 140 cm. and other eral other works Sebastians in London's Gallery, which saw inOctober Eliot National Photo Credit: Erich Lessing / Art Resource, NY
Louvre, Paris, France

probably 1910 or April 1911; the spectacular d'Annunzio pro duction Le Martyre de Saint S?bastien,which he surely attended inMay 1911 in Paris (see Hargrove, "Parisian Theatre World" 22-37); and the "threegreat" Saint Sebastian paintings that he refers to in a letter of July to Conrad Aiken containing a copy of the 25,1914 recendy-complet ed poem (Letters41,44)? Mantegna's thirdversion in the Ca d'Oro in

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Nancy Hargrove

in Bergamo, both of which he saw in Venice, Antonello da Messina's inBrussels, which the summer of 1911 (see Ricks 268), and Mending's he had just seen in early July 1914. Reflecting aspects of all these, the poem is erotic and brutal, describing two methods of dealing with one's feelings of lust for a beloved: in the first stanza the saint dies on his beloved's breast after flogging himself, while in the second he 9 strangles or imagines strangling her. these particular works of art by established masters seem to have exerted themost obvious influence on Eliot, he must have seen While many others in Paris, both inmuseums and in the numerous exhibi tions held throughout the period of his residence. Among the latter were exhibitions of great artists of the late nineteenth century in of Orientalistes in February, and of Ingres and of Dutch December, masters inApril. Works of Art in London

Established Eliot

also saw great works of the past during his two-week holiday in London in April 1911 and perhaps, as noted earlier, in October 1910 on his way to Paris. In his Baedeker's London and ItsEnvirons, he a wide array of works of art in themargins with short vertical marks, dots, or check marks, indicating an ambitious program that In fact he accom would take quite a number of days to complete. to Eleanor Hinckley upon his plished most of this plan, for he wrote marked return to Paris from London National in late April that he had been to the theWallace Collection (where Gallery, the British Museum, he "made notes!!"), and the South Kensington Museum ("in large

not "wasted [his] time" (Letters 19). part") and thus had Italian In the section on the National Gallery, he marked Renaissance painters of the 15th century, including Botticelli, Pollaiuolo, Madonna Cosimo, Fra Ang?lico, Uccello, da Vinci of theRocks), Correggio, and Titian The entry for da Vinci's second version of The Madonna (specifically The (specifically Bacchus and

of Ariadne). and Child, theRocks reads, "Leonardo da Vind (1452-1519), Madonna with John the Baptist and an angel, a studio-copy, with alterations of 'La Vierge aux Rochers' in the Louvre" (Baedeker 170 and Ricks 268),

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indicating as suggested above that Eliot knew both versions when he In incorporated the ironic allusion into section I of The Waste Land. Virgin and Child with Two Angels, and Child, and Ghirlandaio's Virgin and Child with Michelangelo's Virgin Saint John and Portrait of a YoungMan inRed, the latter two having just been acquired in 1910. Nearby were Michelangelo's unfinished paint ing The Entombment, depicting the placing of Christ in the tomb, as well as Titian's Bacchus andAriadne, the latter perhaps reflected in the allu sions to theAriadne story in the epigraph and in the first two stanzas of "Sweeney Erect." TheMartyrdom of Saint Sebastian by Antonio and Piero del Pollaiuolo, a few rooms away from The Madonna of theRocks, depicts the saint at the same location were Verrochio's

the top of a treewhich has been stripped of its limbs; his hands are bound behind him, his feet are bound by ropes, and six arrows have with a sorrowful expres penetrated his body, as he looks up to the left sion. In a circle at the base of the tree are six archers, some of whom are in the act of more arrows at him while others are prepar shooting ing to shoot. This painting, inwhich "the saint's physical beauty pro vides a certain sensual abandon that stands out more than his mystical soon have added ecstasy," would significance for Eliot as Gabriel d'Annunzio acknowledged it as his inspiration for the sensational mul timedia extravaganza Le Martyre de Saint S?bastien (Gullace 88) pro 1911 in Paris, which Eliot almost certainly saw and which, earlier, along with a number of paintings depicting Saint Sebastian, seems to have influenced "The Love Song of Saint In the same location he could also have seen Carlo Sebastian." as noted Crivelli's 1491 painting Virgin and Child with Saints Francis and Sebastian, acquired by theNational Gallery in 1870, inwhich the latter is pierced
by twelve arrows.

duced

inMay

also marked paintings by Constable and Turner in theNational the French School of the 18^ Century in the Wallace Gallery; Collection; the illuminated manuscripts of the 10th-16th centuries, the (with the word "glance" written in the margin), the the Room of Gold Egyptian Antiquities and Religious Collections, Ornaments and Gems, and the Asiatic Salon in the British Museum; and the Chinese and Japanese Porcelain Collection, the Ivory, Gold, Elgin marbles

He

98 and Silver Collection,

Nancy Hargrove Tapestry, the Indian Section, and Saracenic Collection in the South he may have sought out and Child with theInfant Jesus at the

the European the Turkish, Persian, Chinese, and Museum. marble In relief Madonna

Kensington Michelangelo's

addition,

Royal Academy Avant-Garde Even more

and a number of his drawings in the British Museum. Art in Paris

a poet than great important to Eliot's development as art works of the past were the innovative recent and contemporary ones exhibited in Paris at that time, for the City of Light was the cen ter of an artistic revolution of staggering proportions; as Gertrude Stein famously noted, "Paris was where the 20th Century was" (qtd. in Lieberman "a period and place of 11). Artistically speaking, itwas when artists began to see theirworld in profoundly dif great vitality, ferentways" and "shattered the boundaries of the status quo" by cre

was living in Paris at the ating new forms of art (Huber 7). Thus, Eliot very zenith of artistic experimentation and must have both read about and
would

seen some of the daring new developments

argue that his exposure to Parisian avant-garde

in art.
art was

Indeed,
to a great

for his ability towrite innovative poetry early in his in that very year with "The Love Song of J.Alfred career, beginning Prufrock," which evoked from Ezra Pound his now-famous comment in a letter of September 30, 1914 to Harriet Monroe; he wrote that it extent responsible "the best poem I have yet had or seen from an American," expressing amazement that Eliot had "actually trained himself and modernized himself on his own" (Letters ofE%ra Pound 40). was Eliot was Woolf in Paris 's celebrated at the very time when, according to Virginia statement in a 1924 lecture, human character

a statement which, it has been persistendy and changed dramatically, was in the predicated upon the changes occurring convincingly argued, world of art: "In or about December, 1910, human character changed. The change was not sudden and definite nevertheless;

....But a change there was, and, since one must be arbitrary, let us date it about the

year 1910" (320). As Parsons and Gale suggest, she is "bold enough to specify a month as well as a year" based on the notorious exhibition

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99

of Post-Impressionist paintings, procured from several art dealers in 1910 to Paris, at London's Grafton Gallery from early November January 1911, an exhibition both organized and named by her friend the art criticRoger Frye (9). Featuring works by such innovative recent and contemporary artists as Paul Gauguin, Paul C?zanne, Vincent van was a "suc Gogh, Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, and Andr? Derain, it c?s de scandale" with its "boldly distorted and wilfully unnaturalistic paintings" that engendered for the most part outrage and shock among viewers and reviewers (Parsons and Gale 11-12). Most of the 1910 were and December fiftyor so reviews published inNovember hostile, attacking the exhibition's works as subversive and revolution ary: a reviewer for theMorning Post, for example, asserted that it revealed "the existence of a widespread plot to destroy thewhole fab ric of European painting," while another writing for Connoisseur stated that the paintings were "garishly discordant in colour, formless, and destitute of tone," sarcastically regretting that "men of talent... should waste their lives in spoiling acres of good canvas when they might be in stonebreaking for the roads" (qtd. in Parsons and better employed Gale of the scandalous exhibit was so wide-spread in 12). News that Eliot surely read or heard about it, perhaps even seeing Europe some of these harsh reviews. However, for Woolf, the exhibition clear marked not only a new direction in art but also in human nature and ly theworld. In the years immediately preceding Eliot's sojourn in Paris, the center of artistic experimentation to which flocked acknowledged a literal aspiring young artists from around the world, explosion of took place there. Fauvism burst onto the art radical art movements scene inOctober at the third Salon d'Automne when a group of 1905 artists including Matisse, Derain, Maurice played theirworks together in Room VII were christened "Les Fauves" Vauxcelles, Vlaminck, and others dis Palais. They ("The Wild Beasts") by Louis an artist and art critic, because of their unconventional use of Le Grand

of extremely bright colors, their incoherent form, and their heavy, vio lent brushstrokes of thick paint. The chief offender was Matisse's rev olutionary Woman in a Hat, inwhich his bold use of color appeared most shockingly in the blue and green on her face. The term was

100
sometimes also used

Nancy Hargrove

to designate (and ridicule) avant-garde artists in review of Le Salon des Artistes Fran?ais on general, as inA. Warnod's the front page of Comoedia on December 19,1910, with comments on and photographs of works byMatisse, Picasso, Henri Le Fauconnier, In February 1909, the first and Kees van Dongen. manifesto of the Italian Futurist movement was published on the front page of Le Figaro, announcing its celebration of technology and themachine, the modern metropolis and industrialism, speed and dynamism, and its commitment to destruction and nihilism. In a provocative illustration of the Futurist credo, it asserted that a race car was manifesto "more beautiful than theWinged Victory" (qtd. in Parsons and Gale 183). The second followed in 1910, and in 1911 several Futurists visited Paris to view the daring developments of avant-garde French painting; after a Cubist seeing works by Picasso and Georges Braque, they added Balk's Abstract Speed: idiom to their art. A painting such as Giacomo The Car Has Passed (1913) testifies to the value which they saw in the of the modern industrial world "metallic, not ... verdant, Arcadia" (qtd. in Parsons in time, but surpassing them in Overlapping and influence, was Cubism. While ithas often been dated importance as beginning with Picasso's 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, in fact its first phase, Analytical Cubism, developed when Picasso and Braque first began to work when the introduction early 1909, together, and 1912, in the second phase, between 185). with these movements and Gale

of collage ushered which lasted until the advent of World War I. Synthetic Cubism, was in Paris, During the first phase, which spans the time that Eliot a host of new Picasso and Braque collaborated in experimenting with were the distortion or fragmentation of techniques. Chief among them the figure, still-life,or landscape into geometric planes or cubes (hence the tide "Cubism," first used derisively by the same Louis Vauxcelles

who

earlier), the use of multiple so that the subject is presented from several angles simul perspectives shades of taneously, the limitation of colors to dull, monochromatic had coined the term "Les Fauves" tan and grey, and the reflection of primitive art and culture. Picasso and Braque typically spurned the large exhibitions, showing and selling theirpaintings at the gallery of the art dealer Daniel-Henry

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Kahnweiler, where Eliot could have seen paintings created in 1910 such as Picasso's Woman with aMandolin and the three portraits of art dealers, Wilhelm Uhde,Ambroise Vollard, and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, as well as Braque's Violin and Pitcherand Sacr?-Coeur de Montmartre, the lat ter celebrating the new architectural wonder pleted dominated in 1910 the Paris com that now

skyline along with the Eiffel Tower. Their innovative techniques were widely known in the artistic community; indeed, Jean Metzinger wrote about the originality of Picasso's work as early as 1910, point ing out in particular his abandonment Renaissance perspective 193). Cubism
made its

of in

favor of multiple viewpoints (Arnason

movement

However,

as
sensa

Pablo Picasso. Spanish,1881-1973.

Daniel-Henry 1910. oil on canvas. Kahnweiler.

101.1 x 73.3 cm. Gift ofMrs. Gilbert W. Chapman in Ind?pendants, located at the memory of Charles B. Goodspeed. 1948.561. corner of Le Pont d'Alma Reproduction: The Art Institute of and Le Quay d'Orsay, from Chicago. C 2006 Estate of Pablo Picasso / April 20 June 13, 1911 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New when Le York. Metsinger, Fauconnier, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, and Fernand L?ger first exhibited theirworks as a group. The new style of the paintings displayed there,which includ ed Le Fauconnier's Abundance, L?ger's Nudes in a Landscape, Gleizes's Woman with Phlox, and Delaunay's Eiffel Tower (Altschuler 27), evoked either rage or derision on the part of most viewers, leading to a near riot inRoom 41 (see Brooke 17-18) and becoming the talk of Paris. It

tional public debut inRoom 41 Le of Salon des

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Nancy Hargrove

was reviewed in all the newspapers, for themost part in a hostile man ner; for example, L. Dimier castigates it in theMay 2 issue of L'Action Fran?aise in the snide tone typical of most of the negative reviews: Let me say a fewwords about Cubism because its eccen tricity has become public knowledge. After so many past follies have worn out our sense of outrage, itwas not easy to find a new one; however, they have suc ceeded. They create objects composed of prisms with a synthesis of nature, one sharp edges; in order to find must look at the paintings from a distance. But that only results in a chaos without consolation. is consecrated Kahnweiler be groups laterwrote to this absurdity. (5) An entire room

of people writhing with

that "in front of certain pictures therewould laughter or howling with rage," that he, Braque, and adding Picasso "had no desire to expose ourselves either to their laughter or to their rage" (qtd. inGosling

191).
It seems likely thatEliot went to the exhibition, and particular ly to the portion of caused the current it which scandal,

Oil

Robert Delaunay EiffelTower (Tour Eiffel), 1911

on canvas

because of thiswidespread pub : and because Henri licity the famous philoso TJ Bergson, m lectures he was whose pher at Le Coll?ge de attending France and whose beliefs he pas sionately espoused at the time, was often linked with modern notes in his 1934 art; as Eliot

Solomon New

202 x 138.4 cm (79 y2 x 54 % inches)

R. York.

Guggenheim Museum, Gift, Solomon R. Guggenheim, 1937.

Criterion piece "A Commentary," "His metaphysic was said to

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throw some light upon the new ways of painting, and discussion of and Bergson was apt to be involved with discussion of Matisse Picasso" (452). Further, his friend and tutor Henri Alain-Fournier attended Varnishing Day on April 20, a private reception for a select group of invited guests held prior to the official opening of an exhi bition (Rivi?re and Alain-Fournier 383-4), and doubdess encouraged and theirmutual friend Jean Verdenal panying them himself. Eliot about Cubism and knowledgeable to see it,perhaps accom and Verdenal were clearly interested in and other new art movements as

Eliot

indicated by Verdenal's comment (which, as it happened, was overly a on April pessimistic about the survival of Cubism) in letterwritten a year nearly to the day after the opening of the exhibition: 22, 1912, "Incidentally, Cubism has been destroyed by Futurism, which protests a at Bernheim's. Such are against museums, etc. and has big exhibition of the new school, unless yet another springs up while my letter is crossing the sea" (Letters34). With an interest in or at the least a curiosity about Cubism, Eliot the manifestations surely read Henri Gh?on's puzzled review of the Cubist section at the in the November 1911 issue of La Nouvelle 1911 Salon d'Automne Revue Fran?aise, to which he subscribed on his return to the United States. An astute and demanding writer on cultural topics of all kinds, Gh?on clearly does not know what tomake of Cubism, reflecting the bewilderment engendered by the new art form. Yet he stillgives a very accurate definition of it, which may have played a part in Eliot's real ization of its significance for theworld of art and for his own literary creations. Gh?on notes that at Le Salon d'Automne of 1911 only the Cubists, attract him, "as much by their the "intellectuels-g?om?tres," as the clamor which surrounds them"; although it is said singularity by

that "they don't have all their brains," he proposes trying to "under stand them before laughing at them." In the entire Salon d'Automne, he argues, no group appears to him more representative of "ultra modern painting" than the Cubists (627), who evoke the same object ? in several aspects at once ? back, profile, three-quarters, and front and present both the outside and the inside. Further, they construct their paintings following, not nature, but geometry, de-composing objects in a series of blocks and dividing them into "innumerable

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Nancy Hargrove

facets by cutting them up at sharp angles" (629). At the review's end, he suggests that it is probably premature to draw a conclusion about Cubism, but asserts that it is only one example of a general state of mind inwhich young poets, musicians, and painters place a system of itself (of which he clearly disapproves) and portray everything in fragments (630). Thus in capturing the essential features of Analytical Cubism as Eliot would have seen it in Paris, creation before thework Gh?on, while critical of it, no doubt confirmed for him profoundly new ways of conveying human experience that seem to have inspired his own literary works. The Influence of Parisian Avant-Garde

Art on The Waste Land

The influence of Cubism along with that of the other major avant that developed between 1905 and the early 1920s

garde artmovements can be clearly seen in The Waste Land.

Indeed, a major result of Eliot's year in Paris, I would argue, is that, through his exposure to the daring was in experiments of Fauvism, Futurism, and Analytical Cubism, he the next ten years attuned to and aware of the subsequent, rapidly and of Synthetic Cubism, Vorticism, Dada, developing movements traces of all of which are incorporated into his innovative Surrealism, poem. Synthetic Cubism introduced the revolutionary technique of use of fragments of materials from the everyday world collage (the such as ticket stubs, newspapers, tobacco wrappers, and wallpaper) as well as employing a wider spectrum of colors than Analytical Cubism and revealing an increased influence of the studio, caf?, music-hall, 14 called Vorticism, influenced by and circus. The English movement both Cubism and Futurism, advocated techniques such as abstraction, and modern urban civiliza multiple perspectives, geometrical forms, some characteristics from tion as subject matter. While adopting focused on attacking and destroying the Cubism and Futurism, Dada art and literature and stressed politi cal anarchy, the intuitive, and the irrational, thus anticipating Surrealism, which was inmany ways a compendium and culmination traditions and beliefs of Western of avant-garde art in the early 20th century. "Above all a movement

South Atlantic Review of

105

revolt" against traditional subjects and techniques of the past (Carrouges 1), Surrealism conveyed the sterility,chaos, and anguish of themodern world, the absence of love, the over-emphasis on materi

and it alism, and the importance of the irrational and unconscious, used the techniques of collage, the double image, the fracturing of the human figure into various facets, and themixture of cultures and reli gions. All of these avant-garde art movements, along with early cinema, the 1917 Cubist ballet Parade, and popular entertainments such as the music-hall Land and the circus, exerted a powerful influence on The Waste both individually and collectively when Eliot began working on

it eight years after his Parisian residence. most obvious in the Perhaps towhich they were all ded poem is the general principle of revolution (Fowlie 15); one of itsmost well-known practitioners, the great Surrealist film maker Luis Bu?uel, said, "All of us were supporters of a certain con cept of revolution, and although the surrealists didn't consider them selves terrorists, theywere constandy fighting a society they despised. was scandal..." Their principal weapon wasn't guns, of course; it (113), is especially applicable toDada as well. Similarly, The Waste Land when it first appeared was revolutionary in its technical innovations, its rejection of traditional stanza form,meter, rhyme, and linear structure, and its daring content with its graphic descriptions of sexual relationships, including infidelity,prostitution, and abortion, its portrayal of the modern metropolis and recent technology, and its As Harding reminds us, although time and familiarity have robbed the poem of much of its shock effect today, itwas "a formidable piece of anti-establishment writing" in its time (15). Perhaps the most daring technique which Eliot adapted for the poem was collage, the invention of Picasso and Braque which ushered in Synthetic Cubism and which is an important component in subse movements as well; indeed, quent Marjorie Perloff calls it the single most significant inmodern art (46). It ismanifested in a development variety of ways in Eliot's poem. Structurally, it is a literary collage of frank criticism of excessive materialism. a statement which icated. As noted above, Surrealism was "particularly occupied revolution and with the demolishing of ideals and standards" ... with

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Nancy Hargrove

urban, desert, and ocean scenes which seem to be disconnected and without order or meaning, causing a review appearing in 1922 in the Times Literary Supplement to declare that the poem brings the reader to (Hunt 167). In a daringly radical move, Eliot introduces the technique in the opening section where, after an overview of the attitudes of the waste land's inhabitants, he shifts the limits of verbal coherence a abrupdy into the middle of woman's conversation inMunich, fol lowed by a description of a desert, a memory of a moment of poten scene of tial love, an encounter with a fortune-teller, and a Dantesque was on City workers crossing London Bridge. In 1922, this experiment the cutting edge, incorporating the fade-in, fade-out technique of early cinema, the Futurists' emphasis on the speed of modern life resulting from the new technology (the automobile, the airplane, and the type writer, for example), and the rapid succession of acts or "turns" of the circus and music-hall. Collage real world is also evident in Eliot's combination of material from the of the late teens and early twenties, including low-brow entertainment, with allusions to works of literature, art, and

popular music from the past, as is the Surrealist device of the double or simul taneous image. He uses this technique variously, playing on the differ

ences between merged images (as in the contrast between a meaning ful past and a degraded present implied in themelding of the goddess of chastity Diana from theminor Renaissance work Parliament of Bees

with the prostitute Mrs. Porter from the bawdy Australian ballad pop ular with soldiers during World War I) or their similarities (as in the financial district with the eerie melding of real landmarks of London's As in contemporary art, bringing togeth landscape of Dante's Inferno). er seemingly unrelated images creates ambiguity since theirmeanings are elusive, causing the perceiver to question his/her conventional views of what A the Surrealists call False Absolutes. was introduced and developed by the Cubists technique which and later adapted by subsequent movements was that of fracturing the human figure, still-life, or landscape into various planes or facets to reflect the conviction

that neither the human being nor the world in which he/she lives is a unified entity that can be fully experienced from a single perspective but is complex and literally many-faceted and

South Atlantic Review thus must be viewed

107

from multiple perspectives. Eliot makes use of this technique in a variety of ways. He fractures or splinters the con ventional protagonist with a single identitywhich remains constant by a composite figure whose various identities emerge and creating recede as itmoves though the space and time of The Waste Land. He suggests thereby not only the complexity of the human being and the shifting nature of reality,but also the fragmentation of the individual in themodern industrialized world and the unclear or changing iden tities of people in dreams and nightmares. However, for decades read ers and scholars, accustomed to a conventional protagonist, have tried to force a single identity on this elusive figure. As for the numerous characters that fill the poem, Eliot often describes them not as whole persons but as body parts (arms, hair, eyes, back, knees, feet, hands, fingernails) or as machine-like (the typist, for example, "waits / Like a taxi, throbbing, waiting"),
art.

reflecting another element of avant-garde

Multiple perspectives also appear in the poem's array of cultures and religions and in the quickly-shifting kaleidoscope of scenes, which move from a a public park in centralMunich to scorching desert, from flat of an upper-class urban couple to a work ing-class pub, from crowds of City employees crossing London Bridge to a desolate scene on Margate Sands. Finally, he fractures or dislocates the ornately-decorated the reader by challenging his/her traditional, non-involved, outside position in relation to the poem through the direct addresses at the ends of Sections I and IV which force him/her to become a partici pant. To add to the reader's disorientation, he borrows from Cubism and early cinema the use of steep or contorted angles; the reader observes both the crowds crossing London Bridge in Section I and the "hooded hordes swarming / Over endless plains" in Section V as if on them from a very looking down high angle, while he/she sees the tolling bell towers "upside down in air" in Section V looking upward from a low angle (Hargrove, "Great" 102). The Waste Land clearly reflects as well the shockingly innovative sub jects of the modern metropolis, technological inventions, and speed and dynamism employed in most of the contemporary art move ments. Among numerous striking examples are Delaunay's Cubist

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Nancy Hargrove

seen inLe Salon depiction of the Eiffel Tower, which Eliot could have des Ind?pendants in the spring of 1911 in Paris, his gigantic 1912 The City of Paris, and his 1914 Homage to Bl?riot, celebrating the airplane, a collage of billboards and metallic L?ger's 1919 painting The City, structures with a telephone pole in the foreground that conveys the commercial, technological, and mechanistic nature of themetropolis, and numerous Boccioni's speed. by the Italian Futurists, such as Umberto 1910-1911 The City Rises that captures both urban chaos and works

Eliot's poem features bleak views of its sterili ty,commercialism, noise, and speed in a variety of ways. Most strik on theirway to ing is the description of crowds of business people Set in London,

dull, stifling jobs in the offices of the City, where Eliot himself was buried on a subterranean floor of Lloyd's Bank on a daily basis: A crowd flowed over London Bridge, so many, I had not thought death had undone so many .... Flowed up the hill and down King William Street, Saint Mary Woolnoth a dead kept the hours sound on the final stroke of nine.

To where With

as the automobile and type Speed, noise, and modern inventions such writer are implied in the references to the traffic ("The sound of the wealthy couple's "closed car," an idling taxi horns and motors"), ("the human engine waits / Like a taxi, throbbing, waiting"), and the who "Paces about her room again, alone" after the departure of typist tempo of the wealthy woman's desperate attempts to elicit a response from her husband or are you thinking of?What thinking?What?'") and her partner ('"What threat to "'rush out as I am.'" While the Futurists in particular celebrat her callous ed these aspects of themodern industrial world, Eliot clearly deplores and condemns them as devastating to the human soul. Seemingly in contrast to the depiction of themodern important and defining element of these movements, Cubism, city, another particularly is primitivism. Influenced by primitive Iberian and African as sculpture and artifacts such masks, Picasso and other Cubists exper imented extensively with injecting a primitive quality into their figures lover, as well as in the staccato

AtlanticReview South

109

to suggest that themenace of savagery resides in the civilized contem porary world. Eliot's incorporation of this insight into The Waste Land is evident in Section I in the ironic evocation of the ancient associa tions of fertility in the hyacinths carried by the sensual young woman in the garden scene and in the allusion to the ritual of burying pagan in the protagonist's present-day conversation with fertility gods Stetson, with its frightening implication that rejuvenation is not likely in themodern world. Finally, The Waste Land reflects many of the themes of avant-garde art, particularly those of Cubism and Surrealism. Perhaps most strik ing is the portrayal of modern civilization as fragmented, chaotic, ster ile, and nightmarish. Eliot's poem conveys this view in a variety of ways, from its symbolic tide to its jarring structure, from its cries of What shall despair at life's emptiness ('"What shallwe do tomorrow? / we ever do?'") to its a desert sun description of landscape "where the beats, / And the dead tree gives no shelter." The world of nightmare, portrayed especially in Surrealist works, appears at several points in the poem, most memorably in the last passage of Section I and through out Section V, culminating in the protagonist's nightmare vision of the destruction of civilization: "What is the city over the mountains / Cracks and reforms and bursts in the violet air." Other themes include the inability to establish or maintain significant human relationships, as seen in the series of vignettes featuring, among others, the hyacinth girl and her potential lover, Sweeney and the prostitute Mrs. Porter, and the typist and the young man carbuncular, and the indictment of thematerialism of themodern industrial age in the crowds of anony mous City workers to dull jobs in the City. Thus, while all the trudging artmovements of the early 20"1 avant-garde Century contributed to The Waste Land, Cubism was a particular and significant gift of his Parisian residence, which introduced him to new modes of seeing, thinking, and creating.

Allusions to Art in Contemporary Reviews of The Waste Land

It is indicative of the extent towhich Eliot's poetry is imbued with

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Nancy Hargrove

an art thatmany contemporary reviewers of in-depth knowledge of his early poems through The Waste Land used analogies with both great art of the past and modern art in searching forways to explain their essential qualities, as noted by Jewel Spears Brooker in the introduc tion to TS. Eliot: The ContemporaryReviews (xvi, xviii). Ezra Pound in a review in theAugust 1917 issue of Poetry compares Eliot's use of con temporary detail in the poems of Prufrock and Other Observations (1917) to that of the 17th century Spanish artistDiego Velazquez: "[H]e has used contemporary used contemporary detail very much as Velazquez detail inLas Meninas; the cold gray-green tones of the Spanish painter have, it seems tome, an emotional value not unlike the emotional value (8). May Sinclair in rhythms, and of his vocabulary" 1917 issue of Little the same volume in the December reviewing Review compares his portrayal of harsh realities to that of the 18"1 of Mr. Eliot's William Hogarth; after noting that his observa century British artist tions are "ugly and unpleasant and obscure," she asserts, "Now there is no earthly reason why Mr. Eliot should not ... do in words what in reviewing Hogarth did in painting" (11-12). And Robert Nichols Ara Vos Prec (1920) on April 18, 1920 in the Observer suggests that Eliot presents "the terrible realities" of human interiorswith "some thing of the understanding and compassion 17th century Dutch artist. Even more of a Rembrandt" (30), the

striking and more numerous are the analogies with recent and contemporary art and artists. In reviewing Prufrock,Babette in the February 16, 1918 New Republic points out analogies Deutsch with late 19"1 century Impressionism, describing Eliot's observations as (14), and Louis having "the hall-marks of impressionism" a June 30, 1920 review of Poems (1920) refers to in Untermeyer "Portrait of a Lady" as "a half-sympathetic, half-scornful study in the " manner in his Observer review remarks (45). Nichols impressionist uses "the most quotidian, sordid, and apparendy unpromis thatEliot an interiorwhich is "as unqualified in state ingmaterials" to create ment as a [Walter] Sickert" (30), the most important of the British most typical subjects was Impressionists; interestingly, among Sickert's the London music painting Ennui loved by Eliot, and his 1913 is similar in subject and tone to Eliot's 1919 poem "A hall, a venue much

South AtlanticReview

111

in theApril 1918 issue of Poetry likens Cooking Egg." Marianne Moore Eliot's "two London pieces" to the "post-impressionistic English stud ies" of the late 19"1 century American artist JamesWhisder, but sug gests that the poet's harsh realities are more direcdy presented (15). Most striking perhaps are the analogies to such contemporary movements as Cubism and Vorticism. Arthur Waugh in a highly crit ical review of Pound's CatholicAnthology in theOctober 1916Quarterly Review notes the similarity of its poems to Cubism: "This strange litde

volume bears upon its cover a geometrical device, suggesting that the material within holds the same relation to the art of poetry as the work of the Cubist school holds to the art of painting and design." from several of itspoems, including "The Love Song of After quoting J.Alfred Prufrock," he warns that the "unmetrical, incoherent banali ties of

these literary 'Cubists'" threaten poetry with anarchy (3-4). Conversely, Clive Bell in awholly positive sense associates Eliot's work with that of Picasso, Matisse, Braque, and Derain as well as with that of Stravinsky and Joyce (35), and e.e. cummings's unconventional review of Poems hi the June 1920 issue of theDialis studded with ref erences to avant-garde art. Allen T?te in theDecember 1922 issue of Fugitive notes thatDuncan Grant and Picasso remake and remold the material world "in a subjective order" in their paintings and suggests thatEliot does something similar in The Waste Land. And in a brilliant essay in theNew York Evening Post Literary Review for November 25, defines contemporary literature, using 1922, Edmund Wilson, Jr. Eliot's The Waste Land and Joyce's Ulysses as his major a examples, as reflection of the fragmentation, chaos, and meaninglessness of the post-war world: "James Joyce and T.S. Eliot reflect our present condi

tion of disruption. We are all tumultuous fragments ... "; he refers to and Dada as other forms of art focusing on themod Expressionism ern mind's perception of the world and using similar radical tech niques (78-9).

Other Art Exhibitions

While

in Paris

versial first appearance

the exhibition of Le Salon des Ind?pendants with its contro of the Cubists was without a doubt themost

112 Nancy Hargrove

many other exhibitions of both established and of recent and striking, contemporary art were held in Paris during Eliot's residence. In the autumn and winter, he could have attended Le Salon de l'Union Internationale in October, Le Salon d'Hiver in January, and the exhi Painters and Sculptors, of Henri Rousseau, and of as I point out in '"Un La Soci?t? Moderne in February. However, Pr?sent Parfait"' (53-4), the spring witnessed an explosion of exhibi tions,most of which presented new works of art. Upon Eliot's return to Paris on April 25 after a two-week holiday inLondon, he comment ed in a letter to his cousin Eleanor Hinkley that "Paris has burst out, during my absence, into full spring" (Letters 18). Indeed, he could so equally well have noted that it had burst out with art exhibitions numerous that reviewers in Le Figaro made such comments as "ten new exhibitions open every day" (21 April: 3) and "Never have the art more numerous in Paris than this spring to the great expositions been joy of art lovers whose pleasures are multiplied" (11 May:l). Some, however, were critical of the number and size of the exhibi tions, as seen in a cartoon in theMay 4 issue of Le Figaro, inwhich a group touring a museum in an open car, one of whom is sound asleep, asks a gendeman, "How many kilometers to the exit?," to which he replies, "I don't know. I'm not from around here" (3), and another in bitions of Women

South AtlanticReview
the April 28 issue inwhich would the chauffeur of an old woman who in a museum

113
has

fallen asleep in her wheelchair laments, "Poor dear; she have been better off to have stayed in the country" (4). In an April 29 article entided "The Salons of 1911," Le Figaro's net critic Ars?ne Alexandre seems quite irritated not only by the number and of exhibitions, some of which he sarcastically lists in a long cat variety alogue to emphasize how many there are, but even more by the uneven quality of theworks displayed: Will we be content with the fifteen to twenty thousand ? I call them "things" for lack of a better word things thatwould include what is beautiful and what is com monplace, absurd ? what is worthy of attention and what is contained in the two Salons, the Salon des the expositions of humorists,

Ind?pendants, Parisianists,

deformists, designers, engravers, interior theworks of Ingres, theworks of theDutch decorators, masters, and all those that I've forgotten? (5) digs at their excessiveness and the widely varying quality of the works displayed, the fact remains that Paris, especially in the spring of 1911, was a veritable feast of artistic offer Despite the humorous ings, among which were awesomely radical avant-garde creations which could only have astounded, impressed, and inspired a young vis itorwith literary ambitions from the less artistically-inclined American
scene.

Recent Recent

and

Contemporary

Sculpture

in Paris

and contemporary sculpture in Paris revealed daring exper iments that rivaled those occurring in with the works of painting, Auguste Rodin and Emile Bourdelle serving as prime examples. Rodin, called the father of modern sculpture, has been credited with single-handedly restoring sculpture to the important position

which

it had held through the seventeenth century (Arnason 64). In themid to late nineteenth century inworks such asMan with the Broken

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Nose

Nancy Hargrove

(1864) and TheAge of Bronze (1877), he rebelled against the "sen timental idealism of the academicians" by demonstrating a "scrupu lous realism," power and intensity, and a concern with themovement the human and body (Arnason 64-6). Inspired by Donatello he re-examined both the human body and the art of the

of

Michelangelo, Middle Ages and the Renaissance, producing figures of great physical and emotional realism, often in distorted poses suggesting violence In 1880 as a and brutality or in sensual poses considered scandalous. result of a commission Arts D?coratifs, which was unfinished to create a portal for the proposed Mus?e des he began work on his masterpiece The Gates ofHell,

a variety of at his death in 1917. Depicting scenes and figures from Dante's Inferno,and reflecting an influence as well from Baudelaire's Les Fleurs duMal, the massive work may have contributed Baudelaire's to Eliot's interest in both these writers; indeed, he knew

poetry before arriving in France, and he read Le Comedia for the first time during his Paris year. Individual sculptures from the work, such as The Thinker, a representation of Dante himself in the top center of the gate, and The Kiss, a depiction
Francesca, gained fame on their own.

of the lovers Paolo

great masterpieces

and

Other

include the 1886 The Burgers of Calais and several versions of Balzac. exhibitions of Rodin's works took place in Paris just Numerous to his fame and assur prior to and during Eliot's year there, attesting must have known of him and seen some of his works; ing that Eliot indeed, his reputation as a modern-day Michelangelo was world-wide in the early years of the twentieth century. In 1900 the Exposition Universelle featured a Rodin Pavillion at Le Place de TAlma inwhich 150 of his sculptures and drawings were displayed ("Rodin" 15, 983). In 1906 The Thinkerwzs installed in front of the Pantheon, where Eliot could have seen it on a daily basis as he lived right around the corner. In 1907 The Walking Man was exhibited at Le Salon de la Soci?t? Nationale des Beaux-Arts, in 1908 major exhibitions of his drawings took place in Paris, Vienna, and Leipzig, and in 1909 and 1910 exhibi and tions of his drawings were held in Paris at La Galerie D?vambez Salle Gil Bias,

on Rodin respectively. In 1911, Paul Gsell's book was r?unis L'art, entretiens published in Paris ("August" 3-4). Thus Eliot must certainly have been aware of the revolutionary, often scandalous La

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115

innovations of this great sculptor, another of themany examples of arts in Paris experimental and radical developments taking place in the before Eliot's Bourdelle whom eyes. had been a student and then an assistant of Rodin, by he was heavily influenced, but in the first decade of the twen

tieth century he set out in new revolutionary directions while working within the framework of the classical tradition, especially that of archaic and fifth-centuryGreek sculpture (Arnason 73), so that he is among the French pioneers of twentieth-century sculpture, along with Aristide Maillol and Charles Despiau. Many of theworks that he cre ated and exhibited justprior to and during the time of Eliot's residence were considered shocking in their power and in their techniques, which anticipate and in some instances parallel early Cubist sculptures. His Heracles the Archer took the 1910 Salon de la Soci?t? des Beaux-Arts by storm, its success marking his public acknowledgment as a leading sculptor in France along with Rodin. The extreme power of the figure is conveyed in itsmusculature, its tension-filled pose, and its broken a planes. Interestingly, in 1910 he also did sculpture of Rodin work on The Gates ofHell. His versatility is evident in The Fruit, & ing larger than-life-size young female figure of "sinuous grace" (Cannon Brookes 43), exhibited at Le Salon de la Soci?t? des Beaux-Arts in 1911, where Eliot could have seen it; if he did, it may have served as a source of inspiration for the girl in "La Figlia che Piange" written the
next year.

At

this time Bourdelle

Beethoven, which physical

had also returned to the subject of fascinated him throughout his life because he saw a similarity between himself and the composer as well as a

"spiritual parallel with

the qualities he was trying to achieve in his 14). Between 1888 and 1891, he had cre sculpture" (Cannon-Brookes ated a series of sculptures of Beethoven's head thatwere stylistically

more distorted and faceted, emotionally more frenzied and stylistically a to Cannon-Brookes, was "to lead to break-through which, according Cubism and abstract art" (35), since his teaching position at La Grande-Chaumi?re, which he took up in 1909, allowed him to influ

14, straightforwardwith carefullymodelled surfaces (Cannon-Brookes Between 1901 and 1910, however, his Beethoven sculptures were 33).

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Nancy Hargrove

ence many young painters such as Alberto Giacometti and others such as Henri came to his studio to listen to and learn from Bergson who him (Gautherin 23). Beethoven in the Wind (1904-1908) is inscribed, "To theman and the god Beethoven," reflecting theworship of Beethoven both as a musician and as a model of moral strength and virtue so prevalent in Paris at this time (see Shrade and Hargrove, "Classical" 14-20), which may have played a role in his return to Beethoven as a subject. This second series "reaches its climax in the strongly architec tural forms of theDraped Beethoven" of 1910, whose strongly faceted structure and the rhythmical imposition of planes ... provide a fasci as the nating parallel to the earliest cubist sculptures of Picasso," such 17 I have argued 1909 Head ofFernande Olivier (Cannon-Brookes 36,39). in "T.S. Eliot and the Classical Music Scene in Paris, 1910-1911" that Eliot was highly influenced by the devotion attended many of the time and doubdess to Beethoven the Beethoven in Paris at concerts

so that Bourdelle's given then, sculptures of the composer may well In addition to Picasso, other have been of great interest to him. avant-garde (mosdy Cubist) time include Henri Matisse Constantin sculptors creating works in Paris at this (who studied for a time with Bourdelle),

and Raymond Alexander Brancusi, Archipenko, 19 saw sculptures by Rodin, Bourdelle, If Eliot Duchamp-Villon. and/or these other sculptors, theywould have demonstrated for him the highly experimental directions inwhich the plastic artswere head as inmany cases a look back to the primitive or classical, ing as well thus providing inspiration for the kind of poetry that he was current near future. ly writing and would write in the

The Theft of the Mona Lisa

from the Louvre

a great work of art from the past and two names Involving both prominent in the Parisian contemporary artistic and literary scene, per most shocking occurrence in the world of art haps the strangest and was not an exhibition, a painting, or a new during Eliot's year in Paris artmovement, but the theft of da Vinci's Mona Lisa from the Louvre on August Apollinaire 21, 1911 and the arrest of the critic and poet Guillaume as well. as the prime suspect, with Picasso implicated

South Atlantic Review Norman Mailer

117

in Portrait of Picasso as a YoungMan gives a very com plete account of this complicated situation, citing information from Francis Steegmuller's book on Apollinaire, Fernande Olivier's memoirs and her biography of Picasso, and various newspaper stories (317-34). In 1907 a young Belgian named G?ry Pieret, who worked for a time as

secretary, stole two Iberian statuettes from the Louvre Apollinaire's and sold them to Picasso; inMay 1911 he stole another and hid it in Apollinaire's disappeared assuming that Pieret was Mona Lisa apartment, where he was staying. So, when the a fewmonths later, were terrified, Apollinaire and Picasso

the thief and that theywould be implicated; Pieret supposedly returned the recendy-stolen statuette while the two statuettes stolen in 1907 were taken, perhaps by Apollinaire himself, to the offices of the newspaper Paris-Journal to be returned to the Louvre, on condition of anonymity; however, his name was apparendy revealed to police by the newpaper or one of its reporters, perhaps even Andr? Salmon, leading to his arrest and incarceration on September 7. As the storywas carried in all the newspapers, his reputation suf fered enormously, with all of Paris in a state of shock that such a prominent figure in art and literaturewas implicated in the crime. This account from the September 9, 1911 issue of Le Matin is typical: "It was not without emotion and surprise that Paris learned last night of the arrest [of Apollinaire] made recent restitution of Phoenician this reaction. by the Sur?t? in connection with the statuettes stolen from the Louvre in

before last... on the charge of 'harboring a criminal'" (qtd. inMailer 327). When Picasso was brought in and questioned by the judge, he On initially denied knowing him, shocking Apollinaire deeply. September 12,Apollinaire was released from prison on probation, but, according to Steegmuller, was for some time depressed by and bitter about the entire episode, especially his treatment by some friends and fellow-writers (222-3). Itwas more than two years later, inDecember 1913, that he was finally fully exonerated when the painting was found in Florence and the thief revealed to be a mentally-disturbed Italian who had been employed at the Louvre

1907. The mere name of the person arrested is enough to account for ... arrested the He is ...Guillaume Apollinaire, night

and had stolen it in order to

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return it to its homeland

Nancy Hargrove

(Steegmuller 210). Since, after his summer trip to northern Italy and Germany, Eliot returned to Paris in early September 1911 (Letters27) before departing for America, episode, which certainly have known about this shocking thrust the avant-garde artmovement and some of its leading practitioners and champions into the glare of the public view. Indeed, itwas probably among his most strikingmemories of his year in Paris. What he would

memorable

effect it may have had on him we can no doubt discussed its only surmise, but he and Verdenal possible les sons: how frail one's can touch one reputation may be, how scandal the fray,how one's friends may abandon difficult the life of the artist and writer may be. Life-long Interest in Art seems above one, how

who

Eliot's Eliot's

he leftParis for a tour of Germany and northern Italy in the summer of 1911, he saw paintings of Saint Sebastian by Mantegna (which he in Venice and by described as "First quality") in the Ca d'Oro Antonello Collection da Messina of Harvard's in Bergamo, as indicated in notes in the Eliot Further, Library (Ricks 268). Houghton to Conrad Aiken, when he returned toHarvard in the fall of according 1911, he brought with him from Paris and displayed in his room on

year in Paris, I suggest, nurtured what would become an extensive interest in and knowledge about art, both established and 21 contemporary, throughout the remainder of his life. Indeed, when

Ash

1889 painting The Yellow Christ ("King Street a copy of Gauguin's Bolo" 21), a work innovative in its use of bold yellows both in the landscape and in Christ's body, suggesting "a natural interchange between religion and rural life that confounds any separation between the real and the imaginary" (Parsons and Gale 103). A measure of his early appreciation for and understanding of its experimental qualities (as well as, perhaps, a glimpse of his arrogance) is evident in his reply to the suggestion that it demonstrated "a kind of sophisticated primi

that tells us, "with a waspishness was characteristic" that there "was nothing primitive about it" (21), a reference no doubt to its daring nature. Further, inApril and May of tivism," for he commented, Aiken

South Atlantic Review 1913 when

119

the scandalous Armory Show, which included 250 works as Matisse, Picasso, by European modern artists such Braque, L?ger, and Duchamp, was exhibited in Boston's Copley Hall, Eliot Delaunay, 22 was surely among the 12,000 people who viewed it (Tomlinson 72). His return to Europe in the summer of 1914, when he intended to improve his German for several weeks inMarburg, Germany before spending the academic year studying philosophy at Merton College, Oxford, provided him with additional opportunities to increase his no evidence that he went to Paris knowledge of art. Although there is on his way to he surely heard or read about the performance Marburg, there on July 5 of Arthur Cravan's scandalous show that anticipated the antics of theDadaists, Hinckley while aboard since a letterwritten to his cousin Eleanor ship is postmarked "London, July 7, 1914" (Letters37), indicating that his arrival inEurope coincided with reports of this artistic event in the newspapers. He visited Belgium during the

second week of July, tellingAiken in a letter of July 19 that "the paint are only one (great) one inGhent, but treasuresin ings [there] stunning! and Antwerp and Brussels! Memling, van Eyck, Matsys, David, Bruges ... a wonderful great stuff! Breughel, Rubens?really (And O (letters 41). Crucifixion of Antonello of Messina)" The outbreak of World War I in earlyAugust 1914 caused him to leave Germany immediately for England, where his involvement with art and artists increased significandy. Among his closest friends were Ezra Pound, as great a champion of contemporary art as of contem porary literature, and Wyndham Lewis, "the leading avant-garde in England" (Tomlinson 73). Indeed, less than a year after his painter arrival, in a letter of April 1915, Eliot writes to Isabella Stewart the Bostonian "some of themodern patron of the arts, that he has come to know artists whom thewar has so far spared," men

Gardner,

dent had an established ure in the Bostonian

Lewis, and several others and commenting tioning Gaudier-Brzeska, on an exhibition of contemporary art at the Goupil Gallery (Letters 94); this letter reveals both that this twenty-six-year-old graduate stu (and astonishing) friendship with a leading fig artworld and that he was forming new friend

ships among the young avant-garde artists in London and attending art there. Further, when "Preludes" exhibitions of modern and

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Nancy Hargrove

a "Rhapsody of [sic] Windy Night," both products of his year in Paris in whole or in part, were published in the July 1915 issue of the Vorticist magazine Blast, they appeared between Lewis's essay "A Review of Contemporary Art" and a series of sixVorticist designs by such artists as Frederick Eichels, Edward Wadsworth, and Lewis (Blast

38-63) so his proximity tomodern artwas quite literal in this case and indicates further that he was deeply involved with its development and its leading figures. By 1918 Eliot was regularlymoving in circles composed largely of those devoted to modern art and literature, attending art exhibitions, and often mentioning them in print. Among his acquaintances were Clive and Vanessa Bell, Leonard and Virginia Woolf, the Sitwells, and wrote about, and/or Roger Fry, all of whom constandy discussed, with new theories of both the visual and written arts. In experimented particular, Fry's ideas stressing the over-riding significance of design, the rejection of the representational, and the necessity for reproduc arts doubdess ing in literature the current experiments in the visual had an impact on Eliot, as they did on Virginia Woolf. In addition to participating in discussions about art and literature with this group, he was involved in the art scene in other ways. InMay 1918 Aldous London's to Lady Ottoline Morrell that at Huxley reported ? the exhibit he saw "almost everybody Gaudier-Brzeska company of Sitwells, the noble army of poets, including

glorious Graves and Eliot"

(Glendinning 59). Eliot surely attended the January 1919 exhibition of modern French painting arranged by his close friends, the Sitwell brothers, as well as Lewis's one-man show of and drawings depicting World War I entided Guns in

watercolors

Woolfs' Hogarth Press printed seven of Eliot's recent June 1919 the poems in a small volume bound in one of Fry's designs (Gordon 85), and the next month he published a review in the Egoist of three vol

Lewis Exhibition).In February1919 at the Goupil Gallery (Wyndham

umes of poetry, one of which, as d'Ambrosio points out, was Vingt (103 cinqpo?mes by Tristan Tzara, the leading spokesperson forDada In January 1921 he wrote to his mother that during his recent trip 16). to Paris he was "mosdy with old and new French friends and acquain tances, writers, painters" and had bought Vivien a drawing by "one of

South Atlantic Review the best of themodern London mented most painters, Raoul Dufy" Letter for the Dial, which appeared

121
(Letters433). In his first inApril 1921, he com

that the Picasso Exhibition

at the Leicester Galleries was "the

(453), and in the interesting event of London at thismoment" inAugust 1921, he argued that Cubism "is not license third,published but an attempt to establish order" (215). Certainly, a variety of mod ern artmovements were much on his mind from 1919 to 1921 when he was working on The Waste Land. Throughout his adult life,he collected and displayed in his lodgings a variety of artworks, in addition to those already noted. When Irving

Babbitt, his professor of French literature at Harvard, visited him in his London flat in the summer of 1928, he saw above themantelpiece in the living room a painting byWyndham Lewis, which, according to art (52). Belgion, was shocking to Babbitt, who deplored modern Ironically, one of themost well-known of Lewis's portraits was that of Eliot himself, painted in 1938. And Igor Stravinsky describes the art works flat when he visited them in the spring of 1963; they included watercolors by John Ruskin and Henry Moore, a landscape by Edward Lear, drawings by Wyndham Lewis, and a that adorned the Eliots'

bronze head of Eliot by Jacob Epstein (92), attesting to Eliot's eclec tic tastes and his close connections with leading contemporary painters and sculptors. Conclusion 1910-1911 year abroad provided him with the opportunity to see and be influenced by a wide array of great works of the past and of the present and inspired a life-long interest in and knowledge of Eliot's in Paris, I have argued, nourished and enriched his early explorations of ancient Greek and Roman art and Florentine painting in two undergraduate art history courses atHarvard as well as residence his personal discoveries of Manet, Monet, and Japanese prints in the same period; in that great city as well as in London and in northern Italy, he had access to museums housing many of the world's most famous works. Among those that he seems likely to have seen are the two versions of da Vinci's TheMadonna of theRocks, alluded to ironi art. His

122

Nancy Hargrove

cally in The Waste Land, numerous Saint Sebastians, which may have inspired "The Love Song of Saint Sebastian," Titian's Bacchus and Ariadne, and other works and Crivelli. Michelangelo, were the recent and contemporary avant-garde works thatwere exhib ited in Paris either in private galleries such as Kahnweiler's or in sen sational, indeed scandalous by such painters as Luini, Solario, But even more important and influential

as Le Salon des public exhibitions such Ind?pendants of the spring of 1911. Here he would have firstbeen thatwere rocking theworld of introduced to the new artmovements art and of culture in general, Fauvism, Futurism, and most particular him to the most outrageous, cutting lyAnalytical Cubism, exposing as well as insuring that he would contin edge experiments of the day ue to be wholly aware of Synthetic Cubism, Dada, quick succession, with the result that he adapted to his poetic needs many of their principles, themes, and techniques. Indeed, the influ ence of both the great art of the past and the great contemporary art to the movements of responsive Vorticism, and Surrealism that followed in and

that he certainly encountered during his annusmirabilis in Paris and that he continued to appreciate, absorb, and collect throughout the remain der of his life ismore extensive and profound than has been acknowl 23 edged in Eliot scholarship. Notes the one hand, Paris was completely the past; on the other was completely the future: and these two aspects combined to hand, it form a perfect present." All translations from French are mine unless "On otherwise noted; close translations are in quotation marks. Portions of this essay appeared in "The Great Parade," "Parisian Theatre World,"

'"Un Pr?sent Parfait,'" and "The Waste Land!' 2 These pages seem to me to be his notes on the first part of the course only (the forerunners and early painters of the period), for fig ures such as da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo would typically be included, forming indeed the major portion of the course; perhaps the remainder of the notes was lost, or perhaps these pages constitute or material for a paper a partial summary

AtlanticReview 123 South

as 1880 (133), but, according gives the date of acquisition was 1886. to the information on the painting in theNational Gallery, it 4 an explanation of the painting in the Louvre, it por According to trays "the Virgin come with Jesus to greet St. John the Orphan, who a refuge in grotto, thanks to the protection of the archangel Uriel, who is kneeling on the right." A curious example of a highly negative interpretation of the hands of Mary and the angel is found inDan Brown's popular novel The Da has found Vinti Code (2003): "More troubling still, Mary was holding one hand a decidedly threaten high above the head of infant John and making ?> her an invis fingers looking like eagle's talons, gripping ing gesture most obvious and frightening image: Just below ible head. Finally, the was making a cutting gesture with his hand Mary's curled fingers, Uriel ? as if slicing the neck of the invisible head gripped byMary's claw hand" (138-9). like lineswere also no doubt influenced by discussions of art that Eliot had overheard or participated in at social gatherings in Boston. The Indeed, he may at that time already have met Isabella Stuart Gardner, the great patroness of the arts who had opened in 1903 themuseum which bears her name and which she herself had designed in the style of a fifteenth-century Venetian palace to house her extraordinary col lection of art (Gardner Museum pamphlet); themuseum contained a for The Colonna Pi?ta. Eliot had made her study by Michelangelo on September 16 acquaintance by the fall of 1912, for visits from him 31 and November 3 of that year are and sometime between October noted in her guest book (Letters 93), and he corresponded with her a number of times after settling in England in 1914; letterswritten in 1918 are inLetters (93-5, 107-8, April and July 1915 and inNovember 250-2). Mantegna painted three versions of inThe Kunsthistorisches Museum painting Saint Sebastian, inVienna, the 1459 the 1480s paint in the Ca d'Oro in 3 Marani

ing inThe Louvre in Paris, and the 1490s painting Venice. Eliot saw the latter two during his 1910-11 year abroad. third version of Saint Ricks notes that,when Eliot sawMantegna's Sebastian described in the Ca

in Venice in the summer of 1911, he d'Oro it as "First quality" and told Sydney Schiff in a letter of

124 Nancy Hargrove March 24 1920 that "Mantegna is a painter forwhom I have a partic me more there is none who appeals to strongly. Do know the St. Sebastian in the Franchetti's house on the Grand you Canal?" (268). While inVenice, he may also have seen in the Church ular admiration ? of S. Maria Mark 9 della Salute both Basaiti's Saint Sebastian and Titian's Saint is Saint Sebastian. on the Throne with Saints, one of whom

Although Gross reads the second stanza as saying that he does use of "should" and "would" renders the situ strangle her (977), the ation ambiguous; the speaker may only be imagining what he would

like to do or might do, not necessarily what he has actually done. Some of the artistswho came to Paris just prior to or during the (1904), Archipenko sojourn there were Brancusi period of Eliot's

(1908)L?ger (1909),de Chirico (1910),Chagall (1910), and Zadkine (1911).

The

Futurists included Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Giacomo Gino Severini, Carlo Carra, and Umberto Boccioni. Baila, 12 The five painters had begun meeting at La Closerie des Lilas after the 1910 Salon d'Automne when they became aware that they had sim ilar artistic goals; there they plotted, according to Brooke, "a virtual coup d'?tat against the hanging committee of the Salon des 1910 just after his arrival. Juan Gris, not begin to paint seriously until 1911, first displayed his who did paintings with the group at La Section d'Or exhibition at La Galerie de la Bo?tie The in Paris inOctober Futurist Exhibition 1912 (Parsons and Gale 180). to which Verdenal refers was held in (16). It is possible Ind?pendants" at Le Salon d'Automne inOctober thatEliot saw theirworks exhibited

February 1912 at the Bernheim-Jeune gallery in Paris, their first in that city; it received much notice, including a favorable review by Apollinaire. The exhibition then appeared inLondon, Berlin, Brussels, and Munich, receiving an international as a result (Arnason reputation of the caf?.

221). 14

See Weiss,

1231-9, for an informative discussion

of the similarities between the principles, sub see jects, and techniques of Surrealism and those of The Waste Land, the essay by Hargrove and Grootkerk, from which some material in this section comes. Other essays on the influence of modern art on

For a fulldiscussion

South AtlanticReview 125

Eliot's work
on modern

include those by Tomlinson and Brooker and Bendey on Tucker and d'Ambrosio on Dada, and by Hunt and Korg Cubism, by
art in general.

Given Eliot's ture of

thy thatBourdelle

interest in paintings of Saint Sebastian, it is notewor in 1883 created inToulouse a striking bronze sculp the saint, whose contorted body, outstretched arms, and I have not

However, anguished upward look convey extreme suffering. been able to determine whether Eliot ever saw it. once more

In the last years of his life, from 1924 to 1929, Bourdelle returned to the subject of Beethoven, creating portrayals of the composer which range from grim to pathetic (Cannon-Brookes 117). Bourdelle also was well-known for the bas-reliefs that adorn the fa?ade of Le Th??tre 1913; des Champs-Elys?es, which opened in April inspired by the dancer Isadora Duncan, whom he had seen in 1909, he noted that "All my muses in the theatre are move

dance ments

seized during Isadora's flight; shewas my principal source" (qtd. inMacdougall 124). Eliot may well have seen her perform in January 1911 at Le Th??tre du Ch?telet (see Hargrove, "Dance" 62-6). 19 In 1911 Duchamp-Villon created a head of Baudelaire with the

"repose and classic generalization of ancient sculpture" (Arnason 195); while Eliot probably did not see it during his Paris residence, it may have come to his attention later, given the acknowledged influ ence of the French poet on his poetry. 20 Verdenal in a letter to Eliot written in early July 1911 (notmid-July, the date given inLetters, since he refers to having seen "the other day"

a June 29 performance of Wagner's G?tterd?mmerung) says that he will "be here in September, and very pleased to see you again" (Letters24), so the two spent some time together. Alain-Fournier, however, had

written to Eliot on July 25, 1911 that, "unfortunately, I shall not be in Paris at the beginning of September" (Letters27). 21 scholars as astute and well-informed as Brooker and Although Bendey in 1990 note cautiously before published embarking on a discussion of the influence of Cubism on Eliot that "it is possible that he paid litde attention to [modern art]" (28), the fol in their book

and Grootkerk) lowing summary (some of which is in Hargrove makes clear his life-long interest in and knowledge about it.

126 Nancy Hargrove 22 The official tide was The but, because it opened International Exhibition of Modern Art,

in the Armory of the 69th regiment inNew came to be known simply as The Armory Show. While the York City, it Futurists refused to exhibit, the European section was otherwise "extraordinarily complete" attacked by most American Matisse, and Duchamp's described as "an explosion (Arnason 427). The show was savagely critics and artists, in particular the Cubists, Nude Descending a Staircase, infamously in a shingle factory" (qtd. inArnason 426).

was among scholarship that John Quinn "a small but influential new class of [American] collectors" which came into being as a result of theArmory Show (Arnason 422). 23 I am grateful toMarianne Thorm?hlen and Cyrena Pondrom for an early version of this essay and offering excellent sugges reading It is also of interest to Eliot
tions.

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