Fundamentals of Machining/ Orthogonal Cutting Machining is the process of removing unwanted material from a work piece in the form

of chips. If the work piece is metal, the process is often called metal cut ting or metal removal. Fundamentals The process of metal cutting is complex because it has such a wide variety input s which are listed in figure. These variables are: 1. The machine tool selected to perform the process. 2. The cutting tool selected [geometry & material]. 3. The properties and parameters of the work piece. 4. The cutting parameters selected [speed, feed & depth of cut] 5. The work piece holding devices or fixtures or jigs. 1 There are seven basic chip formation processes (see Figure): turning, milling, d rilling, sawing, broaching, shaping (planing), and grinding (abrasive machining) . Usually the workpiece material is determined by the design engineer to meet the functional requirements of the part in service. The manufacturing engineer will often have to select cutting tool parameters, and work holder parameters and the n cutting parameters based on that work material decision. Let us begin with the assumption that the workpiece material has been selected a nd you have decided to use a high-speed steel cutting tool for a turning operati on. For all metal-cutting processes, it is necessary to distinguish between speed, f eed, and depth of cut. The turning process will be used to introduce these terms . See Figure. In general, speed (V) is the primary cutting motion, which relates the velocity of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece. It is generally giv en in units of meters per minute (m/min) or meters per second (m/s). Speed (V) i s shown with the heavy dark arrow. Feed (fr) is the amount of material removed p er revolution or per pass of the tool over the workpiece. In turning, feed is in 2 mm/rev, and the tool feeds parallel to the rotational axis of the workpiece. Dep ending on the process, feed units are mm /rev, mm/ cycle, mm /minute, mm / tooth . Feed is shown with dashed arrows. The depth of cut (DOC) represents third dime nsion. In turning, it is the distance the tool is plunged into the surface. It i s the difference in the diameter D1, the initial diameter, and D2, the final dia meter: DOC = D1-D2/2 = d mm The selection of the cutting speed V determines the surface speed of the rotatin g part that is related to the outer diameter of the workpiece. V= D1Ns/1000 Where D1 is in mm, V is speed in surface mm per minute, and N is the revolutions minute (rpm) of the workpiece. The input to the lathe will be in revolutions pe r minute of the spindle. s 3 Cutting speed, feed, and DOC selection depend on many factors, and a great deal of experience and experimentation are required to find the best combinations. A good place to begin is by consulting tables of recommended values as shown in Fi gure 21-4. Most tables are arranged according to the process being used, the mat erial being machined, the hardness, and the cutting tool material. The table in figure 21-4 is for turning processes only. The amount of metal remo ved per pass determines the DOC. In practice, roughing cuts are heavier than fin ishing cuts in terms of feed and DOC and are run at a lower surface speed. Once cutting speed V has been selected, Equation Ns = 1000 V/ D1 is used to deter mine the spindle rpm, Ns. The speed and feed can be used with the DOC to estimat e the metal removal rate for the process, or MRR. For turning, the MRR is MRR = 1000 V fr d [mm3/min] This is an approximate equation for MRR. For turning, MRR values can range from 2.5 to 15240 mm3/min. The MRR can be used to estimate the power needed to perfor

m a cut, as will be shown later. For most processes, the MRR equation can be vie wed as the volume of metal removed divided by the time needed to remove it. MRR = volume of cut / Tm Where: Tm is the cutting time in minutes. For turning, the cutting time depends upon the length of cut L divided by the rate of traverse of the cutting tool pas t the rotating workpiece frNs as shown in Figure. Therefore, Tm = L + allowance / fr Ns [min] An allowance is usually added to the L term to allow for the tool to enter and e xit the cut. Turning is an example of a single-point tool process, as is shaping. Milling and drilling are examples of multiple-point tool processes. Figures 21-5 through 21 -9 4 5 6 7 For many of the basic processes, the equations for Tm and MRR are given. These e quations are commonly referred to as shop equations and are as fundamental as th e processes themselves, so the student should be as familiar with them as with t he basic processes. The process of milling requires two figures because it takes different forms depending upon the selection of the machine tool and the cutting tool. Milling, a multiple tooth process, has two feeds: the amount of metal an individual tooth r emoves, called the feed per tooth ft (mm/tooth), and the rate at which the table translates past the rotating tool, called the table feed rate fm in mm per minu te. It is calculated from fm = f t n Ns Where n is the number of teeth in a cutter and Ns is the rpm value of the cutter . Just as was shown for turning, standard tables of speeds and feeds for milling provide values for the recommended cutting speeds and feeds per tooth, ft. Figure 21-10 and Table 21-2 provide a summary of the basic machining processes i n terms of typical machine tools which can perform the process, the typical size s (min-max), the production rates (part/hour), tolerances (precision or repeatab ility) and surface finish (roughness). Milling has pretty much replaced shaping and planning although gear shaping is still a viable process. 8 9 ENERGY AND POWER IN MACHINING All of the processes described to this point are examples of oblique, or three-f orce, cutting and were shown in Figure 21-2. The cutting force system in a conve ntional, oblique-chip formation process is shown schematically in Figure 21-11. Oblique cutting has three components: 1. Fc: Primary cutting force acting in the direction of the cutting velocity vec tor. This force is generally the largest force and accounts for 99% of the power required by the process. 2. Ff: Feed force acting in the direction of the tool feed. This force is usuall y about 50% of Fc but accounts for only a small percentage of the power required because feed rates are usually small compared to cutting speeds. 3. Fr: Radial or thrust force acting perpendicular to the machined surface. This force is typically about 50% of Ff and contributes very little to power require ments because velocity in the radial direction is negligible. The oblique cutting geometry shown in Figures 21-1 and 21-3 is repeated in Figur e 21-11: which shows the general relationship between these forces and speed, fe ed, and depth cut. Note that these figures cannot be used to determine forces fo r a specific process. 10 11 The power required for cutting (power at spindle) Pc= FcV / 60 Watt [N.m/s] In metal cutting a very useful parameter is called unit, or specific power, whic h is defined as: u = Pc x 60,000/ MRR [N/mm2]

In turning, for example, where MRR= 1000V fr d Therefore, u= 60 Fc / fr d Values for specific power u, which is also called unit power, are given in Table 21-3. These values are obtained through orthogonal metal-cutting experiments de scribed later in this chapter. Specific power is related to and correlates well with shear stress s for a given metal, which will be derived later. Unit power is sensitive to material properti es (e.g., hardness), rake angle, depth of cut, and feed, whereas s is sensitive t o material properties only. Specific power can be used in a number of ways. First, it can be used to estimat e the motor power required to perform a machining operation for a given material . u values from the table are multiplied by the approximate MRR for the process. The motor power, Pmotor is then Pmotor = u x MRR x CF / E Where E is the efficiency of the machine. The E factor accounts for the power ne eded to overcome friction and inertia in the machine and drive moving parts. Usu ally, 80% is used. Correction factors (CFs) may also be used to account for vari ations in cutting speed, feed, and rake angle. There is usually a tool wear corr ection factor of 1.25 used to account for the fact that dull tools use more powe r than sharp tools. The primary cutting force Fc can be roughly estimated according to Fc = u x MRR / V This type of estimate of the major force Fc is useful in analysis of deflection and vibration problems in machining and in the proper design of work holding dev ices, because these devices must be able to resist movement and deflection of th e part during the process. In general, increasing the speed, the feed, or the depth of cut will increase th e power requirement. 12 Doubling the speed doubles the power directly. Doubling the feed or the depth of cut doubles the cutting force Fc. In general, increasing the speed does not inc rease the cutting force Fc a surprising experimental result. However, speed has a strong effect on tool life because most of the input energy is converted into heat, which raises the temperature of the chip, the work, and the tool, to the latter's detriment. The above equation can be used to estimate the maximum depth of cut, d, for a pr ocess as limited by the available power. dmax = Pm x E / u x V x fr (CF) Another handbook value useful in chatter or vibration calculations is cutting st iffness Ks. In this text, the term specific energy U will be used interchangeabl y with cutting stiffness Ks. It is interesting to compute the total specific ene rgy in the process and determine how it is distributed between the primary shear and the secondary shear that occurs at the interface between the chip and the t ool. It is safe to assume that the majority of the input energy is consumed by t hese two regions. Therefore, U = Us + Uf Where specific energy [also called cutting stiffness] is U = Fc V / V fr d = Fc / fr d = Ks [turning] The specific shear energy Us = Fs Vs / V fr d Where Vs is the shear velocity and Fs is the shear force. The specific friction energy Uf = F Vc / V fr d = F rc / fr d Where Vc is the chip velocity, F is the friction force and rc is the chip thickn ess ratio [explained next page] Usually, 30 to 40% of the total energy goes into friction and 60 to 70% into the shear process. Typical values for U are given in Table 21-3. This is experiment al data developed by the orthogonal machining experiment described in the next s ection. 13

ORTHOGONAL MACHINING (Two FORCE) In order to understand the complex process of oblique cutting, the tool geometry is simplified from the three-dimensional (oblique) geometry, which typifies mos t processes, to a two-dimensional (orthogonal) geometry. Low speed orthogonal pl ate machining as shown in Figure 21-12 uses a flat plate setup in a milling mach ine. The workpiece is moving past the tool at velocity V. Schematic illustration of a two- dimensional cutting process, also called orthog onal cutting. Note that the tool shape and its angles, depth of cut, to, and the cutting speed, V, are all independent variables. The feed of the tool is now called t o, the uncut chip thickness. The DOC is the width of the plate w. The cutting ed ge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction of motion V.The angle that the tool makes with respect to a vertical from the workpiece is called the back rake angle . A positive angle is shown in the schematic. The chip is formed by shearing. The onset of shear occurs at an angle with respect to the horizontal. This model is sufficient to allow us to consider the behaviour of the work material during chi p formation, the influence of the most critical elements of the tool geometry (t he edge radius of the cutting tool and the back rake angle ), and the interaction s that occur between the tool and the freshly generated surfaces of the chip aga inst the rake face and the new surface as rubbed by the flank of the tool. Basically, the chip is formed by a localized shear process that takes place over a very narrow zone. This large-strain, high-strain-rate, plastic deformation ev olves out of a radial compression zone that travels ahead of the tool as it pass es over the workpiece. This radial compression zone has, like all plastic deform ations, an elastic compression region that changes into a plastic compression re gion when the yield strength of the material is exceeded. 14 The applied stress level increases as the material approaches the tool where the material has no recourse but to shear. The onset of the shear process takes pla ce along the lower boundary of the shear zone defined by the shear angle . The sh ear lamellas (microscopic shear planes) lie at the angle to the shear plane. 15 MERCHANT'S MODEL For the purpose of modelling chip formation, assume that the shear process takes place on a single narrow plane rather than on the set of shear fronts that actu ally comprise a narrow shear zone. Further, assume that the tool's cutting edge is perfectly sharp and no contact is being made between the flank of the tool an d the new surface. The workpiece passes the tool with velocity V, the cutting sp eed. The uncut chip thickness is t0. Ignoring the plastic compression, chips hav ing thickness tc are formed by the shear process. The chip has velocity Vc. The shear process then has velocity Vs and occurs at the onset of shear angle . The t ool geometry is given by the back rake angle and the clearance angle . 16 F = tan = Where = the coefficient of friction N r = to where, r = the chip thickness ratio tc to= AB sin tc = AB cos ( - ) r = AB sin = sin AB cos ( - ) cos cos + sin sin r cos cos + r sin sin = sin sin r cos cos + r sin sin = 1 r cos = 1- r sin sin sin tan tan = r cos 1- r sin 17 The velocities are also important, and can be calculated for later use in power calculations. The Velocity diagram below can also be drawn to find cutting veloc ities.

Where, V = cutting velocity (m/min.) - as set or measured on the machine Vs = shearing velocity Vc = chip velocity Using the sine rule, Vs = V sin(90- ) sin(90+ - ) Vs= V sin(90- ) = V cos sin (90+ - ) cos ( - ) Also Vc = V sin cos ( -) Since mass continuity has to be maintained: Vto = Vctc or Vc = Vr Hence: Vc = V sin cos ( - ) The velocity relationships are: V = Vs = Vc cos ( - ) cos sin TYPES OF CHIP [refer text book] MECHANICS OF MACHINING (STATICS) Orthogonal machining has been defined as a two-force system. Consider Figure 2119, which shows a free-body diagram of a chip that has been separated at a shear plane. It is assumed that the resultant force R acting on the back of the chip is equal and opposite to the resultant force R' acting on the shear plane. The r esultant R is composed of the friction force F and the normal force N acting on the tool chip interface contact area. 18 Figure 21-19: Free body diagram of orthogonal chip formation process, showing equilibrium condition between resultant forces R and R/. The resultant force R' is composed of a shear force F and normal force F s s c s F n acting on the shear plane area A. Since neither of these two sets of forces ca n usually be measured, a third set is needed, which can be measured using a dyna mometer (force transducer) mounted either in the work holder or the tool holder. Note that this set has resultant R, which is equal in magnitude to all the othe r resultant forces in the diagram. The resultant force R is composed of a utting force Fc and a tangential (normal) force Ft. Now it is necessary to express the desired forces (F, Fn, F, N) in terms of the measured dynamometer components, F c and t, and appropriate angles. To do this, a circular force diagram is developed in which all six forces are co llected in the same force circle (Figure 21-20). The only symbol in this figure as yet undefined is , which is the angle between the normal force N and the resul tant R. It is called friction angle and is used to describe the friction coeffic ient on the tool-chip interface area, which is defined as F / N. 19 20 MECHANICS OF MACHINING (DYNAMICS) Machining is a dynamic process of large strain and high strain rates. All the pr ocess variables are dependent variables. The process is intrinsically a closed-l oop interactive process as shown in Figure 21-23. Remember that plastic deformation is always preceded by elastic deformation, whi ch behaves like a big spring. The mechanism by which a process dissipates energy is called chatter or vibration. In machining, it has long been observed in prac tice that rotational speed may greatly influence process stability and chatter. Experienced operators commonly listen to machining noise and interactively modif y the speed when optimizing a specific application. In addition, experience demo nstrates that the performance of a particular tool may vary significantly based on the machine tool employed and other characteristics such as the workpiece, fi

xture holder, and the like. Today more than ever, the manufacturing industry is more competitive and responsive, characterized by both high volume and small bat ch production seeking economies of scale. High productivity is achieved by incre ased machine and tooling capabilities along with the elimination of all non-valu e-added activities. Few companies can afford lengthy trial-and-error approaches to machining-process optimization or additional processes to treat the effect of chatter. In metal cutting, chatter is a self-excited vibration that is caused by the clos ed loop force-displacement response of the machining process. The process-induce d variations in the cutting force may be caused by changes in the cutting veloci ty, chip cross section (area), tool/chip interface friction, built-up edge, work piece variation, or most commonly, process modulation resulting in regeneration of vibration. The proper classification of the type of vibration is the first step in identify ing and solving the cause of unwanted vibration (see Figure 21-24). 21 Figure 21-24: There are three types of vibration in machining. Free Vibration is the response to any initial condition or sudden change. The am plitude of the vibration decreases with time and occurs at the natural frequency of the system. Interrupted machining is an example that often appears as lines or shadows following a surface discontinuity. Forced Vibration is the response to a periodic (repeating with time) input. The response and input occur at the same frequency. The amplitude of the vibration r emains constant for set input conditions and is linearly related to speed. Unbal ance, misalignment, tooth impacts, and resonance of rotation systems are the mos t common examples. Self-Excited Vibration is the periodic response of the system to a constant inpu t. The vibration may grow in amplitude (become unstable) and occurs near the nat ural frequency of the system regardless of the input. Chatter due to the regener ation of waviness in the machined surface is the most common metal cutting examp le. 22 How do we know chatter exists? Listen and look! Chatter is characterized by the following: 1. The sudden onset of vibration (a screech or buzz) that rapidly increases in a mplitude until a maximum threshold (saturation) is reached. 2. The frequency of chatter remains very close to a natural frequency (critical frequency) of the machining system and changes little with variation of process parameters. The largest force-displacement response occurs at resonance and ther efore the greatest energy dissipation. 3. Chatter often results in unacceptable surface finish exhibited by a helical o r angular pattern (pearled or fish scaled) superimposed over normal feed marks. 4. Visible surface undulations are found in the feed direction and corresponding wavy or serrated chips with variable thickness. Figure 21-25 shows some typical examples of chatter visible in the surface finis h marks. There are several important factors that influence the stability of a m achining process: . Cutting stiffness of the workpiece material (related to the machinability), Ks . Cutting-process parameters (speed, feed, DOC, total width of chip) . Cutter geometry (rake and clearance angles, edge prep, insert size and shape) . Dynamic characteristics of the machining process (tooling, machine tool, fixtu re, and workpiece). Ks, cutting stiffness, is closely aligned with flow stress but simpler to calcul ate in that is not used. Like flow stress, cutting stiffness can be viewed as a material property of the workpiece, dependent on hardness. 23 In machining, the chip is formed due to the shearing of the workpiece material o ver the chip area (A = thickness x width = t x w), which results in a cutting fo rce Fc. The magnitude of the resulting cutting force is predominantly determined by the material cutting stiffness Ks and the chip area such that Fc = Ks x t x w. The direction of the cutting force Fc is influenced mainly by the geometries

of the rake and clearance angles as well as the edge prep. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE IN METAL CUTTING In metal cutting, the power put into the process (Fc V) is largely converted to heat, elevating the temperatures of the chip, the workpiece, and the tool. These three elements of the process, along with the environment (which includes the cutting fluid), act as the heat sinks. 24 Figure 21-30 shows the distribution of the heat to these three sinks as a functi on of cutting speed. As speed increases, a greater percentage of the heat ends u p in the chip to the point where the chips can be cherry red or even burn at hig h cutting speeds. There are three main sources of heat. Listed in order of their heat-generating c apacity, they are shown in Figure 21-31. 1. The shear front itself, where plastic deformation results in the major heat s ource. Most of this heat stays in the chip. 25 2. The tool/chip interface contact region, where additional plastic deformation takes place in the chip, and considerable heat is generated due to sliding frict ion. 3. The flank of the tool, where the freshly produced workpiece surface rubs the tool. 26